Grade 10 Maths Short Note

MATHEMATICS SHORT NOTES
MATHEMATICS GRADE 10 UNIT 5
FOR GRADE 12,

FROM GRADE 10
GRADE 10 MATHEMATICS ENRICHED TEXTBOOK 326

MATHEMATICS
SHORT NOTES
FOR GRADE 12,
FROM GRADE 10
By: Merga Amara Angasu
June, 2023
II
Contents
UNIT 1: POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS ................................................................................................... 1
1.1. INTRODUCTION TO POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS..................................................................... 2
1.2. THEOREMS ON POLYNOMIALS .................................................................................................. 2
1.3. ZEROS OF A POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION ..................................................................................... 5
1.4. GRAPHS OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS ................................................................................... 5
PRACTICE QUESTIONS ON UNIT 1 ................................................................................................ 6
UNIT 2: EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS ........................................................ 8
2.1. EXPONENTS .................................................................................................................................. 9
2.2. THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS ............................................... 9
2.3. LOGARITHMS ................................................................................................................................ 12
2.4. THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS ............................................. 13
2.5. EQUATIONS INVOLVING EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHMS .................................... 17
PRACTICE QUESTIONS ON UNIT 2 .............................................................................................. 21
UNIT 3: SOLVING INEQUALITIES .................................................................................................... 22
3.1. SOLVING LINEAR INEQUALITIES IN ONE VARIABLE ......................................................... 23
3.2. INEQUALITIES INVOLVING ABSOLUTE VALUE................................................................... 24
3.3. QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES ...................................................................................................... 25
UNIT 4: COORDINATE GEOMETRY ................................................................................................. 28
4.1. DIVISION OF A LINE SEGMENT ................................................................................................ 29
UNIT 5: PLANE GEOMETRY ............................................................................................................... 32
5.1. THEOREMS ON TRIANGLES ...................................................................................................... 33
5.2. SPECIAL QUADRILATERALS ..................................................................................................... 36
5.3. MORE ON CIRCLES MORE ON CIRCLES ................................................................................. 38
5.4. REGULAR POLYGON ................................................................................................................... 41
UNIT 6: MEASUREMENT ..................................................................................................................... 43
6.5. REVISION ON SURFACE AREAS AND VOLUMES OF PRISMS AND CYLINDERS ........... 44
6.2. PYRAMIDS, CONES AND SPHERES .......................................................................................... 47
6.3. FRUSTUMS OF PYRAMIDS AND CONES ................................................................................. 52
i
Unit
POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
Unit Outcomes:
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
 define polynomial functions.

 apply theorems on polynomials to solve related problems.
 sketch and analyses the graphs of polynomial functions.
Main Contents:
1.1. Introduction to polynomial functions

1.2. Theorems on polynomial
1.3. Zeros of polynomial functions
1.4. Graphs of polynomial functions
1
1.1. INTRODUCTION TO POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
1.1.1. Definition of a Polynomial Function
Definition 1.1
Let n be a non – negative integer and let be real numbers with .
The function P defined by ( ) is called a
polynomial function in variable x of degree n .
The expression is called polynomial expression in variable x .
Note: In the definition of a polynomial functions
( ) ;
i) are called the coefficients of ( ).
ii) The number , where , is called the leading coefficient and the term is called the
leading term of ( ).
iii) The number is called the constant term of ( ).
iv) If , then the number n (the highest exponent of power of x) is called the degree of ( ).
Note: The domain of any polynomial function is the set of real number.
Example 1:
a. ( ) is a polynomial function with degree 3 and constant term 0.
 The leading term of is and the leading coefficient is .
 The coefficient of is 0 and the coefficient of is .
 The domain of is .
b. ( ) √ has domain , but √ cannot be expressed in the standard form of
polynomial .
Hence, ( ) √ is NOT polynomial.
c. ( ) √( )
 ( ) √( ) | | which is not polynomial function, because | |
has no the standard form
1.2. THEOREMS ON POLYNOMIALS
Theorem 1.1: Polynomial Division Theorem (Division Algorithm)
If ( ) and ( ) are two polynomials such that ( ) , and the degree of ( ) is less than or equal
to the degree of ( ), then there exist unique polynomials q(x) and r(x) such that
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
where r(x) = 0 or the degree of r(x) is less than the degree of d(x).
If the remainder r(x) = 0, ( ) divides exactly into ( ) or we say that division of ( ) by ( ) is
exact.
2
Example 2: Divide polynomial by using long division. Determine the quotient
and the remainder. Is the division exact?
Solution: The long division to divide by is given below.
From the long division we can see that
 the quotient is ( ) , and
 the remainder is ( ) .
Hence, the division is exact.
As written in Division Algorithm,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )( )
( )( )
 Thus, the quotient is the factor of the dividend .
 The divisor is also the factor of the dividend .
(That is and are the factors of .)
 The product ( )( ) a factorized form of .
Remark: In division of a polynomial (dividend) with degree by a polynomial (divisor) of degree
,
where ,
i) The remainder is a zero polynomial or a polynomial of degree less than the degree of the
divisor.
ii) The degree of the quotient = = degree of degree of g .
1.2.2 The Remainder Theorem
Theorem 1.2: (Remainder Theorem)

Let ( ) be a polynomial of degree greater than or equal to 1 and let . If ( ) is divided by the
linear polynomial , then the remained is ( ).
Example 3: Using Remainder Theorem, find the remainder if:

a) ( ) divided by ( )
b) ( ) divided by ( )
c) ( ) divided by ( )
Solution:
a) ( ) . Here, implies .
Then by Division Algorithm, the remainder is
( ) ( ) ( )
b) ( ) . Here, implies .
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
c) ( ) . Here, implies .
( ) ( ) ( )
3
Example 4: When the polynomial ( ) is divided by , the
remainder is 15, what is the values of k.
Solution: implies
By Remainder Theorem, the remainder is
( )  ( )
 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
 –1 – k – 5 + 1 + 11 = 1  k = – 11
1.2.3 The Factor Theorem

Theorem 1.3: Factor Theorem
Let ( ) be a polynomial of degree greater than or equal to one, and let c be any real number. Then
– is a factor of ( ), if and only if ( ) .
Example 5: In each of the following, use the factor theorem to determine whether or not ( ) is a
factor of ( ).
a. ( ) ; ( ) ,
b. ( ) – ; ( ) –
Solution:
a. implies . Then ( ) ( ) .
Thus, by Factor Theorem, is a factor of .
b. implies . Then
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )– .
Therefore, is NOT a factor of ( ) –
Example 6: In each of the following find a number k such that:
a) is a factor of .
b) – is a factor of 6 .
Solution:
a) Let ( ) then ( ) .
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )– ( )
 48 – 32 + 2k + 6 = 22 + 2k = 0
 = -11
b) –  .
Let ( ) . Then
. /  . / . / . /
  .
Therefore,
4
1.3. ZEROS OF A POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION
Definition 1.2: For a polynomial function and a real number , if ( ) , then c is a zero of .
For instance, for a polynomial function ( ) ,
( ) ( )
Therefore, is a zero of .
1.3.1 Zeros and Their Multiplicities
Definition 1.3: If ( ) is a factor of f(x), but ( ) is not, then c is said to be a zero of
multiplicity k of f .
Example 7: Given that -1 and 2 are zeros of ( ) , determine their
multiplicity.
Solution: By the factor theorem (x+1) and (x-2) are factors of f(x) hence f(x) can be divided by
( )( ) gives;
( ) ( )( )
( )( )( )
( ) ( )
is a zero of multiplicity 3 and 2 is a zero of multiplicity 1
1.4. GRAPHS OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
Properties of ( ) graph
 its graph is a straight line
 the domain of is real number
 the range of is real number
 intercept of is . /
 intercept of is (0,b)
 slope of the graph is a.
 if a  0 , then the function is increasing.
 if a  0 , then the function is decreasing.
Graph of quadratic function ( ) and c ,

