Tesis Doctoral - Astrologia Árabe

UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA
GRADUATE COLLEGE
ENCOUNTERS WITH ALCABITIUS: READING ARABIC ASTROLOGY IN
PREMODERN EUROPE
A DISSERTATION
SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
By
MARGARET GAIDA
Norman, Oklahoma
2017
ENCOUNTERS WITH ALCABITIUS: READING ARABIC ASTROLOGY IN
PREMODERN EUROPE
A DISSERTATION APPROVED FOR THE

DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE
BY
______________________________
Dr. Rienk Vermij, Chair
______________________________
Dr. Steven Livesey
______________________________
Dr. Kathleen Crowther
______________________________
Dr. Kerry Magruder
______________________________
Dr. Roberta Magnusson
______________________________
Dr. Charles Burnett
Copyright by MARGARET GAIDA 2017
All Rights Reserved.
For my children
Acknowledgements
I had the very generous support of many mentors, colleagues, librarians,
institutions, friends, and family members throughout the research and writing of this
dissertation. First I would like to thank my advisor, Rienk Vermij, whose office door
was always open for my endless questions, no matter how big or small, and who was
supportive and understanding during the most challenging periods of my graduate
career. Conversations with Steve Livesey shaped much of my thinking about
transmission, and he was a regular supplier of catalogs and other resources that I had
overlooked. Kerry Magruders enthusiasm for my research and for the history of
science more generally, as well as his thoughtful questions, brought new energy to the
project on several different occasions. The dissertation would have been impossible
without the extensive scaffolding constructed by Charles Burnetts decades of research
on the subject, and I am extremely grateful for his careful reading and criticism of my
work. Kathleen Crowther and Roberta Magnussen provided thoughtful feedback in
conversations and on chapter drafts throughout the writing process.
I have been very fortunate to have worked with other extraordinary teachers and
mentors. Jamil Ragep and Rob Wiznofsky were patient and willing instructors of
Islamic Science and Arabic during my semester at McGill. Katherine Pandora has been
a challenging mentor and friend for the duration of my studies at the University of
Oklahoma. Marilyn Ogilvie provided a much-welcomed perspective over the years on
navigating the discipline and simultaneously managing a career and a household.
iv
I would like to express my thanks to several institutions who supported the
research and writing of this dissertation. The American Academy in Rome provided a
gorgeous backdrop and a stimulating environment to conduct research at the Vatican
Library. I was grateful to have the support of the Council for American Overseas
Research Centers to work in Istanbul. And I was very fortunate to receive the
Mellon/ACLS Dissertation Completion Fellowship from the American Council of
Learned Societies. Lastly, the History of Science Collections at the University of
Oklahoma Libraries was central to my research both at home and abroad. I wish to
thank the Head Librarian JoAnn Palmeri for her support and friendship over the years,
as well as the rest of the Collections staff.
There are several colleagues and friends whom I also wish to thank, especially
Stella Stuart, whose regular supply of coffee, friendly discussion, and administrative
support got me through many trying times. Henry Zepeda gave thoughtful comments on
chapter three, and John Stewart, Petar Markovski, Emily Margolis, Leila McNeill, and
Amy Rodgers, for kept me sane during the first few years. Carolyn Scearce deserves
special mention for her enormous support as a friend and colleague, but also as a
babysitter for two of my children when they were infants. More recently, I have slogged
along the graduate school path with Brent Purkaple, James Burnes, Anna Reser, Nathan
Kapoor, Jackson Pope, and Kraig Bartel. In Rome, I wish to thank my fellow Fellows
David Morris, Joseph Viscomi, Nathan Dennis, Marilynn Desmond, Paula Matthusen,
Abinadi Meza, and Cynthia Madansky. I was also very grateful in Rome for the
friendship of Maria Robles, Pina Pasquantonio, and Kim Bowes.
v
When I started the program, my oldest child, now seven, was 10 months old. I
now have two additional children, the most recent now almost 10 months old. My
children travelled with me to Montreal and Rome. They attended conferences. They put
up with the stress of a parent in graduate school. I am extremely grateful for their love
and their support, which they provided in their own way. My work also would have
been impossible without the support of extended family. My mother-in-law Nejiba
Gaida, may she rest in peace, stayed with us for two months in Rome before she passed
away unexpectedly three months later. My father-in-law Essaied Gaida and sister-in-
law Chiraz Gaida spent five months with us last summer so that I could write in peace
during my pregnancy. My father Michael Gleason swooped in at precisely the right
moments to help me navigate various crises. My aunt, Suzanne Gonzalez, has made
numerous trips to Norman and also came to Rome to help. My mother, Vicki Gleason,
has given countless hours of her time and energy shepherding me through the stresses of
motherhood and graduate life. She spent two months looking after the children while I
was in Istanbul, and made many, many trips to Norman in the months leading up to the
dissertation defense.
Lastly, my husband Chekib spent six years keeping the wheels spinning for the
family so that I could pursue my dream. His love, encouragement, and constant support
during difficult circumstances enabled me to continue the program and finish the
degree. I could not have done it without him.
vi
Table of Contents
Introduction 1
Chapter 1: Composition 8
Introduction 8
Overview of al-Qabs Introduction 19
Comparison of the Introduction with the Abbreviation and Tetrabiblos 34
Astrology in Tenth-Century Intellectual Court Culture 43
Conclusion 52
Chapter 2: Translation 54
Introduction 54
Arabic-Latin Translations 57
The Transformation of Astronomy and Astrology 62
John of Seville 67
Textual Transformations 72
Transliteration and Interpretation 78
Interpretative Explanations 97
Religious Elements in the Introduction 106
Vernacular Translations 113
Conclusion 117
Chapter 3: Marginalia and Annotations 120
Introduction 120
Examples of Marginalia from Manuscripts and Printed Texts 122
Readers and Contexts of Readership 129
Citations of Arabic Authors 147
Astrology as Arabic in Medieval Europe 154
Conclusion 160
vii
Chapter 4: Commentaries 162
Introduction 162
Astrology at Universities 165
Cecco dAscolis Commentary 171
John of Saxonys Commentary 179
Valentin Naibods Commentary 190
Conclusion 196
Chapter 5: Forms and Materialities 199
Introduction 199
Manuscripts 199
Printed Books 220
Conclusion 236
Conclusion 238
Bibliography 241
viii
Abstract
This project examines the transmission and reception in medieval and early
modern Europe of the Introduction to Astrology, written by the tenth-century Arabic
author al-Qab and known to his Latin readers as Alcabitius. First composed in Aleppo
and translated into Latin in the twelfth century, the work became one of the most
influential texts on astrology in medieval and early modern Europe, particularly at
universities. A close study of different forms of readership (translations, annotations,
commentaries, and materialities) demonstrates how attitudes and perceptions of Arabic
astrology shifted (or remained stable) among diverse groups of medieval and early
modern readers in Europe. The readership of the Latin manuscript and print traditions,
understood in conjunction with a contextualized study of the Arabic original, reveals
how the astrological tradition in Europe emerged and evolved by assimilating and
adapting Islamic ideas.
ix
Introduction
The most popular text on astrology in medieval Europe was al-Qabs Kitb
almudkhal il inat akm alnujm, or Alcabitiuss Introductorius ad magisterium
iudiciorum astrorum, which was translated from Arabic into Latin by John of Seville in
the 1130s. The extant manuscripts of the Introduction to Astrology number more than
two hundred. Coupled with this fact, the commentaries written on the Introduction
from Paris and Bologna in the 1320s and 1330s suggest that the text was taught at
universities. In addition to the Latin manuscripts, there were additional translations
made into Hebrew, Castilian, Italian, French, German, English, and Dutch, which
indicate the broad and diverse medieval readership of the text. Twelve printed editions,
ranging from 1473 to 1521, and two commentaries from the 1560s, show the longevity
of the texts popularity. The Introdution to Astrology was also not entirely unique;
several other Arabic astrological authors attained a broad readership in the medieval
period, including Ab Mashar (Albumasar), Sahl ibn Bishr (Zael), Mshallh
(Messehalla), and Ali ibn Rijl (Haly Abenragel). Each of these authors composed
texts of which there are now at least one hundred extant manuscripts.1 Judging from the
numbers of manuscripts alone, it is evident that Arabic texts were central to medieval
European astrological knowledge and practice.
Despite this fact, the importance of the Arabic influence on the development of
European science continues to be downplayed or underestimated. Alcabitiuss
Introduction, for example, did not garner much attention among historians until fairly
1
David Juste, The Impact of Arabic Sources on European Astrology: Some Facts and
Numbers, Micrologus XXIV (2016): 177.
1
recently.2 While the number of extant manuscripts alone should have been an
indication that it was a very influential text which warranted scholarly attention, a
critical edition was not prepared until 2004.3 The fact that the text lingered in obscurity
for so many years after its enormous popularity in the premodern period can be
attributed to three main factors. First, due to the contemporary reputation of astrology
among many scholars, the history of astrology was not taken seriously until recently.4
Second, the text was of Arabic origin. Although Averroes and Avicenna have been the
subject of many important scholarly projects, there has been much less attention given
to other Arabic writers concerning their influence on the development of medieval
European science and philosophy. Third, the Introduction was, for lack of a better
word, a textbook. As an introductory text which contained unoriginal content, at first
glance the Introduction may have been considered boring or repetitive. However,
sometimes genres that may be considered off-shoots or show lack of innovation can be
crucial to our understanding of the transmission of texts and ideas. In the case of the
Introduction, perhaps one of these factors would not have been so damning. Taken
2
Two articles give excellent overviews of the reception of the text. See Rdiger Arnzen,
Vergessene Pflichtlektre: al-Qabs astrologische Lehrschrift im europischen Mittelalter,
Zeitschrift fr Geschichte der Arabisch-Islamischen Wissenschaften 13 (1999): 93128;
Charles Burnett, Al-Qabss Introduction to Astrology: From Courtly Entertainment to
University Textbook, in Studies in the History of Culture and Science: A Tribute to Gad
Freudenthal, ed. Resianne Fontaine (Leiden: Brill, 2011), 43-69.
3
Al-Qab, Ab al-aqr Abd al-Azz Ibn Uthmn, The Introduction to Astrology: Editions
of the Arabic and Latin texts and an English translation, ed. Charles Burnett, Keiji Yamamoto,
and Michio Yano, Warburg Institute Studies and Texts2 (London: Warburg Institute, 2004).
4
Jakob Burkhardt famously ridiculed astrology in The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy,
vol. 1, trans. Middlemore (New York: Macmillan, 1904), especially 507-520. The main
exception to this claim is Lynn Thorndike, who did pioneering work in identifying important
manuscripts and individuals relevant to the history of astrology. See Thorndike, The True
Place of Astrology in the History of Science, Isis 46 (1955): 273-278.
2
together, however, they resulted in a lack of appreciation for the importance of
Alcabitiuss Introduction.
The intersection of these three factors also underscores the main argument of
this dissertation: that Arabic texts, and especially Alcabitiuss Introduction, defined the
principle areas of knowledge and practice within the European astrological tradition
from the period of translations until well into the sixteenth century. Translated Arabic
texts retained Arabic elements for several centuries because medieval Latin scholars
regarded the Arabic tradition as an authoritative source of astrological knowledge, and
European scholars viewed themselves as heirs to the Arabic tradition, which itself had
its roots in ancient Greece. This is in stark contrast to the notion that Arabic scholars
were merely passing on Greek wisdom. Medieval European scholars viewed the Arabs
as active and authoritative contributors to a highly complex and sophisticated
astrological tradition.
The primary evidence for this argument comes from a study of the different
readership practices to which Alcabitiuss Introduction to Astrology was subjected:
translation, annotation, commenting, and its treatment as a material text (printing,
binding, etc.) While Arabic astrology has not necessarily been ignored in historical
literature on astrology in the premodern period, it has certainly been taken for granted
given the large numbers of extant Latin manuscripts translated from the Arabic. In
many works, Arabic authors may be named or cited, but always as sources in support
of the authors claims about medieval astrology. There is no difference (for these
historians) between the citations in medieval texts of Ptolemy versus Arabic authors.
When questions of influence arise, however, there has been a fair amount of hesitation.
3
A recent debate over whether Nicolaus Copernicus utilized the mathematical device of
Nasr al-Dn al-Ts without attribution is an interesting example of this phenomenon.
This debate seems to miss the point that Copernicus was highly influenced by Arabic
authors, whom he does cite in De revolutionibus, whether or not he independently
came up with a version of the Ts couple. And Copernicus is one of many, many Latin
scholars who were reading Arabic authors in the premodern period. If these scholars
were astrologers, or students at university, they were primarily reading astrological
texts which had been translated from the Arabic. This dissertation shows how Arabic
texts came to dominate the Latin astrological landscape, and particularly how medieval
Latin readers engaged with Alcabitiuss Introduction to Astrology.
Chapter 1 of the dissertation provides background information about the
Islamic context in which the Introduction to Astrology was composed, as well as an
overview of the text itself. The chapter shows that al-Qab was an expert compiler.
He both recognized the need for a coherent and sytematic introductory text on
astrology, and sought to fill this gap with a text that exposed beginners to the
fundamental principles of astrology. The chapter also includes a comparison of the
Introduction with other astrological works, which demonstrates al-Qabs skills in
providing explanations of difficult concepts and his structural innovations in
organizing astrological knowledge. This analysis provides insight into why al-Qabs
Introduction, and not other texts such as Ptolemys Tetrabiblos or Ab Mashars two
introductions, became so popular in Europe. In understanding the setting at court where
the Introduction was composed, we also gain insight into the level of sophistication
and depth of astronomical and astrological inquiry in a tenth-century Islamic court.
4
In Chapter 2, I examine the translation of the Introduction from Arabic into
Latin. After explaining the broader context of the translations of the twelfth century, I
turn to the specific context of John of Seville, the translator of the Introduction. I then
show how the translator dealt with different technical astrological terms, and especially
whether he transliterated them or not. These choices indicate that John often retained
Arabic terminology because there was no Latin equivalent. This had the effect of
preserving the Arabic character of the text and conferring the legitimacy of the Arabic
tradition. I also examine Johns own additions to the text, i.e. his interpretations,
which illustrate his efforts to make the text more accessible to a Latin audience, which
also demonstrates that the information contained within the Introduction was
considered authoritative and highly valued. Lastly, I consider Johns treatment of
religious words and phrases, in order to show how Christian scholars were committed
to recovering Arabic astrological knowledge despite its Islamic origins.
Chapter 3 considers the Latin manuscript tradition of the Introduction, and
particularly the evidence of readership in the form of marginalia and annotations.
Following an overview of the kinds of annotations inscribed in the margins of
manuscripts of the Introduction, I show how these different kinds of annotations
illustrate both how the text was read and who was reading it. This analysis shows that
the Introduction was read by diverse groups of medieval readers, each of whom was
influenced by the Arabic tradition through their encounters with Alcabitius and the
Arabic terminology contained within the text. I then provide several examples of the
citations of other Arabic authors compared to Ptolemy and contemporary Latin authors,
and argue that these citation practices reflect the authority of the Arabic astrological
5
tradition. I then consider several glosses of transliterated terms, which indicate how
Latin readers dealt with Arabic technical vocabulary. The persistence of the Arabic
transliterated terms throughout the centuries indicates a commitment to the Arabic
tradition despite the fact that the meanings of terms were not often immediately
evident, prompting readers to add their own definitions.
Chapter 4 considers the three main commentaries on the text, two of which
were written in the early fourteenth century, and the other in the sixteenth century. The
first two, by Cecco dAscoli and John of Saxony, illustrate the broad range of
astrological instruction experienced by university students in the fourteenth century.
Both Cecco and John considered Alcabitiuss Introduction to be an authoritative source
of astrological knowledge. John, in particular, was very thorough in his analysis of the
Introduction and in his efforts to compare doctrines with astrological authors, including
other Arab, Greek, and contemporary Latin authors. As the principal commentary on
the most popular astrological text of the medieval period, Johns commentary
demonstrates the central role played by Arabic astrology at medieval universities.
These medieval commentaries are in turn compared with the humanist commentary of
Valentin Naibod. Naibods commentary reflects a shift away from the authority of
Arabic authors in the medieval period and a desire for a return to original Greek. This
is very clearly illustrated in his attempt to use original Greek terms for Arabic
vocabularly, which are printed in Greek. However, his analysis of the Introduction
illustrates that he was highly influenced by the Arabic tradition, and that Alcabitiuss
Introduction retained its position as central to astrogical instruction well into the
sixteenth century.
6
The final chapter considers the codicological features of manuscripts and
printed versions of the Introduction, and in particular how these features influenced
and informed the Introductions readership. Through an examination of the material
features of the text, including the title, bound volumes, ownership inscriptions,
bindings, paper, and paratexts, I reinforce some of the previous claims made in the
dissertation with physical evidence gleaned from the books and manuscripts. I give
particular attention to collections of texts in bound volumes, which further illustrates
how Arabic texts formed the core of astrological knowledge.
The backbone of the dissertation is the critical edition of both the Arabic and
Latin texts prepared by Charles Burnett, Keiji Yamomoto, and Michio Yano. The
Introduction to the edition includes a wealth of information about al-Qab and served
as a starting point and reference for the entire project. The edition itself provides
standardized versions of the text which enabled a close comparison of the Arabic and
Latin texts, which forms the basis of chapter two. The editors also noted many, many
textual differences between the Arabic and Latin texts, and recorded several glosses
from the manuscripts, which contributed to the evidence base in chapters 2 and 3. The
list of manuscripts, which numbers over two hundred, and often includes information
about dating, ownership, and the other texts the Introduction was bound with, was also
highly useful for this research.
7
Chapter 1: Composition
Introduction
Composed in the middle of the tenth century, al-Qabs Kitb almudkhal il
inat akm alnujm, or Introduction to the Art of the Judgments of the Stars
(henceforth Introduction), provides a brief introduction to the principles of astrology.5
Al-Qab came from a town called al-Qaba near Mosul in Iraq. The well-known
bibliographer al-Nadm mentions in his Fihrist that al-Qab was a student of al-
Imrn (d. 955/6 CE) in Mosul, with whom he studied Ptolemys Almagest, and that he
was of our time, (dating to around 980 CE).6 Al-Qab wrote several geometrical,
astronomical and astrological treatises, and dedicated four of them (including the
Introduction) to the amdnid Emir of Aleppo, Sayf al-Dawla, who reigned from 945
to 967 CE.7 Al-Qabs association with al-Imrn in Mosul does not preclude his
involvement with Sayf al-Dawlas court at Aleppo, as it is likely he moved to Aleppo
after completing his mathematical, astronomical, and astrological training with al-
Imrn. Sayf al-Dawlas patronage of poetry, philosophy, and astronomy was
unrivalled in the region, making Aleppo an ideal locale for learned scholars. However,
5
There are twenty-five extant Arabic manuscripts of the Introduction, dating from 1191 until
1745. The text has been edited and translated in Ab-'-aqr Abd-al-Azz Ibn-Ut mn al-
Qab, The introduction to astrology: editions of the Arabic and Latin texts and an English
translation, ed. Charles Burnett, Keiji Yamamoto, and Michio Yano, Warburg Institute Studies
and Texts2 (London: Warburg Institute, 2004). References to this edition in the notes are
abbreviated BYY.
6
Muammad ibn Isq al-Nadm, The Fihrist of Al-Nadim; a Tenth-Century Survey of Muslim
Culture, trans. Bayard Dodge (New York: Columbia University Press, 1970), 635.
7
Thierry Bianquis, Sayf al-Dawla, Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd Edition, ed. P. Bearman et
al. (Leiden: Brill, 1997).
8
Sayf al-Dawla was also very active in pursuing political and military gains, providing a
tumultuous and uncertain backdrop to courtly life.
Earlier in the tenth century, Mosul was under control of Sayf al-Dawlas father,
the son of the founder of the amdnid dynasty.8 After his death, Sayf al-Dawlas
older brother Nsir al-Dawla was challenged by his uncles for the rule of Mosul, but in
935 Nsir al-Dawla had gained enough power and influence in Mosul to consolidate
his rule there. Nsir al-Dawla then turned his gaze towards Baghdad. The Abbsid
caliphate had weakened beginning in the middle of the ninth century, allowing
provincial rulers to gain more power. By the 940s, Nsir al-Dawla had assassinated the
de facto ruler of Baghdad (as amr al-umar) and installed himself in his place,
recruiting the young Sayf al-Dawla to defend his position against local rivals. The
amdnids had capitalized on the weak Abbsid court, but they had not gained favor
with its powerful allies. After a military uprising in 943, the brothers were forced to
leave Baghdad. Sayf al-Dawla established an Emirate at Aleppo after several
skirmishes with the Ikhshidids from Egypt. He had a successful millitary career until
the last decade of his reign, when he was confronted and continually defeated by the
Byzantines. The Byzantine army, under the command of Nikephoros Phokas, managed
to gain territory from Sayf al-Dawla and even occupied Aleppo for a brief period in
8
For an overview of this period, see Marius Canard, amdnids, Encyclopaedia of Islam,
2nd edition, ed. P Bearman et al. (Leiden: Brill, 1986).