 Graph of quadratic function is a curve known as parabola
 If the parabola opens up ward
 If the parabola opens down ward
 Vertex of the parabola (turning point ) . /
 The domain of the function is real number
 The range of the function is , , ,
5
Note: The graph of polynomial function of degree n meets the – axis at most times.
 Every polynomial function of degree has at most zeros.
 The graph of polynomial function f(x) = eventually rises or
falls
Note:
1.
The graph of a polynomail function with leading term an x n has the following right and
left beahviour:
n even n  odd
an  0 Up to left and up to right Down to left and up to right
an  0 Downto left and down to right Up to left and down to right
2. If the multiplicity of the root c is an odd number, then the graph of the function crosses the x 
axis at x  c .
3. If the multiplicity of the root c is an even number, then the graph of the function touches( but does
not cross) the x  axis at x  c .
PRACTICE QUESTIONS ON UNIT 1

CHOOSE THE BEST ANSWER FROM THE GIVEN ALTERNATIVES
1. Which of the following is NOT a polynomial?

x 3  5x 2  x  5
A. P( x)  x  2  4 C. P( x) 
x2 1
 2x 
50
x
B. P( x)  (3x)1   D. P( x)   17 x 5  
 5  3
2. When divide the polynomial f ( x)  3x  2x  19x  6 by x  1, the remainder that you will get
3 2
is_________
A. 0 B.  8 C. 24 D. 8
6
3. If f (x) a polynomial of degree is n, where n  1 and if c any real number, then which one of the
following statements is true?
A. If f (c)  0 and n  1, then f ( x)  k ( x  c), for some non-zero real number k .
B. If f (c)  0 and n  2, then f ( x)  ( x  c)q( x)  r ( x), where both q (x) and r (x) are
polynomials of degree 1.
C. If f (c)  0 and n  1, then f ( x)  ( x  c)q( x)  r ( x), where q (x) and r (x) are polynomials
and the degree of r (x) is 1.
D. If f (c)  0 and n  2, then f ( x)  ( x  c)q( x), where q (x) is a polynomial of degree 1.
4. What number must be added to x 3  5x 2  6 x  4 so that x  1 is a factor?
A. 2 B.  19 C. 19 D.  2
5. Which of the following function is neither even nor odd?
A. k ( x)  x 5 C. h( x)  2 x 2  3 x
B. g ( x)  x  1 D. f ( x)  x 4
6.Which of the following can be the graph of a polynomial function of degree three with positive
leading coefficient?
A. C. Y
Y
X X
Y Y
B. D.
X X
7. Let f ( x)  ax10  bx 5  1. If x  1 is a factor of f (x) and when f (x) is divided by x  1 the

remainder is 4, then a and b respectively equal to:
A. -1, 1 B. 3, 2 C. 1, 5 D. 3, 1
7
Unit
EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Unit Outcomes:
 understand the laws of exponents for real exponents.

 know specific facts about logarithms.
 know basic concepts about exponential and logarithmic functions.
Main Contents:
2.1. Exponents.
2.2. Exponential Functions and Their Graphs.
2.3. Logarithms.
2.4. Logarithmic Functions and Their Graphs.
2.5. Equations Involving Exponents and Logarithms.
8
2.1. EXPONENTS
Laws of Exponents
NOTE: If and are non-zero real numbers and the exponents and are integers, then:
1. 7.
2. 8. ,
3. 9.
4. 10.
5. , if is odd, and if is even, 11.
6. if and only if
Example 1: Simplify each of the following:

  x 2 3 
4 6
  13 12 
a.   b.  1 1
a b 
x  x  x 2
5 10   
 a 4b3 
 
Solution:
 x 2 3 
4
23 4 6 4
   x    x   x  x 2413  x11
64
a. 
x5  x10  x 2 x510 2 x13 x13
6
  13 12  1 1 1 1 6 1 1 1 1 6
b.  1 1
a b    a  3  4 b 2  3    a  3  4 b 2  3   b ,for a  0 and b  0 .
      
 a 4b3      a
 
2.2. THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS
The exponential function with the base is defined by where

Definition:
and is any real number.
In this section you will draw graphs and investigate the major properties of functions of the form
x x
1 2
f  x   2 , g  x     , h  x     , k  x   35 x , etc.
x
2 3
9
x
1
Example 2: Draw the graphs of f  x   3x and g  x     .
 3
x
1
Solution: We begin by calculating values of f  x   3x and g  x     for integer values of x as
 3
shown in the following table.
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
1 1 1
f  x   3x 1 3 8 27
27 9 3
x
1 1 1 1
g  x    27 9 3 1
 3 3 9 27
The graph of The graph of
Graphs of and drawn using the same coordinate axes
10
x x 1
3  3
Example 3: Sketch the graphs of f  x     and f  x    .
5 5
Solution:
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
x
3 125 25 5 3 9 27
f  x    1
5 27 9 3 5 25 125
x 1
 3 25 5 3 9 27 81
g  x    1
5 9 3 5 25 125 625
Note: Basic properties

The graph of f  x  = b x , b > 1 has the following basic properties:
1. The domain is the set of all real numbers.

2. The range is the set of all positive real numbers.
3. The graph includes the point  0, 1 , i.e. the y  intercept is 1 .
4. The function is increasing.
5. The values of the function are greater than 1 for x  0 and between 0 and 1 for x  0 .
6. The graph approaches the x  as an asymptote on the left and increases without bound on the
right.
11
The graph of f  x  = b x , 0 < b < 1 has the following basic properties:
1. The domain is the set of all real numbers.

2. The range is the set of all positive real numbers.
3. The graph includes the point  0, 1 , i.e. the y  intercept is 1 .
4. The function is decreasing.
5. The values of the function are greater than 1 for x  0 and between 0 and 1 for x  0 .
6. The graph approaches the x  as an asymptote on the right and increases without bound on the
left.
Theorem 2.1 Let a  0 and x, y  R .
a. If a  1 , then :
i. a x  a y if and only if x  y .
ii. a x  a y if and only if x  y .
b. If 0  a  1 , then :
iii. a x  a y if and only if x  y .
iv. a x  a y if and only if x  y .
Theorem 2.2 Let a  0 , b  0 and x  R .
i. If x  0 , then a x  b x if and only if a  b .

ii. If x  0 , then a x  b x if and only if a  b .
iii. If x  0 , then a x  b x .
2.3. LOGARITHMS
NOTE:
1. For a fixed positive number and for each , if and only if . The
value of is the answer of the question “to what power must be raised to produce ”?
2. The equations and are equivalent.
Example 4: Write an equivalent logarithmic statement for:

1
1
a. 83  2 b. 25 
32
Solution:
1
1
a. From 8  2 , we have log8 2  .
3
3
1 1
b. Since 25  , log 2  5 .
32 32
12
Laws of Logarithms
If a, b, x and y are positive numbers and a, b  1 then:
1. logb xy  logb x  logb y ……………………………. Product formula.

 x
2. logb    logb x  logb y ……………………………quotient formula.
 y
3. logb x k  k logb x , k is any real number……………. Power formula.
log a x
4. logb x  ……………………………….……. Change of base formula.
log a b
5. blogb c  c
6. log a a x  x
7. log 1 a   logb a
b
1  1 
8. log a x  , for x  0, x  1, a  0 and a  1 Thus  log a x    1
log x a  log x a 
1
9. log ak x  log a x, for a  0 and a  1
k
10. log 1 x  k log a x, for a  0 and a  1 .
ak
Useful identities for logarithms

1. loga a  1, for all a  0
2. loga 1  0, for all a  0
2.4. THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

2.4.1. Graphs of logarithmic functions
Example 5: Draw the graph of each of the following using:
i. Different coordinate system

ii. The same coordinate system
a. f  x   log 2 x b. g  x   log 1 x
2
Solution:
We begin by calculating the values of f  x   log 2 x and g  x   log 1 x for positive values of x .
2
1 1 1 1 16
x 1 2 4 8
16 8 4 2
f  x   log 2 x 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
g  x   log 1 x 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
2
13
Then we plot the points corresponding to the pairs we have found and connect the points with smooth
curves to obtain the graphs as shown below.
The graph of
a. Different coordinate system

a. h  x   log3 x
b. k  x   log 3 x
2
Solution:
We begin by calculating the values of f  x   log 2 x and g  x   log 1 x for positive values of x .
2
1 1 1 3 9 4 2 1 3 9
x 9 3 9 3 2 4
h  x   log3 x 2 1 0 1 2 k  x   log 3 x 2 1 0 1 2
2
14
Then we plot the points corresponding to the pairs we have found and connect the points with smooth
curves to obtain the graphs as shown below.
In general, the graph of f  x   log b x , for any b  1 has the following shape
Basic properties of the graph of y = log b x,  b > 1
1. The domain is the set of positive real numbers

2. The range is the set of all real numbers.
3. The graph includes the points 1, 0  i.e. the x  intercept of the graph is 1 .
4. The value of the function increases as x increases.

5. The y  axis is a vertical asymptote of the graph.
6. The values of the function are negative for 0  x  1 and they are positive for x  1 .
i. Different coordinate system

15
a. h  x   log 1 x b. k  x   log 2 x
2 3
Solution: calculate the values of the given functions for some values of x as shown in the table below.
The plot the corresponding points on the co-ordinate system.
16
Basic properties of the graph of y = log b x,  0 < b < 1
1. The domain is the set of positive real numbers

2. The range is the set of all real numbers.
3. The graph includes the points 1, 0  i.e. the x  intercept of the graph is 1 .
4. The value of the function decreases as x increases.

5. The y  axis is a vertical asymptote of the graph.
6. The values of the function are positive for 0  x  1 and they are negative for x  1 .
2.5. EQUATIONS INVOLVING EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHMS

2.5.1.Solving Exponential Equations
NOTE: property of equality of exponential equations

For and real numbers,
1. , if and only if .
2. , if and only if .
Examples 8: Solve the following exponential equations

2 x 1 x
2 9
a.     c. 7 x
2
x
 49
3 4 x2
10
x 3 d.  5x 1
1 2 x 3
b. 4 x   
2
Solution:
2 x 1 x 2 x 1 2x 2 x
2 9  2  3  2
a.          
3 4  3  2  3
 2 x  1  2 x
17
 2 x  2 x  1
1
x
4
x 3
1
 4 x   21 
x 3
b. 4   
x
 2  x 3
2
  22   2  x3
x
 2 2 x  2  x  3 
 2x  x  3
 2x  x  3
 x 1
x
 49  7x  x  72
2 2
c. 7x
 x2  x  2
 x2  x  2  0
  x  1 x  2   0
 x  1 or x  2
10x2 x 1 10x 102

d. x 3
 5  3
 5x  5
2 2 2
x
100 10 x 
  5x  5
2x
8
160 10 x 
 x
 5x
2
 160 10 x   10 x
 160  1x  No solution. Why?
2.5.2. Solving Logarithmic Equations

Logarithmic equations can be solved by changing them to equivalent exponential form. However, it
is necessary first to state the universe and to use the basic properties of logarithms to simplify one side
of an equation.
A universe is the largest set in for which the given expression is defined.
Examples 9: Sate the universe and solve the following equations:
a. log 2  x  3  5 c. log 3  x  1  log 3  x  3  1
b. log  x  3  log x  1 d. log  x 2  121  log  x  11  1
18
Solution:
a. First find domain of log 2  x  3  5 i.e. x  3  0  x  3
So the domain is x   3,   .
Now by changing log 2  x  3  5 to exponential equation we get 25  x  3
 32  x  3
 x  35
Check! For x  35, log 2  x  3  log 2  35  3  log 2 32  5 is true.
b. log  x  3  log x is valid for x  3  0 and x  0 i.e. x  3 and x  0
Therefore the universe U   0,  
log  x  3  log x  1  log  x  3 x   1 by the law log x  log y  log xy
 log  x 2  3x   1
 101  x 2  3x
 x 2  3x  10  0
  x  2  x  5   0
 x  2  0 or x  5  0
 x  2 or x  5 but x  5  Domain
Therefore the only solution set is 2 .

c. log 3  x  1  log 3  x  3 is valid for x  1  0 and x  3  0 i.e. x  1 and x  3
Therefore the universe U   1,  
 x 1   x
log3  x  1  log3  x  3  1  log3    1 since log x  log y  log  
 x3  y
x 1
 31 
x3
 x  1  3  x  3  3 x  9
Therefore 2 x  8 and x  4 but 4 is not in the universe.
Hence there no x that satisfies the given the equation and the solution set is empty set.
d. log  x 2  121  log  x  11 is valid for x 2  121  0 and x  11  0 i.e. x  11 and x  11
Therefore the universe U  11,  
 x 2  121   x
log  x 2  121  log  x  11  1  log    1 since log x  log y  log  
 x  11   y
x 2  121
 101 
x  11
 x 2  121  10  x  11  10 x  110
 x2  10 x  231  0
GRADE 10 MATHEMATICS SHORT NOTES 20

  x  21 x  11  0
 x  21  0 or x  11  0
 x  21 or x  11 but 11 is not in the universe.
Therefore the solution set is only 21 .