9
962. This humiliation was echoed in further defeats for Sayf al-Dawla at the hands of
the Byzantines, though he continued to rule until his death in 967.9
During the golden years of Sayf al-Dawlas rule, his court was full of scholars
of all disciplines: poets, writers, astrologers, legal counsel, theologians,
mathematicians, and historians. Known for his erudition and philology, Sayf al-Dawla
received innumerable dedications and praise in scholarly works written to impress him
and appeal to his extensive philosophical, literary, and scientific interests. The famous
historian and poet Ab Faraj al-Ifahn dedicated his major compilation of historical
poems to him, the Kitb al-Aghn, a twenty-volume work. The poet al-Mutanabb
wrote twenty-two epic poems about Sayf al-Dawlas military career. Among the most
notable scholars was the famous philosopher alFrb, known as the second master,
after Aristotle. AlFrb rejected astrology after a careful consideration of the complex
causal change linking planetary positions and terrestrial effects, and concluded that
astrology was just conjecture, supposition, smooth talk, and deception, despite its
apparent popularity at Sayf al-Dawlas court.10 In addition to al-Qab, there is at least
one other astrologer known to be at Sayf al-Dawlas court, by the name of al-Baghdad.
While none of the biographers mention al-Qabs presence at court,11 his four
9
Sayf al-Dawlas political posturing is well-documented in Thierry Bianquis, Pouvoirs arabes
Alep aux Xe et XIe sicles, Revue du monde musulman et de la Mditerrane, no. 62
(1991): 49-59.
10
Alnoor Dhanani, Frb: Ab Nar Muammad ibn Muammad ibn Tarkhn al-Frb, in
The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers, Thomas Hockey, et al., eds. (New York:
Springer, 2007), 356-357.
11
Anna Regourd, LEptre ayant pour objet la mise a lpreuve de ceux qui nont dastrologue
que le nom dal-Qab (IVe/Xe s.), Politica Hermetica, 17 (2003): 24-53. BYY surmise that
the sheer number of scholars active at court was the cause of al-Qabs name being left out,
and that the lists compiled by the Arabic biographers are not exhaustive. BYY, Introduction, 2.
10
dedications and the texts themselves provide ample evidence of his presence there. One
of these works, the Risla f imtihn al-munajjimn mimman huwa muttasim bi-hdh
l-ism, or Epistle on the Testing of the Astrologers and Those Who Call Themselves by
That Name, is of particular interest. In this text, al-Qab provides questions about
astrological concepts that Sayf al-Dawla may use to distinguish legitimate astrologers
from charlatans. A highly technical treatise which includes trick questions, this work
speaks extensively about the depth of astronomical and astrological knowledge
expected of what al-Qab terms the complete astrologer.12 Additionally, there are
several sections of the Introduction that are relevant for rulers, including the effects of
conjunctions on administration and management, religious issues, war, and leadership
in war. The fifth chapter on lots also provides three ways for calculating the conditions
related to rule, and four ways for calculating the length of rule.13 These astrological
topics were all well-established in Arabic astrology by the tenth century, having firm
roots in the flourishing of astrology in the eighth and ninth centuries.
Al-Qab composed the Kitb almudkhal il inat akm alnujm within a
well-established framework of astrological knowledge, formulated in the decades
following the scores of translations made at the Abbsid court in Baghdad. Early
Arabic astrology had Greek, Persian, Sanskrit and Syriac roots.14 From these different
12
This treatise will be considered in more detail later in the chapter.
13
See BYY, Introduction, 5:[17]-[18], 151-3. This is pointed out by Charles Burnett, Al-
Qabs Introduction to Astrology: From Courtly Entertainment to University Textbook, in
Studies in the History of Culture and Science: A Tribute to Gad Freudenthal, ed. Resianne
Fontaine (Leiden: Brill, 2011), 45.
14
A recent overview of astrology in the Islamic world is Charles Burnett, Astrology, in
Encycopedia of Islam III (Leiden: Brill, 2008). See also David Pingree, Astrology, in
Religion, Learning, and Science in the Abassid Period, ed. M.J.L. Young, J.D. Latham, and
11
texts, the main branches of Arabic astrology were formulated: horoscopic astrology or
nativities, astrological history, interrogational astrology, and elections. Many texts
contained explicit references to Greek astrology. Ptolemys Tetrabiblos and Dorotheus
of Sidon were frequently referenced in Arabic astrological works of this period.
Eighth- and ninth-century astrological texts also contained elements of Persian,
Sanskrit, and Syriac influence. Perhaps as a result of these diverse strands of thought,
in the tenth century al-Qab tasked himself with synthesizing them into a coherent,
technical introduction, which was his Introduction to Astrology.
The beginning of the Arabic astrological tradition is often linked to the
founding of the city of Baghdad by the second Abbsid caliph al-Manr, who moved
the Islamic capital there from Damascus after the Abbsids overthrew the Umayyad
caliphate.15 Al-Manr charged three astrologers, all of Persian origin, with selecting
the most propitious day for the founding of the new city. Mshallh, Nawbakht, and
Umar ibn al-Farrukhn al-abar constructed a foundation chart for July 30, 762.
Dimitri Gutas has argued that astrology was fundamental to the early history of the
city.16 After the founding of Baghdad, al-Manr continued to legitimate his rule by
developing a political ideology based on the astrological history of Ab Sahl ibn
R.B. Serjeant (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 290-300. For a list of authors
and sources, see Fuat Sezgin, Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums, Band 7 (Leiden: E. J.
Brill, 1967).
15
The oldest Arabic astrological text, however, predates this event. It is a treatise on
horoscopic astrology (Kitb al-Mawlid wa-akmih) by Zardusht, which was originally
written in Avestan script, then translated to Pahlavi, then to Arabic c. 750 CE. See Pingree,
Astrology, 292.
16
Dimitri Gutas, Greek Thought, Arabic Culture: The Graeco-Arabic Translation Movement in
Baghdad and Early Abbasid Society (2nd-4th/8th-10th centuries) (New York: Routledge,
1998).
12
Nawbakht. This history, which illustrated the cyclical nature of rulers and dynasties
according to the stars, tied the beginning of the cycle of the Abbsid regime to divine
providence and a heavenly-determined sequence of ruling states, which began in
ancient Mesopotamia and ended most recently with the Sasanians. The predominantly
Persian population in Baghdad was inspired by al-Manrs support of this astrological
history, which was central to Sasanian ideology.17
By appealing to the Persian elite in Baghdad and the Sasanian emphasis on the
acquisition of knowledge, al-Manr found broad support for the translations of Greek
philosophical and scientific texts which began in Baghdad under his reign. al-Manrs
interest in astrology led to a dramatic increase in the translation of astrological
treatises, originally from Pahlav texts and later from Greek manuscripts.18 With the
flowering of the translation movement in the eighth century, Baghdad became a site of
confluence for several different strands of astrological thought. The principle Greek
source of astrology, Ptolemys Tetrabiblos, was translated into Arabic twice. The first
translation was at the behest of al-abar, who had translated Dorotheus of Sidons
Pentateuch19 from a Pahlavi version and commissioned Ab Yahy al-Batrq to
translate the Tetrabiblos at the end of the eighth century. The second translation was by
Ibrahim ibn al-alt and revised by Hunayn ibn Isq in the ninth century. The Greek
17
Gutas, Greek Thought, 28-60.
18
Gutas, Greek Thought, 107-110.
19
Dorothei Sidonii Carmen Astrologicum, ed. David Pingree (Leipzig: Teubner, 1976).
13
astrological tradition also filtered in through an amalgam of astrological knowledge
circulating in the seventh and eighth centuries in Syriac, Sanskrit, and Pahlav texts.20
There were several important figures who contributed to the transmission of
Persian, Indian, and Syriac texts in the eighth century. Among them, Theophilus of
Edessa (695-785 CE), the court astrologer to al-Manrs son and successor, al-Mahd,
was highly influential. Theophilus translated texts from both Greek and Syriac into
Arabic, and supplied Mshallh with an astrological compendium. This compendium
was originally compiled by Rhetorius at Alexandria in 620 CE and contained several
important Greek astrological works, including the Pentateuch of Dorotheus of Sidon
and sections of Ptolemys Almagest. Mshallh followed Theophilus in incorporating
several different sources into his works, including Pahlav versions of Dorotheus and
Vettius Valens.21 Mshallhs writings were also very influential on early Arabic
astrology. In analyzing Mshallhs texts on interrogations or masil, David Pingree
has shown that Mshallh used Pahlav translations of Greek sources, and
incorporated material on warfare and political power likely derived from Sasanian
20
David Pingree has documented the difficulties associated with specifying which astrological
ideas originated where, when, and within which language and culture. During the seventh,
eighth, and ninth centuries, numerous texts were composed and translated into several different
languages. The lack of Pahlav texts which date to this period corroborates this problem. See
David Pingree, From Alexandria to Baghdad to Byzantium. The Transmission of Astrology,
International Journal of the Classical Tradition, Vol. 8, No. 1 (Summer, 2001). For an
example of how this problem applies to the Indian case, see David Pingree, The Indian and
Pseudo-Indian Passages in Greek and Latin Astronomical and Astrological Texts, Viator 7
(1976): 141-196.
21
David Pingree, Mshallh: some Sasanian and Syriac sources, in Essays on Islamic
Philosophy and Science (Albany, 1975), 5-14.
14
sources.22 Mshallh also composed an important work on astrological history.23 The
efforts of these astrologers to synthesize a diverse set of texts, as well as the
importance and popularity of astrological histories in the broader culture, led to the
development of a specifically Arabic tradition that was distinct from its Greek,
Sanskrit, and Pahlav predecessors.
The influence of astrological texts translated from the Syriac, on the other hand,
and the influence of the Syriac tradition more broadly, is still under investigation.
While there were certainly Greek texts translated into Arabic that had Syriac textual
intermediaries, it has been more difficult to trace a uniquely Syriac influence, since the
Greek astronomical and astrological tradition also contributed to the development of
these fields in Syriac. The astronomer Severus Sebokht had access to Ptolemys Handy
Tables, composed a treatise on the astrolabe and another on constellations, and may
have made a Syriac translation of the Almagest.24 While Sebokht is known to have
criticized astrology, other evidence points to a significant presence of astrological
practice in Syria, specifically from the region of arran and the cult of the Sabians.
The Sabians drew elements from Greek astronomy and astrology, Neoplatonic and
Aristotelian philosophy, and Indian, Persian, and Syrian traditions which constituted
22
See David Pingree, Mshallh: Greek, Pahlav, Arabic, and Latin Astrology, in
Perspective arabes et mdivales sur la tradition scientifique et philosophique grecque. Actes
du colloque de la SIHSPAI (Socit international dhistoire des sciences et de la philosophie
arabes et islamiques), Paris, 31 mars-3 avril 1993, ed. Ahmad Hasnawi et al. (Louvain and
Paris, 1997).
23
See E.S. Kennedy and David Pingree, eds., The Astrological History of Mshallh
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971), 1-125.
24
Severus Sebokht, in The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers, ed. Thomas Hockey
et al. (New York: Springer, 2007): 1044-1045.
15
their unique set of spiritual beliefs and practices. These beliefs and practices had close
ties to astral magic, and some of these texts were translated into Arabic.25 The Sabians
developed a relatively sophisticated understanding of celestial motion, and had also
followed Ptolemys Planetary Hypotheses in attributing the cause of heavenly motion
to planetary souls. According to this view, planets have their own free will and may be
persuaded by magicians to carry out worldly interests. One example is the calling down
of planetary spirits to endow talismans with supernatural powers, a practice which was
highly influential in the Latin West. One famous treatise, later translated into Latin as
De imaginibus, was written by Thbit ibn Qurra.
These various strands of thought came together in the ninth-century work of
Ab Mashar Jafar ibn Muammad ibn Umar al-Balkh (787-886 CE).26 He wrote
several astrological works, the most popular of which was also the most
comprehensive, the Kitb al-mudkhal al-kabr il ilm akm al-nujm, or The Great
Introduction to Astrology. In this work, Ab Mashar sought to elaborate on the causal
relationship between the planets and the sublunar realm and explain celestial influence.
He also drew on Ptolemys systematization of astrological knowledge in the
Tetrabiblos and the philosophical work of his immediate Arabic predecessor and
almost-contemporary, al-Kind, to explain how the planets influenced the vast range of
25
David Pingree, The Sabians of Harran and the Classical Tradition, International Journal of
the Classical Tradition, Vol. 9, No. 1 (Summer, 2002): 8-35. Pingree also traces the Sabian
influence to al-Kinds work on rays (extant only in Latin as De radiis) and also to Ab
Mashar, whose story about the three Hermes and his history of science (in particular his
attribution of the development of astronomy to the ancient Persians) is linked to his interest in
the Sabians.
26
See also Charles Burnett, Ab Mashar, Encyclopedia of Islam, 3rd edition (Brill Online,
2012).
16
phenomena (including human action) on the Earth.27 He also composed a shorter work,
the Mukhtaar al-mudkhal, or Abbreviation of the Introduction, which was also popular
in the mid-tenth century.28
Al-Qabs contribution to the Arabic astrological tradition is fairly unoriginal
in terms of content. Like his predecessors, al-Qab drew on a diverse group of
sources. He cites Ptolemy, Dorotheus of Sidon, Vettius Valens, Hermes Trismegistus,
al-Andarzagar, Mshallah, and al-Kind. He also includes several passages taken
directly from Ab Mashars works, but does not cite him. His work was included in
some important scientific and philosophical compilations, evidence that his reputation
outlived him and his work was well-received. The biographer al-Bayhaq (ca. 1106-
1174), for example, wrote that the Introduction ranked among the works on the stars
like amsa among Arabic poetry. The Kitb al-amsa was a well-known
collection of poems organized around chivalric and military themes, composed by Ab
Tammm (d. 849 CE) in the ninth century.29
The originality of the Introduction is rather in how al-Qab chose to structure
the content, and in his ability to provide a broad overview of basic astrological
principles that prepared the reader for more advanced applications in the work of, for
27
Peter Adamson, Abu Mashar, Al-Kind and the Philosophical Defense of Astrology,
Recherches de Philosophie et Thologie Mdivales 69 (n.d.): 24570.
28
Ab Mashar, The Abbreviation of the Introduction to Astrology, together with the Medieval
Latin Translation of Adelard of Bath, ed. and trans. Charles Burnett, Keiji Yamamoto, and
Michio Yano (Leiden: Brill, 1994).
29
Ironically, Ab Tammm was also a critic of astrology. He reportedly wrote that the sword
is more powerful than the books [of the astrologers] in a poem referencing the defeat of the
Byzantines at Ammorium by the caliph al-Mutaim, which the astrologers had falsely
predicted. See George Saliba, The Role of the Astrologer in Medieval Islamic Society,
Bulletin dtudes orientales, T. 44 (1992): 46.
17
example, Mshallah or al-abar. In this respect, we may attribute to al-Qab the
distillation of astrological content into a new introductory genre. In the Introduction,
al-Qab devotes the first three chapters to content related to horoscopic astrology.
While he does not give specific instructions for casting a horoscope, these chapters
contain the astrological information necessary for the interpretation of horoscopes. The
fourth chapter provides an explanation of technical astrological terms related to all
branches of astrology, including general or historical astrology, nativities, and
elections. The last chapter is the shortest and gives details related to the casting of lots.
In what follows, I provide a general overview of the contents of the
Introduction. Rather than a full summary, I have listed most of the topics covered, and
have given more detail in some sections which offer a sense of the range of topics
covered and the level of specificity in explanations that al-Qab judged appropriate
for an Introduction. I then compare the structure and contents of the Introduction with
two of its well-known predecessors, Ptolemys Tetrabiblos and Ab Mashars
Abbreviation to the Introduction to Astrology. Lastly, I address the intellectual context
of the composition of the Introduction, particularly with respect to the developing
astronomical tradition and to philosophical defenses and critiques of astrology. While
the Introduction does not provide original content, I show that it represents the firm
establishment of astrology as a mainstay in Islamic intellectual culture, despite some of
the theoretical critiques levied against it.
18
Overview of al-Qabs Introduction
Rather than providing a detailed summary, which would repeat much of what
John North accomplished in his explanation of the Introduction,30 I provide an
overview of the text. The overview follows the arrangement of the chapters, and the
goal is to give the reader a sense of the Introductions structure, contents, and level of
detail afforded to particular topics. A few topics are treated in slightly more detail as
they are more relevant to the remaining chapters of the dissertation. The main text of
the Introduction to Astrology is preceded by a short preface written by the author. It
includes the standard Islamic invocation of God and the prophet (the bismillah),31 and
then a dedication of the work to Sayf al-Dawla. Al-Qab names himself as the author,
and then explains his reasons for writing an introduction by acknowledging the
deficiencies in the introductory works of his predecessors. According to al-Qab,
some of these introductions did not include enough material (perhaps he is referring to
the Abbreviation of Ab Mashar), others included too much (this is most certainly the
Great Introduction of Ab Mashar), and still others do not present the material in a
coherent order suited to instruction (perhaps this is the Tetrabiblos). Al-Qab
mentions that he will not present a defense of astrology, because a sufficient one
appears in Ptolemys Tetrabiblos, and al-Qab himself provides one in his refutation
30
While North deals with the medieval English translation, there are no major changes in the
astrological doctrines. See John North, Chaucers Universe (New York: Oxford University
Press, 1988), 192-220 and 527-8.
31
The English translation of the edition reads: In the name of God, the merciful and
compassionate, and may God bless our Lord Muhammad, his family, his companions and grant
them salvation, BYY, Introduction, 19.
19
of Al ibn Iss criticisms.32 Al-Qab then lists the five chapters of the Introduction
and provides a brief description of their contents:
The first chapter, on the essential and accidental conditions of the zodiac.
The second chapter, on the natures of the seven planets and what is proper to
each and what conditions they indicate.
The third chapter, on the accidents of the seven planets by themselves and in
relation one to the other.
The fourth chapter, on the explanation of the technical terms of the astrologers.
The fifth chapter, on all the lots.33
The first chapter is the longest, and provides basic terms and descriptions of the
divisions of the zodiacal circle, including all of the signs and their properties with
relation to each other and to the planets. Al-Qab begins with the essential conditions
(al-awl al-dhtyah) of the zodiac, or its intrinsic properties. He describes the
division of the zodiac circle into twelve equal parts, which are the signs, each of which
can be further divided into 30 equal degrees, the degrees each into 60 minutes, the
minutes each into 60 seconds, and so on. He then provides several terms which are
used to describe the positions of the signs on the zodiac circle and their rising times.34
The zodiac is divided into four quadrants, each of which has essential properties. The
quadrant from the beginning of Libra to the beginning of Capricorn, for example, is
cold and dry, related to autumn and melancholy, and indicates the beginning of decay
32
This is the sole reference to al-Qabs defense of astrology, and it appears to have been lost.
33
BYY, Introduction, 19.
34
Half of the signs are northern, the other half southern. The six signs which have rising
times more than 30 degrees are called direct in rising, while those that have rising times less
than 30 degrees are called crooked in rising, BYY, Introduction, 1:[8], 21.
20
and middle age. Al-Qab describes the order of the planets, starting with Saturn, the
highest and closest to the zodiac and the slowest in movement, and followed by Jupiter,
Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and the Moon. al-Qab also mentions here the
ascending and descending nodes of the moon, often referred to as the Head and Tail of
the Dragon.
Al-Qab then discusses the dignities or shares (a) that the planets have in
the signs by nature (bi-l-abia) rather than by accident. These are the house, the
exaltation, the term, the triplicity, and the decan. A share is a kind of relationship that a
planet has to a particular sign, defined in each case by either the whole sign, set of
signs (in the case of triplicities) or a portion of the sign. As the shares are relationships,
the signification or meaning of each share is part of astrological interpretation. In the
case of Jupiter, for example, Sagittarius and Pisces are its houses. Jupiters exaltation is
the fifteenth degree of Cancer. Jupiter is the lord of the fiery triplicity (Aries, Leo, and
Sagittarius) and the airy triplicity (Gemini, Libra and Aquarius). For the terms, each
sign has a different set of degrees devoted to each planet, which are clearly laid out in a
table. For Jupiter in Aries, for example, its term is from the beginning to the sixth
degree. As for the decans, each sign is divided into three equal divisions, each of ten
degrees, and the planets are distributed in the decans following their order in the
heavens. Jupiter, for example, falls in the decan of the first 10 degrees of Gemini, then
the second 10 degrees of Leo, and then the third 10 degrees of Libra, and so on. In
21
addition to a table of the decans, al-Qab gives a description for how to calculate the
decans of the planets when you know the degree of the sign.35
In the middle of his discussion of the shares of the planets, al-Qab has
inserted his definitions of the aspects, which are the angular relationships that each sign
has to the other signs. The aspects are also said to characterize angular relationships
between planets. The aspects that al-Qab identifies are the sextile aspect of
friendship, the quartile aspect of antagonism or half-enmity, the trine aspect of
compatibility, and the aspect of opposition.36 He says that when two planets are in one
sign, they are said to be in conjunction. After describing the shares of the planets in the
signs, al-Qab assigns powers to them. The lord of the house has five powers, the lord
of exaltation has four, the lord of the triplicitiy has three, the lord of the term has two,
and the lord of the decan has one.37 He discusses calculations one makes with these
powers later in the chapter.