1. Which of the following is NOT true?

A. log 1 x  log 1 y , for a  1, x  0, y  0 and x  y C. log 1 3 9  log 1 27
a a 3 3
B. loga x  loga y , for a  1, x  0, y  0 and x  y D. log3.5 7.6  0.3357

2. Which of the following is NOT true?
1
A. If log 2 4 x  log 4 2 x  2 x  , then x  1 C. 2log2 3  3
2
B.  logb 4   log8 b  2  , for each b  1
3
D. log 2  log 4  log 8 64    1
3. If 0  x  y  1, then which of the following is NOT true?
A. x t  1, for t  0. C. xy  1, for t  0.
t
t
 x
t
 y
B.    1, for t  0. D.    1, for t  0.
 y x
4. If log 2 9  x and 2 y

2 
3
2
12
, then y equals:
3
16
32  3x 64  16 x 26  3 x
A. B. C. D. None of the above
12 12 6
5. If log 3.54  0.549, then the mantissa of log 35,400 is

A. 0.549 B. 4.549 C. 0.051 D. 4
6. From the following statements, which one is true about an exponential expression a x ?
A. If a  0, then for a positive real number x the value of a x cannot be a real number.
B. If a  0 and x, y ℚ, then a x  ℝ is found between a m and a n , where m and n are integers
and m  x  n.
m
C. If a  0 and x  is a positive rational number with n  0, then there is b  ℝ, such that
n
b  a x and a n  b m .
D. For a  0 and x, y ℚ, if a x  b y and x  y, then a can be any real number that is different
fro 1.

7. Given log 5  b, then log 5 4 is equal to
 b   b  1   1
A. 2  B. 2  C. 2 1 D. 21  
1 b   b 1  b   b
8. Which of the following is the solution of the equation log 2 ( x  2)  log 2 x  3 ?
A.  2 and 4 B. 4 C. 1 7 D. 1 7 and 1 7
1 1
9. The solution set of the equation log x 5  log 5 x  8 log 25    2 is:
2  x
1  1 
A. {5} B.  , 3 5  C. {125} D.  ,1
5  3 
10. Suppose log 3 2  a and log 3 5  b. Then log 3 0.0002 is equal to:
A.  3a  4b B. 3a  4b C. a  b D. b  3a

Unit
SOLVING INEQUALITIES
Unit Outcomes:
 Know and apply methods and procedure in solving problems on inequalities involving
absolute value.
 Solve quadratic inequalities.
Main Contents:
3.1. Solving Linear inequalities in one variuable

3.2. Inequalities involving absolute value
3.3. Quadratic inequalities

3.1. SOLVING LINEAR INEQUALITIES IN ONE VARIABLE

We know that a linear equation in one variable can be expressed as . A linear inequality in
one variable can be written in one of the following forms ax  b  0, ax  b  0 , ax  b  0 or ax  b  0
in each form .
Properties of inequalities:
For any three real numbers and :
1. The addition property of inequalities
 if then .
 if then .
2. The positive multiplication property of inequalities
 if then .
 if then .
3. The negative multiplication property of inequalities

 if then .
 if then .
Example 1: Solve the following inequalities:

a. ( )
b. ( )
c. ( )
Solution:
a. ( )
Therefore * + , )
b. ( )
Hence the * + ( )
c. ( )
Therefore * + ( )

3.2. INEQUALITIES INVOLVING ABSOLUTE VALUE
Example 2:
a. | | b. | | . /
Theorem 3.1: Solution of the equation |𝑥| 𝑎

For any real number a, the equation |𝑥| 𝑎 has:
i. Two solutions 𝑥 𝑎 nd 𝑥 𝑎 𝑖𝑓 𝑎
ii. One solution ,𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 nd
iii. No solution, if 𝑎 .
Example 3: Solve each of the following absolute value equation

a. | | b. | |
Solution:
a. ( )
Therefore * +
b. | |
| | . . . .add 2 to each side
| |
| |
. . . . .divide both sides by 3
| |
Therefore * +

3.3. QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES

In grade 9 mathematics, you have learned how to solve quadratic equations of the form
ax2  bx  c  0, a  0 and a, b and c R .
Definition 3.2:
An inequality that can be reduced to any one of the following forms
𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑥 𝑐 𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑥 𝑐 or
𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑥 𝑐 𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑥 𝑐
where and are constants and , is called a quadratic inequality.
Solving quadratic inequalities using product properties
Product properties:
1. 𝑚 𝑛 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓
i. 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 or ii. 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛
2. 𝑚 𝑛 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓
i. 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 or ii. 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛
Examples 4: Solve each of the following inequalities

a. ( )( ) b.
Solution:
a. ( )( )
By product property, ( )( ) is positive if either both factors are positive or both
factors are negative.
Now, consider the following cases:
Case 1: When both factors are positive
nd
nd
nd
The intersection of nd is . This can be illustrated on the number line as shown
below:
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
The solution set for this first case is * }=. /

Case 2: When both factors are negative
nd
nd
nd
The intersection of nd is ,this can be illustrated on the number line as below:
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
The solution set for the second case is * }=. /

Therefore, the solution set of ( )( ) is =. / . /
b.
First factorize as( )( ). So 3x 2  4 x  1   3x  1 x  1  0 .
Case 1: When both factors are positive
nd
nd
nd
The intersection of nd is .this can be illustrated on the number line as below.
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
The solution set for this first case is * } = , , ).
Case 2: When both factors are negative

nd
nd
nd
1
The intersection of x   and x  1 is x  1 this can be illustrated on the number line as below.
3
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
The solution set for the second case is * }=( -.
Therefore, the solution set of is =( - , ).

1. The solution of the inequality 2 x  5  3 ?
A. x : 1  x  4 C. x : x  1 or x  4
B. x : 2  x  8 D. x : x  2 or x  8
37  2 x 3x  8
2. Which of the following is the solution set of the inequality x  9?
3 4
A. x   : x  56 C.
B. x   : x  56 D. x   : 56  x
3. The solution set of  6  11 x  3  3 is
 9 6  9 
A.  x :   x   C.  x :   x  0
 11 11  11 
 9   9 6
B.  x :   x  0 D.  x :   x  
 11   11 11
4. The solution set of the inequality x  7 x  12  0 is:
2
A. x : 3  x  4 C. x : x  3 or x  4
B. x : 3  x  4 D. x : x  4 or x  3
5. What is the solution set of the inequality 4 x  4 x  1  0 ?
2
 1 1  1  1 1 
A.   ,  B. ℝ \    C. ℝ D.   ,    ,  
 2 2  2  2  2 
6. If 3 x  2  1, then x belongs to the interval:
 1  1  1 
A.  1,   B.  ,  1 C.  1,   D.   ,  
 3  3  3 
7. Which of the following is the least integral value of k such that  k  2  x 2  8 x  k  4  0 for all
x ?
A. 5 B. 4 C. 3 D. k

Unit
COORDINATE GEOMETRY
Unit Outcomes:
 apply the distance formula to find the distance between any two given points in the
coordinate plane.
 formulate and apply the section formula to find a point that divides a given line segment in a
given ratio.
 write different forms of equations of a line and understand related terms.
 describe parallel or perpendicular lines in terms of their slopes.
Main Contents: (Practice on Questions at the end)
4.1. Division of a line segment

4.1. DIVISION OF A LINE SEGMENT
The point 𝑅(𝑥 𝑦 ) dividing the line segment PQ internally in the ratio 𝑚 𝑛 is given by
𝑛𝑥 𝑚𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝑚𝑦
𝑅(𝑥 𝑦 ) . /.
𝑛 𝑚 𝑛 𝑚
This is called the section formula.
Example 1: Find the coordinate of a point R that divides the line segments with end-points
( ) ( ) in the ratio .
Solution: Put( ) ( ), ( ) ( ), , using the section formula ,you
have:
( ) . /= . /=. /=( )
Therefore, ( )
Example 2: A line segment has end- points ( ) nd ( ) and it is divided into three equal parts.
Find the coordinate of the points that trisect the segment.
Solution: Let ( ) ( ) be points which trisect the line segment joining the points
( ) ( )
1 1 1
A (3, -3) P (𝑥 𝑦 ) 𝑄 (𝑥 𝑦 ) B (6, 9)
The first point ( ) divides the line segment in the ratio and hence
( ) ( )( ) ( )
( ) . / . /=. / ( )
Therefore the first point ( ) ( )
The second point ( ) divides the line segment in the ratio .
Thus
( ) ( )( ) ( )
( ) . / . /=. / ( )
Therefore the second point ( ) ( )