The next part of the chapter includes a lengthy discussion of the essential
properties of the signs. These properties are separated into subjects, and then listed by
sign. The first properties are descriptive (rational, domestic, sterile, fine-
35
The editors of the edition point out that the method provided by al-Qab differs from that in
the Latin Vulgate text. See BYY, Introduction, 31, n. 15.
36
Al-Qab lists these aspects in terms of planetary relationships rather than angles. The
sextile aspect to a sign is thus the 3rd/11th sign away, the quartile the 4th/10th sign away, the
trine the 5th/9th sign away, and the opposition the 7th (180 degrees). BYY, Introduction,
1:[18], 27.
37
The lord in this case refers to the planet when it is in its proper share. So, the lord of the
house refers to Jupiter when it is in Sagittarius or Pisces, in which case it has five powers.
Jupiter is the lord of exaltation when it is in the fifteenth degree of Cancer, and it has four
powers. Jupiter is lord of the triplicity when it is in Aries, Leo, or Sagittarius at night, and has
three powers, and so on.
22
voiced, etc.) and drawn from the forms and figures of the signs on the zodiac, and
whether they resemble people, animals, etc. This is followed by what is indicated
according to the constitution of a person, and of plants, regions, and other things,38
with a short description provided for each sign. For example: Leo has tall trees,
possesses cunning and deceit, has many cares and sadnesses; it has of the body of the
person the mouth of the stomach, the heart, the side, the two sides of the back and the
back; of the regions it has the <land of the> Turks to the end of the inhabited world.39
The next property al-Qab includes is the parts of the body which will be effected by
a planets position in that sign. For Taurus, for example, al-Qab lists: Taurus:
Saturn, the belly; Jupiter, the chest; Mars, the neck; the Sun, the knees; Venus, the
head; Mercury, the feet; the Moon, the shanks.40 This description is followed by a list
and table of the masculine and feminine degrees of each sign, and a list and table of the
degrees in the signs which are called bright, dark, dusty, smoky, and empty. Lastly,
there are descriptions and tables of the degrees in signs which are called wells, of
chronic illness, increasing fortune, and a description of degrees which are called
powerful and sharing in power.41 The descriptions of different kinds of degrees
concludes the discussion of the essential conditions of the zodiac.
38
BYY, Introduction, 1:[25], 35. These short descriptions follow the text of the Abbreviation
very closely. BYY has provided corresponding passages in the edition: BYY, Introduction,
1:[25]-[37].
39
BYY, Introduction, 1:[29], 35.
40
41
BYY, Introduction, 1:[49]-[54], 41-47.
23
Al-Qab then turns to the accidental conditions (al-awl al-aryah), which
he writes are those dependent on the position of the horizon, because the circle is
shaped at every moment by a shape which is divided by four quadrants into which the
circle of the horizon and the circle of the meridian divide it.42 In other words,
accidental conditions are not intrinsic, but rather established by where the zodiacal
circle intersects the horizon. The four quadrants are each further divided into three
equal sections, called houses (bayt), with the divisions themselves known as
cusps (markaz)the BYY edition gives places43making twelve places total.
The divisions are determined by the rising-times of the ascendant, and al-Qab
forgoes an explanation of this procedure by referring the reader to astronomical tables.
The first of the places is the ascendant, on the eastern horizon, and the places then
follow as the second, third, fourth, etc. Al-Qab describes the different properties of
the four quadrants. For example, he writes, The quadrant which is from the ascendant
to the midheaven, which consists of the twelfth, eleventh and tenth place<s>, is an
eastern, masculine, advancing quadrant; it indicates the beginning of life and is called
growing, sanguine, and vernal.44 There are then several definitions related to
groupings of places, including the cardines, which are the ascendant, fourth, seventh
and tenth places, the succedents to the cardines, which are the second, fifth, eighth, and
eleventh places, and the cadents from the cardines, which are the third, sixth, ninth, and
twelfth places.
42
43
Note that the editors of the BYY edition have chosen to translate bayut as place instead of
house, to avoid confusion with the house which is the share of the planet in its sign. I have
respected this usage.
44
24
There is a full description of each of the twelve places, including the role of the
lord of the triplicity in each place as put forth in al-Andarzaghars Nativities. The
places signify several different topics. Taking just the first word al-Qab mentions for
each place, one finds life, property, siblings, fathers, children, illness, women, fear,
journey, authority, hope, and enemies. However, the significance of each place is much
broader, as indicated by the list of topics associated with the ninth place:
The ninth is the place of the journey, absence, roads (caravan routes), religion,
religious observance, sciences, philosophy, books, messengers, messages and
visions; of life it indicates the beginning of the middle of life. Al-Andarzaghar
said: the first lord of the triplicity of the place of the journey indicates the
journey and its suitability, the second religion and religious observance, the
eminence <one obtains> in this, and the form <the eminence> takes, the third is
the indicator of science, vision, stars (astrology), and omens, and truth and
falsehood in this.45
After mentioning the colors indicated by the places, al-Qab discusses the shares that
each of the planets has in the places. These shares are accidental, since they depend on
the calculation of the places which changes with the rising-time of the ascendant. al-
Qab also calls them joys (al-afr).
There is then a lengthy discussion of the indications (al-dalil) or
significations of the places, and particularly what is indicated by the arrival of the lord
of the cardines in the cardines,46 which al-Qab provides as an example. He writes,
The lord of the ascendant by arriving in the ascendant indicates good fortune
for himself, his innermost being, and his gain. By arriving in the tenth it
indicates good fortune in authority and important professions. By arriving in the
seventh it indicates good fortune through business affairs, contenders and
45
46
The lords of the cardines is a specific instance of the more general ruling planet for a
topic, the calculation of which al-Qab provides upon discussion of the indications.
25
married couples. By arriving in the fourth it indicates good fortune through
landed property and by reason of fathers, the discovery of waters, land-taxes,
the cultivation of lands, the building of cities and old and deep-rooted matters.47
Al-Qab explains that in the same way one can understand the indications of the
arrival of other lords of places in other places. He concludes the chapter by
demonstrating how to calculate the ruling planet for a topic, that is the lord of that
place, which is determined by calculating the planet which has the most shares in the
place of that topic, or by looking at the planet which indicates the nature of the topic
and the lot of the topic (according to the powers of their shares). The most powerful of
these, or the one having the greatest number of powers in the place of that topic, is its
ruler (i.e. its lord). Al-Qab provides an example of this calculation regarding
property:
For example, if your question is concerning property, and you want to know the
ruler over property, and the second place, indicating property, is the fifth degree
of Aries, then the place belongs to Mars (so it has five powers in that place), the
exaltation is the Suns (so it has four powers in it), the triplicity belongs to the
Sun (so it has three powers in itthat give the Sun a total of seven powers in
the place), the term belongs to Jupiter (so it has two powers) and the decan
belongs to Mars (so it has one power). Six powers, therefore, come to Mars,
and seven to the Sun; so the Sun is the ruler over the place of property.48
Al-Qab then compares this result with the lot of property and the place of the Lot of
Fortune, which are ruled by Jupiter, the indicator of property by nature. In this case, the
Sun is the ruling planet over the house of property, but Jupiter is the ruling planet over
the lot of property and the place of the Lot of Fortune.
47
48
26
Al-Qab concludes the chapter by mentioning two additional kinds of
accidental shares, which are called al-alb in some manuscripts and al-ayyiz (domain)
in at least one other. The former share concerns whether a diurnal planet is above or
below the earth during the day, and a nocturnal planet is above or below the earth at
night. The latter is whether a masculine planet is in a masculine sign, and a feminine
planet is in a feminine sign. Al-Qab transitions to the next chapter by mentioning
that he will discuss the seven planets and their natures, conditions, and indications, and
ends with a pious formula exalting God.
The second chapter deals with the natures of the planets, and what is indicated
by each. Several qualities and indications are listed for each planet, including the age
of life, color, taste, and professions, and then additional indications (usually related to
activities or professions) are given for when the planet is mixed (mzij) with another
planet.49 The section on indications resulting from mixing is followed by the planets
indications related to general life events, illnesses, temperaments, religions, colors,
powers, world regions, plants, and lots. Mshallh is referenced for each planet for
his views on planetary effects on the appearance of peoples, and Dorotheus for the
natives facial features. For other bits of information, al-Qab drew from other
astrological traditions. He frequently introduces information with the phrase Some
said (qla qawmu) and occasionally is more specific, referring a few times to the
Indian tradition (al-hind). In the case of Mars, for example, al-Qab writes, Mars is a
49
Mixing refers to instances where the planets have an astrological relationship. The
relationship could be one of the aspects, or one of several other relationships defined in the
third chapter. At the end of the chapter, al-Qab specifies: As for what we mentioned in this
chapter concerning what the planets indicate, when another <planet> mixes with it, then it is
necessary to mix the<ir indications> together, and so on for the rest of what each planet
indicates. BYY, Introduction, 2:[43], 87.
27
malefic, masculine, nocturnal. It favours heat and dryness. It indicates brothers and
journeys. Of the ages of life it has youth up to the age of adolescence. Its nature is
choler; its taste is bitter. Of professions it has every profession involving fire, or what
is done with iron, such as beating with hammers and pressing out swords.50 In terms
of what is indicated when Mars mixes with other planets, al-Qab first mentions
information relevant to the professions: If Saturn mixes with it [Mars], it indicates the
beating out of iron.51 In the case of medical applications, al-Qab adds, If Saturn
mixes with it [Mars], it indicates, of the activities of medicine, the practice of
surgery.52 Medicine in this case is broadly construed, as other planets mixing with
Mars indicate the practice of beauticians (Venus) and the pulling of teeth and cleaning
of ears (the Moon).
Al-Qab treats each of the planets in turn, recording all of the indications
assigned to the particular planet. The end of the chapter includes some general
information about the indications of the planets for the months of gestation and the
ages of life, and the hours of the day. There is also a brief account of the indications of
the Head and Tail of the Dragon (the lunar nodes). As the second chapter deals with
what BYY identify as the essential conditions of the planets, the third chapter treats
their accidental conditions, what al-Qab calls what happens to them [the planets] in
themselves and in one when it is with another.53
50
51
52
53
28
The third chapter54 provides information about planetary conditions which
results from their positions with respect to the sky and to the other planets. The first
two sections are relatively brief and treat the planets when they are in themselves.
This means that they are considered independently of other planets, in terms of their
motion, position, speed, light, etc. For example, al-Qab writes, When one of the two
inferior planets is moving faster than the velocity of the Sun, it is increasing in
velocity.55 Or, regarding its celestial position, Among them (the conditions) is that if
the planet is northern, namely, that when it passes its <ascending> node by less than
ninety degrees, then it is northern and ascending.56 These definitions are then
followed by much more elaborate descriptions of planetary conditions.