1. If line l1 passes through the points 5, x  and  1,3 and line l2 contains the points  x,6  and 2,0 ,
then the value of x for which the two lines are perpendicular is:
2 5 1
A. B. C. 5 D.
5 2 2
2. If a line passes through (2,8) and (5,15), then what is the degree measure of the angle of
inclination that this line makes with positive x  axis?
A. 30 0 B. 450 C. 135 0 D. 2250
3. If the line passing through points (2,8) and (7, t  4) is parallel to the line passing through points
(1, t ) and (4,2), then what is the value of t ?
1 5
A.  B. C.  5 D. 1
2 2
4. Which one of the following is the equation of a line that is perpendicular to the line with equation
2x  3 y  4  0 ?
A. 3 y  2 x  4  0 C. 3x  2 y  4  0
B.  3x  2 y  4  0 D. 2 x  3 y  4  0
5. What are the co-ordinates of appoint that divides the line segment joining points A (2, 3) and B (5, -7)
in the ratio 3:4?
 23 9  2 9  23 2   23 9 
A.  ,  B.  ,  C.   ,  D.  , 
 7 7 7 7  7 7  7 7
6. If a line with x-intercept 4 and y-intercept  6 is given, then its slope is equal to____________.
2 3 2 3
A.  B.  C. D.
3 2 3 2
7. The distance between P (2,3) and Q (1, -1) is:
A. 17 units B. 16 units C. 17 units D. 9 units
8. Which one of the following pairs of equations represents perpendicular lines?

A. x  y  0 and  x  y  1 C. x  y  1 and y  2 x  2
B. 2 x  y  1 and  2 x  y  1 D. 3x  2 y  0 and 3x  2 y  2
9. Which one of the following lines is parallel to the line 5 x  2 y  0 ?
5
A. y   C.  5 x  2 y  1
2
B. 2 x  5 y  4 D.  5 x  2 y  6
10. Which one of the following is true about a second quadrant angle  in standard position whose
terminal side lies on the line 2 x  y  0 ?
1 2 2 1
A. sin   B. cos  C. sin   D. cos 
5 5 5 5

11. The equation of the line that passes through the point (2, -1) and perpendicular to the line
2 x  4 y  3  0 is given by:
A. x  2 y  0 C. x  2 y  2  0
B.  2 x  y  4  0 D.  2 x  y  5  0
12. Which one of the following is the equation of a line whose x-intercept and y-intercept are 1 and -2
respectively?
A.  2 x  y  1  0 B. x  y  1  0 C. 2 x  y  2  0 D. x  2 y  1  0
13. What is the equation of the line passing through mid-point of the line segment with end points
(-1, 3) and (3, 1), and perpendicular to the line whose angle of inclination is double the angle of
inclination of the line 2 x  y  7 ?
A. 3 y  4 x  10 C. 2 y  x  3
B. 4 y  5 x  3 D. 4 y  3x  11
14. What is the coordinate of the point R on the line segment with end points P(-3, 0) and Q(0, -3) such
PR 2
that  ?
RQ 3
 7  9 6  7 
A. (1,1) B.   1,  C.   ,  D.   ,0 
 5  5 5  5 
15. Let a, b  and b, a  be points such that a  b. Which of the following is the equation of the line
through a, b  and perpendicular to the line containing the given points?
A. y  x  b  a C. y   x  b  a
B. y  x  a  b D. y   x  a  b
16. The equation straight line passing through P (-2, 1) and perpendicular to the line with equation
6 x  5 y  10 is:
A. 6 y  5 x  16  0 C. y  5x  10
B. 6 y  5 x  16  0 D. 6 y  5 x  16  0
17. If P (2, -1) and Q (-3, 5) are points on the coordinates plane, so that, P is the midpoint of ̅̅̅̅ then
what are the coordinates of R?
A. (7, 7) B. (7, -7) C. (6, 7) D. (10, 11)
18. Line l passes through 0, 5 and  5, 0  . What is the angle between the y  axis and l in radian
measure?
   3
A. B. C. D. 
4 3 2 4
19. Suppose l1 and l 2 are perpendicular lines intersecting at 2, 1 . If the angle of inclination of l 2 is 45 ,
0
what is the equation of l1 ?

A. y   x  2 B. y   x  3 C. y  x  1 D. y  2 x  5
20. If a line with angle of inclination of  passes through 0, 1 , which one of the following is the
3
4
equation of the line?
A. y   x  1 B. y  x  1 C. y   x  1 D. y  x  1

Unit
PLANE GEOMETRY
Unit Outcomes:
 Know more theorems special to triangles.

 Know basic theorems specific to quadrilaterals.
 Know theorems about circles and angles inside, on and outside a circle.
 Solve geometrical problems involving quadrilaterals, circles and regular polygons.
Main Contents:
5.1. Theorems on triangles

5.2. Special quadrilaterals
5.3. More on circles
5.4. Regular polygons

5.1. THEOREMS ON TRIANGLES
1. Median of a triangle
A median of a triangle is a line segment drawn from any vertex to the mid-point of the opposite side.
̅̅̅̅ is the median of ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
Theorem 5.1
The median of a triangle are concurrent at a point of the distance from each vertex
to the mid-point of the opposite side
Note : The three medians of a triangle are concurrency is called the centroid and is always inside the
triangle.
Concurrency of medians of a triangle

The medians of a triangle intersect at a point that is two-thirds of the distance from each vertex to the
mid-point of the opposite side
Illustration
If p is the centroid of , then





Example 1: In the figure 6.7, ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅ nd ̅̅̅̅ are medians of If
nd find nd .
Solution: By theorem 6.1 nd
Substituting nd
So nd
Since
Now
nd
Theorem 5.2
The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of any triangle are concurrent
at a point which is equidistant from the vertices of the triangle.
Theorem 6.3
The altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.
2. Angle bisector of a triangle

Theorem 5.4
The angle bisectors of any triangle are concurrent at a point which is equidistant from
the sides of the triangle.
3. Altitude theorem
The altitude theorem is stated here for a right angled triangle. It relates the length of the altitude to the
hypotenuse of a right angled triangle, to the lengths of the segments of the hypotenuse.
Theorem 5.5 Altitude theorem

In a right angled triangle ABC with altitude ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ , 𝐴𝐷
𝐶𝐷 to the hypotenuse𝐴𝐵
𝐶𝐷
(𝐶𝐷)
𝐷𝐶 𝐷𝐵
(𝐴𝐷)(𝐷𝐵).
Proof: consider as shown in the figure 6.13 . . . . AA similarity

So
Similarly, . . . . AA similarity.
So
It follows that
By AA similarity ,
Hence
Equivalently ,

The following are some forms of the altitude theorem from ,

( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
This can be stated as the square of the length of the altitude is the product of the length of the segments of
the hypotenuse.
Example 2: Find the lengths of all sides that are not given in the following figures
Solution:
By altitude theorem
( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )( )
By Pythagoras theorem ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) = 36 + 14 = 52
( ) 52 √ = 2√ Units
Again by Pythagoras theorem ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) (√ ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
√ =√ = √ units
4. Menelaus' theorem
Theorem 5.6 Menelaus' theorem

̅̅̅̅ 𝐶𝐴
If points D, E and F on the sides 𝐵𝐶 ̅̅̅̅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝐵
̅̅̅̅ respectively of 𝐴𝐵𝐶 (on their extensions) are
𝐵𝐷 𝐶𝐸 𝐴𝐹 𝐵𝐷 𝐶𝐸 𝐴𝐹
collinear, then conversely, if then the points D, E and F
𝐷𝐶 𝐸𝐴 𝐹𝐵 𝐷𝐶 𝐸𝐴 𝐹𝐵
are collinear.