Many of these planetary conditions are based on aspect relationships, but they
are much more complex. As with the simple cases above, al-Qab generally describes
an astrological circumstance and then provides its technical term. A simple case
concerns planetary conditions with respect to the Sun: Each planet, from when it is
hidden by the Suns rays until it appears from its rays, is called burnt, and the
moment when it begins to enter the Suns rays is called beginning of burning. When
it vanishes in the rays and moves in them, it is called submerged. When it coincides
with the degree of the Sun and <the distance> between it and the Sun is sixteen
minutes and less and its latitude is similarly, it is called in the heart. When it passes
54
BYY has noted that much of the chapter follows the Abbreviation of Ab Mashar, although
he is not cited. BYY, Introduction, 91, n. 1.
55
56
29
being in the heart and it wants at this point to be seen, it is called liberated.57 After
this introductory passage, al-Qab gives several additional conditions for individual
planetary relationships to the Sun, using opposition and conjunction as points of
reference. For example, al-Qab writes, The superior <planets>, after they appear
from under the rays and begin <going> in front of the Sun in the mornings (this is
when they are nearer to the eastern horizon) until they are in opposition, are called
eastern and right. After they pass opposition until they are conjunct with it (the Sun)
they are called western and left.58 Al-Qab names several different kinds of
planetary conditions, with several factors involved for each case, all with different
technical names. These conditions are: application, prohibition, reception, returning,
refrenation, resistance, evasion, and cutting the light. Several other conditions related
to a planets position determine its power, or whether it is in a fortunate or harmful
position. These are: besieging, harm and corruption, weakness, friendship and hostility.
These conditions are generally dependent on aspect relationships between the
planets and on the shares of the planets. For example, for harm and corruption, al-
Qab writes, Pertaining to the harm and corruption of the planets is that they are in
conjunction with the malefics or in opposition to them or in quartile or trine or sextile
aspect with them, or between them and the body of the malefic or its rays there is less
than the term of <that malefic> planet, or they are in the terms of the malefics or in
their houses59 Additional specifications are given for other conditions.
57
58
BYY, Introduction, 3:[8], 94-95.
59
30
Taken together, the first three chapters provide a basic set of principles and
terms for the interpretation of horoscopes. Although al-Qab does not specify this
fact, these conditions would be used in determining the diverse combinations of
influences to which the native may be subjected in the interpretation of a horoscope.
There are several additional factors the astrologer may take into consideration for both
the casting of a horoscope and for other domains of astrological inquiry, including
interrogations, elections, and astrological history. These are discussed at length in the
fourth chapter.
In the fourth chapter al-Qab provides explanations of several different
astrological terms and topics. Some of the topics are more specific to particular
branches of astrology, and the ordering of the topics is not entirely subject-related. The
first section, for example, deals with conjunctions relevant to both general and
historical astrology. Al-Qab lists six major conjunctions, ranging from the great
conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn every 960 years, to the conjunction and opposition of
the Sun and Moon every half lunar month. Later on in the chapter he deals with two
other issues relevant to historical astrology: the intih or terminal point, which gives
the sign for the Year of the world, and the topic of transit (al-marra). Explanations of
terms related to nativities are also distributed throughout the chapter, although they are
mostly concentrated at the beginning. He explains the namdr, haylj, kadkhudhh,
the planetary governor (al-mubtazz), and the intih for the year of the nativity. Later in
the chapter, al-Qab addresses the prorogator (tasyr) and the jrbukhtr. Towards the
end of the chapter, he discusses the lord of the period of nativities and the governance
of the fardrya. The final subject dealt with, the bust, is relevant to elections. He
31
frequently draws on other sources, citing Ptolemy, Vettius Valens, and al-Kind
explicitly. As these topics frequently involve calculations, al-Qab employs the
imperative throughout in order to give directions for making these calculations.
Rather than summarize the definitions of all of the terms, which in many cases
would not do justice to their complexity, here I describe al-Qabs treatment of the
haylj and the kadkhudhh. These terms are both involved in the calculation of the
length of life, although for the latter, al-Qab specifies that it is the indicator of the
length of life.60 The two terms refer to planets (or sometimes points), whose positions
with respect to malefic planets or destructive segments of the zodiac determine the
length of ones life. In the case of the haylj, al-Qab provides several means for
determining which planet (or point) is suitable (alaa) for the haylj. The process
amounts to a process of elimination, beginning with the Sun for a daytime birth and the
Moon for a nighttime birth. Following the Sun and Moon, the sequence moves to the
degree of conjunction for a conjunctional birth, or opposition for an oppositional birth,
and then the Lot of Fortune, and the degree of the ascendant. Sometimes one of these
planets or points is deemed unsuitable due to some additional circumstance. For
example, al-Qab states that, Each of the positions which we have explained is
suitable for the haylj when one of the rulers of the five shares aspects it. When one of
the rulers of the five shares, i.e. the lord of the place, the lord of the exaltation, the lord
of the term, the lord of the triplicity, of the lord of the decan, does not aspect it, it is not
suitable for the haylj.61 A similar set of instructions is given for the calculation of the
60
BYY, Introduction, 4:[5], 115: wa huwa dall kammyah al-umr.
61
32
kadkhudhh. Having calculated the haylj, one would look at the lord of the place, the
exaltation, the triplicity, the term, and the decan of the haylj and determine which of
the lords has the most power.62 Whichever lord has the most power, and also aspects
the haylj, is the first choice for the kadkhudhh. In this case, al-Qab provides a few
additional options attributed to other authors for calculating the kadkhudhh, and cites
Dorotheus.
The fifth chapter is on the calculation of lots (al-sihm). Lots provide an
additional interpretative framework relevant to specific topics. They are mostly
secondary to the primary means of interpretations of a horoscope, except for the Lot of
Fortune. The calculation of the lot involves three different points, the first two of which
are most often planets, and the third of which is usually the ascendant. The distance
between the first two points is projected (laq) from the third point, which gives the
lot. The position of the lot, when considered with respect to the rest of the major
elements of the chart, gives insight specific to that particular lot. There are many
different kinds of lots listed in the Introduction. They are listed according to the twelve
places,63 with several other lots following which are not associated with a particular
place: the lots of knowledge, war and fighting, and peace are in this list.64 There is a
separate section on lots cast for revolutions of the years of the world and the rulership
of kings.65 The chapter ends with a lengthy list of lots associated with foodstuffs and
62
The method for calculating the powers of the lords in each share is in BYY, Introduction,
1:[77], 61.
63
64
65
33
medicine (e.g. lentils, dates, chickpeas, and poison), which are cast in order to
determine fluctuations in prices for these commodities.66
The chapter ends with a statement that concludes the work: We have
introduced these lots last, even though the statement about them is defective, so that we
should not omit to introduce anything which can be <part of> an introduction to the
craft of astrology. In God is our trust.67 The claim that the statement about the lots is
defective (af) may mean that the list is incomplete, or it could be a reference to the
fact that Ptolemy only discusses the Lot of Fortune in the Tetrabiblos. The structure of
the Introduction is quite different from the Tetrabiblos, although there is of course
quite a bit of overlap in terms of the content. A comparison of the structure of the
Introduction with the Tetrabiblos and the Abbreviation of the Introduction to Astrology
of Ab Mashar gives a sense of al-Qabs achievement.
Comparison of the Introduction with the Abbreviation and Tetrabiblos
The structure and presentation of content of al-Qabs Introduction to
Astrology are somewhat distinct from the Introductions most notable predecessors,
Ptolemys Tetrabiblos and Ab Mashars Abbreviation. Al-Qab incorporated
content from other authors, but his citations exhibit two different styles. In one of these
styles, al-Qab compiled accepted astrological doctrine that was unattributed to
specific individuals with additional ideas found in other authors. This style of citation
is usually confined to specific sections rather than scattered throughout the text. For
66
67
34
example, citations to al-Andarzagar appear exclusively in the descriptions of places in
the first chapter, and citations to Dorotheus and Mshallh are found almost entirely
in the descriptions of the natures of the seven planets in the second chapter. It is
therefore noteworthy that al-Qab does not once cite Ab Mashar, despite the fact
that several sections are copied exactly from the Abbreviation. The instances of
copying are noted by BYY.68 The other style of citation occurs where al-Qab is
comparing different astrological authorities or drawing on the authority of Ptolemy. He
cites Ptolemy as an authority once in his discussion of the planetary condition called
al-muwjaha (facing), and in the discussion of the namdr he compares Ptolemy and
Vettius Valens before settling on Ptolemys account. Al-Qab was attentive to how
astrological content was compiled and sought to present the material in a logical and
coherent order. Despite his familiarity with the Abbreviation (or perhaps because of
it),69 al-Qab significantly rearranged the order of presentation of astrological doctrine
in his Introduction, and it varies considerably from both the Tetrabiblos and the
Abbreviation.
Initially, the most notable difference from the Tetrabiblos is Ptolemys
definition of the difference between astronomy and astrology, and his philosophical
discussions of the legitimacy of astrology and its benefits, which serve as introductory
68
BYY, Introduction, 7-8.
69
In The Testing of the Astrologers, al-Qab refers explicitly to those who superficially read
through the Abbreviation in characterizing a group of astrologers who were less-versed in
astronomical knowledge. This suggets that he did not consider the Abbreviation to be an
adequate account. Regourd, LEptre, 34.
35
material in the first book.70 These topics are missing from al-Qabs Introduction. The
first book of the Tetrabiblos continues with a list of the powers of the planets,
explanations of maleficent and beneficent planets, masculine and feminine planets, and
nocturnal and diurnal planets. This is followed by the powers of the fixed stars, a topic
which is not treated in the introductions of al-Qab or Ab Mashar. Ptolemy then
treats the signs and their natures, the houses and their lords, and then the shares. The
first book concludes with a brief explanation of the planetary conditions of application
and separation. The second book explains the natures of the inhabitants according to
the climes in which they live, and then correspondences between regions, their
inhabitants, and the planets and signs. Ptolemy then gives an explanation of how
predictions are made in general for regions, and in this section he provides more details
about the influences of particular planets. In the latter half of the book he discusses
weather forecasting. The third book deals exclusively with horoscopes, and he explains
how one makes predictions for individuals. Ptolemy treats several factors, including
parents, siblings, and the length of life according to the prorogator (the Arabic haylj).
Planetary indications are given again for individuals, in a general sense, and then
according to several topics, including bodily form and mental character. The fourth and
last book deals with the Lot of Fortune and the indications for places, such as marriage,
children, journeys, etc.
The Abbreviation is arranged quite differently. Ab Mashar lists seven
chapters: The first chapter, on the natures of the signs, their conditions and their
70
Cladius Ptolemy, Tetrabiblos, ed. Frank Robbins (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
2009).