5.2. SPECIAL QUADRILATERALS
1. TRAPEZIUM
Definition 5.1: A trapezium is a quadrilateral where only two of the sides are parallel.
𝑏
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ and ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅

̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ are its bases
If the two non- parallel sides of a trapezium are congruent is called isosceles trapezium.
In the above isosceles trapezium ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ and
Area of trapezium
The area of a trapezium with bases and altitude h is given by ( ) .
2. PARALLELOGRAM
Definition 5.2: A parallelogram is a quadrilateral in which both pairs of opposite sides are parallel
In Figure 6.23, the quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram. AB DC and AD BC
Properties of a parallelogram and tests for a quadrilateral to be a parallelogram are stated in the
following theorem:
Theorem 5.7
a. The opposite sides of a parallelogram are congruent i.e ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ and ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
b. The opposite angles of a parallelogram are congruent i.e and
c. The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other i.e ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
d. If the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are congruent, then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
e. If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
f. If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are congruent, then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
g. consecutive angles in a parallelogram are supplementary
i.e

Area of a parallelogram
The area of a parallelogram with base b and altitude h is given by
Example 3: The shorter base of an isosceles trapezium is 12cm long and the non-parallel bases are each
10cm. Find the area of this trapezium if its altitude is 6cm
Solution:
In ,By Pythagoras theorem

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
√ = 8cm
nd
( )
( )
=
Example 4: One of the sides of the parallelogram is 8cm long and the perimeter of this parallelogram is
28cm.if the altitude to the longer base is 4cm, what the altitude to the shorter base is and what is the area
of the parallelogram
Solution:
Perimeter = 2( ) where are the sides of parallelogram.
( )
Hence the longer base is 8 cm and the area of the parallelogram becomes
Area
Now the altitude to the shorter base can be found from:

5.3. MORE ON CIRCLES MORE ON CIRCLES
Theorem 5.8
The measure of an angle formed by two chords intersecting inside a circle is half the sum
of the measures of the arc subtending the angle and its vertically opposite angle.
Example 5: In the figure beow, ( ) , and ( ) .Write down the measure of all
the other angles in the two triangles, PSM and QMR. What do you notice about the two triangles?
Solution: ( ) ( )(why?)
( ) (̂)
So, (̂)
(̂)
( ) (̂)
Hence (̂)
(̂)
( ) (̂) ( )
( ) (̂)( )
The two triangles are similar by AA similarity theorem.
Example 6: An angle formed by two chords intersecting within a circle is , and one of the intercepted
arcs measures . Find the measures of the other intercepted arc.
Solution: Consider the the following figure.
( ) (̂) ( ̂ ) (by theorem 6.11)

(̂)
( ) (̂)
(̂)
(̂)
( )
ANGLES AND ARCS DETERMINED BY LINES INTERSECTING OUTSIDE A CIRCLE
Theorem 5.9
The measure of the angle formed by the lines of two chords intersecting outside a circle is
half the difference of the measure of the arcs they intercept
Theorem 5.10
The measure of an angle formed by a tangent and a secant drawn to a circle from a
point outside the circle is equal to one-half the difference of the measures of the
intercepted arcs.
Example 7: In figure below , from P secants ̅̅̅̅ and ̅̅̅̅ are drawn so that m ( APC) = ; chords ̅̅̅̅
and ̅̅̅̅ intersect at F such that m (A FC ) = . Find the measure of arc AC, measure of arc BD and
measure of A BC .
Solution: Let (̂ ) (̂) .

Since ( ) (̂ ) (̂)
( )
( )
Again as ( ) (̂ ) (̂)
( )
( )
Solving equation 1 and equation 2 simultaneously, we get
Substituting for in equation 2
Therefore, ( ̂ ) nd (̂)
( ) (̂ ) ( )

Example 8: Find the measures of the marked angles
Solution:
a. . ( ̂ )/ . ( ̂ )/
. ( ̂ )/
. ( ̂ )/
. ( ̂ )/
. ( ̂ )/
. ( ̂ )/
. (̂) ( ̂ )/ and ( )
b. . ( ̂ )/ . ( ̂ )/
. ( ̂ )/
. ( ̂ )/
. (̂) ( ̂ )/
( (̂) )
( (̂) )
( (̂) )
(̂)
. ( ̂ )/
. ( ̂ )/ ( ) and ( ) .

5.4. REGULAR POLYGON
You may recall that a polygon all whose angles have equal measure and all of whose sides have equal
length is called a regular polygon. i.e. a regular polygon is both equiangular and equilateral. In this
section, we will study regular polygons by relating them to circles.
5.4.1. Perimeter of a Regular Polygon
You have studied how to find the length of a side (s) and perimeter (P) of a regular polygon with radius
“r” and the number of sides “n” in Grade 9.
Theorem 5.11: Formulae for the length of side s, apothem a, perimeter P and area A of a regular polygon
with n sides and radius r
1. n
2.
3. n
4.
Example 9: Find the length of a side and perimeter of a regular quadrilateral with radius 6 units.
Solution: Given:
Length of a side :
n
n
n
√
perimeter :
n
n
n
√
5.4.2. Area of a Regular Polygon
Theorem 5.12
The area A of a regular polygon with n sides and radius r is n .
This formula for the area of a regular polygon can be used to find the area of a circle. As the number of
sides increases, the area of the polygon becomes closer to the area of the circle.

Example 10: Find the side, apothem, perimeter and area of an equilateral triangle of radius 6 units.
Solution: Given
1. n 2. n
n n
n n
√ √
√
√
3. n 4.
n n
n n
√

Unit
MEASUREMENT
Unit Outcomes:
 solve problems involving surface area and volume of solid figures.

 know basic facts about frustums of cones and pyramids.
Main Contents:
6.1. Revision on Surface Areas and Volumes of Prisms and Cylinders

6.2. Pyramids, Cones and Spheres
6.3. Frustums of Pyramids and Cones
6.4. Surface Areas and Volumes of Composite Solids

6.5. REVISION ON SURFACE AREAS AND VOLUMES OF PRISMS AND
CYLINDERS
NOTE: Some important terms;

For the cylinder D, the region R is called its lower base
or simply base and R' is its upper base.
The line ℓ is called its directrix and the perpendicular
distance between and is the altitude of D.
If ℓ is perpendicular to , then D is called a right cylinder,

otherwise it is an oblique cylinder.
If R is a circular region, then D is called a circular cylinder.
NOTE: In the prism shown below,

1. are edges of the upper base.
are edges of the
lower base.
2. are called lateral edges
of the prism.
3. The parallelogram regions ,
are called lateral faces
of the prism.
4. The union of the lateral faces of a prism is called its
lateral surface.
5. The union of its lateral faces and its two bases is called its total surface or simply its surface.