36
indications. The second chapter, on the conditions of the planets in themselves, the size
of their bodies, and their conditions from the Sun. The third chapter, on the twenty-five
conditions of the planets. The fourth chapter, on the good fortune of the planets, their
power, their weakness and their misfortune, the corruption of the Moon, and the
knowledge of their dodecatemoria. The fifth chapter, on the natures of the seven
planets, the characteristic of their indications over existent things, and the Lords of the
days and the hours. The sixth chapter, on a summary of the description of the lots. The
seventh chapter, on the knowledge of the years of the fardarat of the planets, the
different arrangements of their years, and the terms of the Egyptians.71 As is evident
from this list, it is as though in ordering his Introduction al-Qab reshuffled the deck
of astrological cards which Ab Mashar had arranged. The first chapters of both
works contain the same type of information. In his description of the indications of the
signs, for example, Ab Mashar has Taurus is the house of Venus, and the exaltation
of the Moon is in its third degree. It has three decans: the first belongs to Mercury, the
second to the Moon, the third to Saturn. Its nature is cold and dry, earthy, black bile, its
taste is acid, and it is feminine, nocturnal, fixed72 Al-Qab separates his discussion
of the properties of the signs by topics, and also separates his description of the shares
from his discussion of the signs.
The second and third chapters of the Abbreviation deal with the conditions of
the planets, and there is significant overlap with al-Qabs third chapter. Ab Mashar
separates his discussion of the conditions of the planets in themselves and of their
71
Ab Mashar, Abbreviation, 1:[1], 13.
72
Ab Mashar, Abbreviation, 1:[15]-[17], 15.
37
relationship to the Sun (chapter 2) from his explanation of planetary relationships, of
which he lists twenty five before defining them in more detail (chapter 3).73 The
natures and indications of the planets are addressed in the subsequent chapter, chapter
4. Al-Qab, on the other hand, first explains the natures and indications of the planets
(in his chapter 2), and then goes on to discuss their conditions in themselves and with
respect to the other planets (chapter 3). As we have seen from the overview, al-Qab
gives quite a bit of detail in his descriptions of the natures of the planets, and cites
Dorotheus, Mshallh, and the Indian tradition. He also lists information about the
mixing of the planets, related to indications resulting from planetary conditions, and
specifies indications for when planets are fortunate or harmful. Ab Mashar gives a
much shorter description. To give a sense of the level of detail from both authors, I
quote both passages in full for Saturn:
Abbreviation:
Saturn is a malefic and its nature is cold and dry, black bile, dark; it is ill-
smelling, much eating of food and trustworthy of friendship. It indicates
activities involving moisture, waters, rivers, agriculture, ploughing and manual
labor; much wealth, misers, poor men, long journeys; hatred, cunning, artifice,
perfidy, little companionship with men, every activity of evil, defeating,
imprisonment, the stocks, shackles; trustworthiness in speech, old age,
slowness, deliberateness, intelligence, experimenting, profundity of thought,
obstinancy; fear, griefs, sadnesses, difficulty, misfortune, the dead,
inheritances; grandfathers, fathers, older brothers, eunuchs, slaves and the
rabble.74
Introduction:
73
Both authors provide lists in the exact same order. Ab Mashar, however, gives a few more
conditions than al-Qab: advance, retreat, collection, and pushing management. Ab Mashar,
Abbreviation, 3:[2], 41.
74
Ab Mashar, Abbreviation, 5:[4]-[7], 61.
38
Saturn is a malefic, masculine, diurnal. It indicates fathers when the native is
born at night. It indicates extreme old age when it is western; and the beginning
of old age when it is eastern. It indicates an excess of coldness and dryness.
Of the complexion of bodies it indicates melancholyi.e. An increase in it and
its disturbances; sometimes it (the complexion) is cold and moist, heavy and
evil-smelling. It (Saturn) is much eating, trustworthy in friendship. It indicates
profundity of thought and much silence.
Of professions it has noble activities involving water, like cultivation and
management of lands and rivers when it is fortunate; but vile activities when it
is harmed, like massage in the baths, the occupations of fulling, navigation, and
serving drinks. When it is fortunate, it indicates trustworthiness in friendship
and taking time over things; when it is harmed, obstinacy, hatred, griefs,
sadnesses, evil opinion, excess of anxiety, the spreading amongst men of
malicious gossip and provocations. When it is fortunate, it indicates posessing
durable and lasting things, like real estate and arable land; when it is harmed,
<things> like vile property, and things which are old and always changing.
Of illnesses it signifies diseases <arising> from viscous phlegm and solid black
bile, such as leprosy and gout. It indicates long journeys, imprisonment, the
stocks, difficulty, misfortune, legacies, fathers, grandfathers, older brothers,
eunuchs, slaves and the rabble.
Of jobs it indicates leather-working. If it is on its own in its indication, without
being mixed with any of the planets, then it indicates leather-working for
shoemaking.
If Jupiter mixes with it, then it indicates leather-working of the skins on which
holy books and the matter of precepts and religious laws are written. If Mars
mixes with it, it indicates the cutting out of sandals and their tanning. If the Sun
mixes with it, it indicates the art of a cobbler. If Venus mixes with it, it
indicates leather-working for drums and tambourines and all leather which is
used for musical instruments. If Mercury mixes with it, it indicates working
leather on which legal documents and accounts are written. If the Moon mixes
with it, it indicates the tanning of leather of predators and what is similar to
them.
Of religions it indicates monotheism, if it is fortunate; if it is harmed, it
indicates monotheism with many doubts.
Mshallh said that it indicates Judaism and black clothes.
Certain others said that Saturn indicates the inner ear, the spleen and the
buttock.
Of colours it has black; of days, Saturday; of nights, Wednesday night. The size
of its body is 9 degrees; the yeares of its fardariya are 11, its greatest years are
465 years; its great yeares are 57 years; its middle years are 43 1/2 yearse, and
39
its smallest years are 30.75 Its power in the regions of directions of the zodiacal
circle is from the right of the north.
Mshallh said: of the appearance of people, it indicates a brown-skinned
person; when he walks he lowers his eyes; he walks heavily, keeping his legs
together; fragile, thin, with small eyes, dry skin, veined, having a sparse beard,
thick lips, possessing cunning, and deceitful.
Of regions it has Sind, Hind, and all the cities of Ethiopia and their mountains.
Dorotheus said: a lot of hair on his body, eyebrows joined.
Its lot is the lot of power and firmness. It indicates earthly causes, estates,
supervision of activities, intelligence, boldness, toil, arrogance, and the causes
of death.76
Al-Qab includes quite a bit more information, and also organizes the
information according to regions, illnesses and parts of the body, professions,
appearance of individuals, etc. In terms of painting a thorough picture of the
indications of Saturn, al-Qabs text is preferable to the Abbreviation. The level of
detail in the two passages quoted above serves as an indication of why readers (in both
Arabic and Latin contexts) may have preferred al-Qabs Introduction to Ab
Mashars Abbreviation.
In the case of the Tetrabiblos, Ptolemys descriptions of the indications of
Saturn are distributed throughout the text, and he addresses them as he addresses each
topic. For example, since he treats planetary indications of regions and individuals in
two different sections, a separate list is given to Saturn for each. Saturns indications
for regions are described as follows: Saturn, when he gains sole dominance, is in
general the cause of destruction by cold, and in particular, when the event concerns
75
Ab Mashar gives information about the years in chapter 7 of the Abbreviation, grouped
according to the types of years with the years for each planets following list format.
76
40
men, causes long illnesses, consumption, withering, disturbances caused by fluids,
rheumatisms, and quartan fevers, exile, poverty, imprisonment, mourning, fears, and
deaths, especially among those of advanced age. He is usually significant with regard
to those dumb animals that are of use to man, and brings about scarcity of them, and
the bodily destruction by disease of such as exist, so that the men who use them are
similarly affected and perish77 This passages lists several additional indications for
the malefic effects of Saturn, and also mentions that Saturns indications are tempered
by its relationship to the signs and to other planets. Even within the discussion of
individuals, Ptolemy provides descriptions of Saturn according to specific topics. For
bodily form and temperament, Saturn, if he is in the orient, makes his subjects in
appearance dark-skinned, robust, black-haired, curly-haired, hairy-chested, with eyes
of moderate size, of middling nature, and in temperament having an excess in moist
and cold. If Saturn is setting, in appearance he makes them small, straight-haired, with
little hair on the body, rather graceful, and black-eyed; in temperament, sharing most in
cold and dry.78 Taken together, all of the instances in which Ptolemy describes
Saturns qualities probably outnumbers the Introduction in sheer amount of text, but
descriptions of these qualities are scattered throughout the text. The Introduction, then,
compiles all of this information into a single succinct passage.
Another notable difference in the Introduction is al-Qabs fourth chapter on
the explanation of technical terms. There is no equivalent in either the Tetrabiblos or
the Abbreviation. A few technical topics are mentioned, but not always described in an
77
Ptolemy, Tetrabiblos, III.9,
78
Ptolemy, Tetrabiblos, III.9, 309.
41
introductory way as al-Qab has done. For the haylj, for example, Ab Mashar only
mentions it in a discussion of the calculation of it as a lot. He does not mention the
kadkhudhh at all. In the Tetrabiblos, Ptolemy does not devote a separate section to
technical terms, but rather deals with them as they arise. He gives a much more
detailed account of the haylj than al-Qab, with examples.79 From this perspective,
al-Qab is quite obviously providing an introduction to a term which is treated much
more extensively in the Tetrabiblos. There are several lots listed by both al-Qab and
Ab Mashar, and there is some overlap between the two. The Tetrabiblos, however,
only mentions the Lot of Fortune.
Shown in comparison, it is apparent that while the three texts share much of the
same content, their structures differ remarkably. Al-Qab recognized a need for an
introductory text that organized astrological content in a convenient format suited to
both beginners and practicing astrologers. The order of the material moves from the
simple to the complex in each of the first three chapters, where he treats the signs,
planets, and planetary conditions, respectively. Information about individual signs and
planets are confined to single sections rather than scattered throughout the text, as was
the case in both the Abbreviation and the Tetrabiblos. This manner of organizing the
text made finding information more straightforward, priming the text for use as a
reference manual by later readers. The inclusion of a single chapter devoted to
technical terms also suited this sort of reading practice. Al-Qabs innovation was to
restructure the presentation of astrological knowledge into a coherent order that was
accessible to individuals from a range of intellectual backgrounds, individuals whose
79
Ptolemy, Tetrabiblos, III.10, 270-307.
42
diverse interests characterized the culturally rich milieu of Sayf al-Dawlas court. To
fully appreciate this innovation, we now turn to the court culture in which the
Introduction was composed.