A prism is classified on the basis of the type of polygon base it has. There are two types of prisms in this
category named as:
 Regular Prism: If the base of the prism is in the shape of a regular polygon, the prism is a regular
prism.
 Irregular Prism: If the base of the prism is in the shape of an irregular polygon, the prism is an
irregular prism.
A prism is named on the basis of the shape obtained by the cross-section of the prism. They are further
classified as:
 Triangular Prism: A prism whose bases are triangle in shape is considered a triangular prism.
 Square Prism: A prism whose bases are square in shape is considered a square prism.
 Rectangular prism: A prism whose bases are rectangle in shape is considered a rectangular prism (a
rectangular prism is cuboidal in shape).
 Pentagonal Prism: A prism whose bases are pentagon in shape is considered a pentagonal prism.
 Hexagonal Prisms: A prism whose bases are hexagon in shape is considered a hexagonal prism.
 Octagonal Prism: A prism whose bases are octagon in shape is considered an octagonal prism.
 Trapezoidal Prism: A prism whose bases are trapezoid in shape is considered a trapezoidal prism.

If we denote the lateral surface area of a prism by AL , the area of the base by AB , altitude h and the total
surface area by AT , then:
; where P is the perimeters of the base and is the height of the prism.
Similarly, the lateral surface area of a right circular cylinder is equal to the product of the
circumference of the base and altitude of the cylinder. That is,
, where is the radius of the base of the cylinder.
The total surface area is equal to the sum of the areas of the bases and the lateral surface
area. That is,
 The volume of any prism equals the product of its
base area and altitude . That is,
 Volume of a right circular cylinder

The volume of a circular cylinder is equal to the product of the base area and its
altitude . That is,
, where is the radius of the base.

Example1: Bontu has given a cylinder of surface area 1728 square units. Find the height of the cylinder
if the radius of the base of the circle is 24 units.
Solution: The surface of the cylinder, AL  1728
Using the total surface area, AT  2 r  h  r  :
1728  2  24   h  24 
1728
 h  24   36
48
 h  12 units
So, the height of the cylinder is 12 units .
6.2. PYRAMIDS, CONES AND SPHERES

Do you remember what you learnt about pyramids, cones and spheres in your previous grades? Can you
give some examples of pyramids, cones and spheres from real life?
1. PYRAMIDS
Definition 6.2:
A pyramid is a solid figure formed when each vertex of a polygon is joined to the same point not
in the plane of the polygon.
Examples:
NOTE:
a. The altitude of a pyramid is the length of the perpendicular from the vertex to the plane
containing the base.
b. The slant height of a regular pyramid is the altitude of any of its lateral faces.
c. A regular pyramid is a pyramid whose base is a regular polygon and whose altitude passes
through the center of the base.

NOTE:
The lateral surface area of a regular pyramid is equal to half the product of its slant height and
the perimeter of the base. That is,
where denotes the lateral surface area;

denotes of the perimeter of the base;
denotes the slant height.
The total surface area of a pyramid is given by ,
where is area of the base.

The volume V of a pyramid is one-third the product of
the area of the base and the height of the pyramid.
That is,
Example 2: A regular pyramid has a square base whose side is 4cm long. The lateral edges are 6cm
each.
a. What is its slant height? c. What is the total surface area?
b. What is the lateral surface area? d. What is the volume of the pyramid?
Solution:
Consider the following figure,

a. VE    EC   VC 
2 2 2
 2
 22  62
 2
 32
  4 2cm
Therefore, the slant height is 4 2cm .
b. There are 4 isosceles triangles.
Therefore,
1
AL  4  BC VE
2
1 
 4    4  4 2   32 2cm2 or
 2 
1 1
AL  P   4  4  4  4   4 2  8  4 2  32 2cm2
2 2
c. 
AT  AB  AL  32 2  4  4  16 2 2  1 cm2 . 
VO    OE   VE 
2 2 2
d.
 
2
 h2  22  4 2
 h2  4  32
 h2  28  h  2 7cm
1 1 32
Therefore, V  AB h    4  4   2 7  7cm3
3 3 3
2. CONES
Definition 6.3:
The solid figure formed by joining all points of a circle to a point not on the plane of the circle is
called a cone.

NOTE:
 The lateral surface area of a right circular cone is equal to half the product of its slant height
and the circumference of the base. That is,
where denotes the lateral surface area;

stands for the base radius;
l denotes the slant height;
for the altitude.
 The total surface area is equal to the sum of the area of the base and the lateral surface area.
That is, , where is area of the base.
 The volume V of a circular cone is one-third the product of its base area and its altitude.
That is,
Example 3: The base radius and height of a right circular cone is 7cm and 24cm. Find its curved surface
area, total surface area and volume.
Solution:
Here, r  7cm and h  24cm
 So, slant height  r 2  h2
  7 2  242  25cm
 Thus, curved surface area AL   r    7cm  24cm  168 cm2
 Total surface area AT   r   r 
 AT    7cm   25cm  7cm   224 cm 2
1 1
 The volume V   r 2 h     7cm   24cm  392 cm3
2
3 3

3. SPHERES
Definition 6.4:
A sphere is a closed surface, all points of which are
equidistant from a point called the centre.
Most familiar examples of a sphere are baseball, tennis ball,
bowling, and so forth.
The surface area (A) and the volume (V) of
a sphere of radius r are given by
A  4 r 2
4
V   r3
3
Example 4: The diameter of a sphere is 13.5m. Find its surface area and volume.
Solution:
Here, d  13.5m
2
d 
 Surface area A  4 r  4  
2
2
 A   d 2   13.5m   182.25 m2
2
4 3  3
 Volume of sphere V   r  d , (Why?)
3 6

V  13.5m  410.0625 m3
3

6.3. FRUSTUMS OF PYRAMIDS AND CONES
Definition 6.5:
If a pyramid or a cone is cut by a plane parallel to the base, the intersection of the plane and the
pyramid (or the cone) is called a horizontal cross section of the pyramid (or the cone).
Theorem 6.1:
In any pyramid, the ratio of the area of a cross-section to the area of the base is , where is the
altitude of the pyramid and is the distance from the vertex to the plane of the cross-section.
Example 5: The area of the base of a pyramid is 90cm2 . The altitude of the pyramid is 12cm . What is the
area of a horizontal cross-section 4cm from the vertex?
Solution:
Let Ac be the area of the cross-section, and Ab the base area.
Ac k 2 A 42
Then,  2 c  2
Ab h 90 12
90 16 2
 Ac  cm  10cm2
144

6.3.1. Frustum of a pyramid
Definition 6.6:
A frustum of a pyramid is a part of the pyramid included between the base and a plane parallel to
the base.
The altitude of a frustum of a pyramid is the perpendicular distance between the bases.
NOTE:
1. The altitude of a frustum of a pyramid is the perpendicular distance between the bases.
2. The lateral faces of a frustum of a pyramid are trapeziums.
3. The lateral faces of a frustum of a regular pyramid are congruent isosceles trapeziums.
4. The slant height of a frustum of a regular pyramid is the altitude of any one of the lateral faces.
5. The lateral surface area of a frustum of a pyramid is the sum of the areas of the lateral faces.
6.3.2. Frustum of a cone

Definition 6.7:
A frustum of a cone is a part of the cone included between the base and a horizontal cross-section
made by a plane parallel to the base.
A frustum of a cone is a part of the cone included between the base and a horizontal cross-section made
by a plane parallel to the base.

Example 6: The lower base of the frustum of a regular pyramid is a square 4cm long, the upper base is
3cm long. If the slant height is 6cm , find its lateral surface area.
Solution:
As shown in figure below, each lateral face is a trapezium,
the area of each lateral face is
1 1
AL   h  b1  b2    6  3  4   21cm2
2 2
Theorem6.2:
The lateral surface area of a frustum of a regular pyramid is equal to half the product of the
slant height and the sum of the perimeter of the lower base and the perimeter of the
upper base.
That is,
Theorem 6.3:
For a frustum of a right circular cone with altitude and slant height , if the circumferences of
the bases are and , then the lateral surface area of the frustum is given by
Example 7: A frustum of height 4cm is formed from a right circular cone of height 8cm and base radius
6cm as shown in below. Calculate the lateral surface area of the frustum.
Solution:
Let Ab , Ac and AL stand for area of the base of the cone, area of the cross-section and lateral surface area
of the frustum, respectively.
2
Area of cross - section  k 
 
Area of the base h
2
A 4
 c    , since k  8cm  4cm  4cm
Ab  8 

 c   area of the base   r 2    6 2  36 
A 1
36 4
1
 Ac   36  9 cm2
4
 Ac    r '
2
   r '  9 cm2  r '  3cm

2
Slant height of the bigger cone is:  h 2  r 2  82  62  10cm

Slant height of the smaller cone is:  k 2   r   42  32  5cm
2
Now the lateral surface area of:

the smaller cone   r ' '    3cm   5cm  15 cm 2
the bigger cone   r    6cm  10cm  60 cm 2
Hence, the area of the lateral surface of the frustum is:
AL  60 cm2  15 cm2  45 cm2 .
The lateral surface (curved surface) of a frustum of a circular cone is a trapezium whose parallel sides
(bases) have lengths equal to the circumference of the bases of the frustum and whose height is equal to
the height of the frustum.
1. Prism
AL  Ph
AT  2 Ab  AL
V  Ab h
2. Right circular cylinder

AL  2 rh
AT  2 r 2  2 rh  2 r  r  h 
V   r 2h
3. Regular pyramid
1
AL  P
2
1
AT  Ab  P
2
1
V  Ab h
3

4. Right circular cone

AL   r
AT   r 2   r   r  r  
1
V   r 2h
3
5. Sphere
A  4 r 2
4
V   r3
3
6. Frustum of a pyramid
1
AL   P  P '
2
1
AT    r  P  P '  Ab  A 'b
2
1

V  h ' Ab  A 'b  Ab A 'b
3

7. Frustum of a pyramid
1
AL   2 r  2 r '    r  r '
2
1
AT   2 r  2 r '   r 2    r '
2
2

   r  r '   r 2   r '
2

1

V  h '  r 2   r '  rr '
3
2


1. The slant height of a right circular cone is 8cm . If the angle between the slant height and the height
at the vertex of the cone is 300 , then what is the volume of the cone?
128 3 64 3 64 3
cm 3 B. 64cm cm 3 C. 128cm cm 3
3
A. D.
3 3 3
2. The right pyramid in the figure below has square base of dimension 5m by 5m. If the edge ̅̅̅̅ makes
angle 45 with the diagonal ̅̅̅̅ what s the volume of the pyramid?
0
125 3 3
5m A. m
6
D C 125 2 3
B. m
0
6
45
F 5m C. 125 m 3
A B D. 25 m 3
3. The figure shown below is a container made from an inverted frustum a right circular cone. The
radius of its lower base is 10 cm and that of the upper base is 15 cm.
If the height of this container is 20 cm, then which one of the following is its volume?
9500 2500
A. 5000  cm  cm 3 C. 7500  cm  cm 3
3 3
B. D.
3 3
4. The volume of a pyramid that has height of 8 in and a rectangular base of dimension 6 in by 4in is
A. 576 in 3 B. 192 in 3 C. 96 in 3 D. 64 in 3
5. The diameter of the base and the height of a circular cone are found to be a and 2b units long
respectively. What is the formula for the volume V of the cone?
2 2 1 2 1 2 4 2
A. V  a b B. V  a b C. V  a b D. V  a b
3 3 6 3

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MATHEMATICS SHORT NOTES

MATHEMATICS GRADE 10 UNIT 5

FOR GRADE 12,

GRADE 10 MATHEMATICS ENRICHED TEXTBOOK 326

 define polynomial functions.

1.1. Introduction to polynomial functions

1.2. THEOREMS ON POLYNOMIALS

Theorem 1.1: Polynomial Division Theorem (Division Algorithm)

1.2.2 The Remainder Theorem

Theorem 1.2: (Remainder Theorem)

Example 3: Using Remainder Theorem, find the remainder if:

1.2.3 The Factor Theorem

1.4. GRAPHS OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

Graph of quadratic function ( ) and c ,

PRACTICE QUESTIONS ON UNIT 1

1. Which of the following is NOT a polynomial?

7. Let f ( x)  ax10  bx 5  1. If x  1 is a factor of f (x) and when f (x) is divided by x  1 the

EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

 understand the laws of exponents for real exponents.

5. , if is odd, and if is even, 11.

Example 1: Simplify each of the following:

2.2. THE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

The exponential function with the base is defined by where

The graph of The graph of

Graphs of and drawn using the same coordinate axes

Note: Basic properties

1. The domain is the set of all real numbers.

The graph of f  x  = b x , 0 < b < 1 has the following basic properties:

1. The domain is the set of all real numbers.

Theorem 2.1 Let a  0 and x, y  R .

Theorem 2.2 Let a  0 , b  0 and x  R .

i. If x  0 , then a x  b x if and only if a  b .

2. The equations and are equivalent.

Example 4: Write an equivalent logarithmic statement for:

1. logb xy  logb x  logb y ……………………………. Product formula.

Useful identities for logarithms

2. loga 1  0, for all a  0

2.4. THE LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

i. Different coordinate system

Example 6: Draw the graph of each of the following using:

a. Different coordinate system

Basic properties of the graph of y = log b x,  b > 1

1. The domain is the set of positive real numbers

4. The value of the function increases as x increases.

Example 7: Draw the graph of each of the following using:

i. Different coordinate system

Basic properties of the graph of y = log b x,  0 < b < 1

1. The domain is the set of positive real numbers

4. The value of the function decreases as x increases.

2.5. EQUATIONS INVOLVING EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHMS

NOTE: property of equality of exponential equations

Examples 8: Solve the following exponential equations

10x2 x 1 10x 102

2.5.2. Solving Logarithmic Equations

b. log  x  3  log x  1 d. log  x 2  121  log  x  11  1

Therefore the only solution set is 2 .

GRADE 10 MATHEMATICS SHORT NOTES 20

Therefore the solution set is only 21 .