Astrology in Tenth-Century Intellectual Court Culture
The presence of astrologers in medieval Islamic courts has been well-
established.80 Astrologers were consulted for questions about the length of life or
length of rule for rulers, as we have seen in the text of the Introduction. Some courts
had astrologers who served in an official capacity and received remuneration for their
services. The famous astrologer Nawbakht who worked on the foundation horoscope of
Baghdad, for example, was the caliph al-Manrs court astrologer. Ab Mashar
served officially under the auspices of the caliph al-Mutazz.81 Court astrologers, on
the basis of their calculations from interrogations and elections, determined the most
auspicious times for entering into battle82 or gave advice on other important political
matters.83 It is likely that al-Qab served in some official capacity, as is evidenced by
his work The Testing of the Astrologers. The Testing belongs to a genre of texts known
as mina literature, which was used to determine the competence of practitioners in
80
George Saliba gives several examples of astrologers in court settings throughout the
medieval period in Saliba, The Role of the Astrologer.
81
Saliba, Role of the Astrologer, 63.
82
There is some clear evidence associated with the engagement of armies and battles in later
centuries, but as early as the ninth century the caliph al-Mamn reportedly considered the
opinion of his astrologer al-Fal ibn Sahl on whether or not he should surrender to his brother
al-Amn. See Saliba, Role of the Astrologer, 58.
83
For example, holding meetings, naming heirs, or gift giving. See Saliba, Role of the
Astrologer, 58-59.
43
different fields, especially medicine.84 Al-Qabs contribution to this genre may be
unique for astrology, as very few texts have been recovered.85 However, the fact that
the text exists at all indicates that he may have served in a formal or official position at
Sayf al-Dawlas court.86
Al-Qabs dedications to Sayf al-Dawla indicate several important features
about astrology at court. In his dedication to The Testing of Astrologers, al-Qab
quotes a proverb attributed to Galen, and makes another reference to Khall ibn
Amed. The latter may have been somewhat playful or in jestat the very least it
indicates al-Qabs clever courtly rhetoric. Khall ibn Amed is known to have
criticized astrology in one of his poems, where he wrote, Tell the astrologer on my
behalf that I / am an unbeliever in the judgment of the stars / a believer in that all that
was and will be / is the necessary decree of the all powerful.87 In The Testing, al-
Qab recounts that Khall ibn Amed said that people are of four types: those who
know and know that they know, those who know, but do not know that they know,
those who do not know and know that they do not know, and those who do not know,
and who do not know that they do not know.88 As we will see later, al-Qab divides
astrologers into four types as well, mirroring these divisions. Al-Qab also references
84
Saliba, Role of the Astrologer, 49.
85
Saliba reports the mentioning of a similar text by al-Birn, authored by Urid ibn
Moammed, in A. Saidn, Kitb tas al-uwar wa tab wa kuwar li-Ab al-Rayn al-
Birn, Dirst (1977) 4: 7-22, esp. 11.
86
Regourd argues that al-Qabs use of the familiar Sayyidun al-Amr indicates a close
relationship between the two men. See Regourd, LEptre, 31.
87
The original source for this quote is a report from al-Khab al-Baghdd (d. 1072) in MS
Asir Effendi 190, fol. 16r. It is cited in Saliba, The Role of the Astrologers, 46, n. 5.
88
Regourd, LEptre, 35, [23]-[25].
44
the poet Dh al-Rumma (d. 735 CE), who wrote many poems with astronomical
references.89 In another dedication to Sayf al-Dawla on a less controversial subject,
arithmetic, al-Qab praised Sayf al-Dawla for his abilities in finger-reckoning. These
dedications and poetic references illustrate that astrology was part of a sophisticated
court culture that valued mathematics, ancient learning, literature and poetry.90 Al-
Qab used dedications as a means for demonstrating his erudition and poetic
inclinations.
Al-Qabs other works raise several questions about the practice of astrology
in tenth-century court contexts, especially The Testing of Astrologers. As mentioned
above, in his preface to The Testing al-Qab delineates four different types of
astrologers, in order of their mastery of the subject.91 He begins with the complete
astrologer (munajjim al-tm), who has read the Almagest and has given rational
demonstrations (burhn) for the movements of the planets and their relations to the sky
and to each other. The complete astrologer is capable of making his own observations
and composing tables from them. The next level of competence is the astrologer who
knows much about planetary theory, and can answer basic astronomical questionsthe
example given by al-Qab is of the definition of the inclination of the ecliptic. This
astrologer has a good understanding of these definitions, but he cannot provide rational
89
See W. Ben Adams, The Hands of the Pleiades: the Celestial Clock in the Classical Arabic
Poetry of Dh al-Rumma, in The Inspiration of Astronomical Phenomena VI, Proceedings of
a conference held October 18-23, 2009 in Venezia, Italy, Enrico Maria Corsini, ed., ASP
Conference Series, Vol. 441 (2011): 311-316.
90
Al-Qab himself was known to have written poetry. Yqt refers to him as a poet and Ibn
Khallikn quotes a poem on the rainbow which has been attributed to both al-Qab and Sayf
al-Dawla. BYY, Introduction, 3.
91
Regourd, LEptre, 36-37, [7]-[22].
45
demonstrations as the complete astrologer does. The third level of competence is
indicative of the majority of astrologers practicing the art, according to al-Qab.
These astrologers are able to use a table and have learned everything from imitation or
tradition (taqld) rather than understanding. The last category of astrologers are those
who know absolutely nothing of the art, but make instruments such as astrolabes and
quadrants, and determine the direction of Mecca. Al-Qab then states that the thirty
questions which comprise his treatise will aid Sayf al-Dawla in determining to which
of these groups the individual who is tested belongs. Al-Qabs delineation of these
categories shows that there was likely competition for Sayf al-Dawlas patronage, and
that competence in astrology and especially astronomical skills, were highly valued in
court settings.
The complex astronomical questions in The Testing are additional proof that
some astrologers were highly skilled astronomers. Al-Qabs list of works illustrates
his interest in theoretical astronomy. In addition to the Introduction to Astrology and
The Testing, al-Qab wrote a defense of astrology, a book on nativities, a treatise on
arithmetic, a treatise on the distances and sizes of the planets, a commentary on al-
Farghns Thirty Chapters, a treatise on terrestrial distances, a set of astronomical
tables, and a Doubts on the Almagest.92 Several of these texts represent well-known
genres in early Islamic astronomy, each devoted to various strands of astronomical
theory and practice: the treatise on the distances and sizes of the planets, the set of
astronomical tables, the commentary on the Thirty Chapters, and the Doubts on the
92
The last text, Doubts on the Almagest (Shukk f Almagesti) is referenced in The Testing but
is no longer extant.
46
Almagest. These texts are rooted in the Greek tradition of the Almagest, but exhibit the
criticism, corrections, and additions characteristic of the early Islamic period. For
example, al-Qabs work on astronomical tables is the Kitb ilal al-zigt, or Book on
the Failings of Astronomical Tables. The termilal, which has been translated as both
failings and reasons by contemporary authors, can also mean deficiencies,
excuses, or efficient causes.93 Unfortunately al-Qabs text is no longer extant,
but theilal genre was likely devoted to producing updated versions of astronomical
tables. However, as Sabra notes,
...it is remarkable that the zj literature has yet to reveal a theory of testing
setting forth explicit goals of observation beyond revising parameters for the
purpose of obtaining more precise parameters on the basis of the commonly
accepted Ptolemaic theory; and this has reinforced the impression suggested by
a number of published zjes, namely that they are practical handbooks for the
practicing astronomer and astrologer, rather than being repositories of results
obtained in the process of confronting new hypotheses or models with new
observations for the purpose of confirming or refuting them. Such theoretical
ventures, when they happened, tended to appear in other genres of astronomical
writings.94
While al-Qab was certainly aware of the problems with the Ptolemaic system, his
work on astronomical tables was probably, as Sabra suggested, something more akin to
a practical handbook.
One of the theoretical ventures to which Sabra refers is the genre of Doubts
(shukk) literature, to which al-Qab also contributed. The most well-known text of
93
These terms are suggested by Kennedy and Haddad in their edition of a late ninth-century
work in this genre: Al ibn Sulayman al-Hshim, The Book for the Reasons Behind
Astronomical Tables: Kitb f lal al-zjt, Haddad and Kennedy, trans., Pingree and Kennedy,
comm. (Delmar, New York: Scholars Facsimiles & Reprints, 1981).
94
A.I. Sabra, Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem-Solving, and Kinematic Modeling
as Themes of Arabic Astronomy, Perspectives on Science, vol. 6, no. 3 (1998): 291.
47
this genre was authored by the eleventh-century polymath Ibn al-Haytham, whose
works are often hailed as signalling the rise of the astronomical discipline ilm al-
haya.95 The haya tradition was centered on a desire to construct models of planetary
motion that were endowed with physical reality, rather than merely mathematical
models (such as those found in the Almagest). George Saliba has argued that the haya
tradition gained momentum in the ninth century as a response to critiques of the Greek
astronomical tradition, in which astrology played a prominent role.96 In making this
argument, he relies on a lengthy section of Ab Mashars Kitab al-mudkhl al-kabr,
where Ab Mashar responded to ten different types of arguments posed by various
groups against astrology. The fourth, fifth, and sixth groups appear to represent
criticisms from practicing astronomers. Saliba argues that the fourth and fifth types of
criticism come from the group which came to constitute practitioners of ilm al-
haya.97 They were people who had studied ilm al-kull, the term Ab Mashar uses for
the study of celestial bodies regarding their motion and mathematical properties.98 The
fourth group denied that the planets influenced the sublunary world, and the fifth
95
The first text on haya was the ninth-century Kitb al-haya of Qus ibn Lq. For a
thorough consideration of the origins and elements of haya, see A.I. Sabra, Configuring the
Universe: Aporetic, Problem-Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic
Astronomy, Perspectives on Science, vol. 6, no. 3 (1998): 288-326. Saliba makes a firm
distinction between a Doubts tradition (the aporetic) and the haya tradition, and argues that
the relationship between the two was complex. George Saliba, Arabic Versus Greek
Astronomy: a Debate over the Foundations of Science, Perspectives on Science, vol. 8, no. 4
(2000): 328-341.
96
George Saliba, Islamic Astronomy in Context: Attacks on Astrology and the Rise of the
Haya Tradition, Bulletin of the Royal Institute of Inter-faith Studies, Vol. 4 (2002).
97
Saliba, Islamic Astronomy in Context, 32-33.
98
Following Ptolemy, Ab Mashar divides the science of the stars, ilm al-nujm, into two
categories. The first is ilm al-kull, the second is ilm al-akm, or the science of judgments
(astrology).
48
denied that one could infer astrological influences from inductive experience. The sixth
group may have constituted those for whom texts within the ilal genre were written, as
they criticized the lack of consistency in astronomical tables.
From Ab Mashars descriptions it appears that there were astronomers who
were critical of astrology from as early as the ninth century. That being said, in the
tenth century al-Qab composed both an introductory text on astrology and one of the
classic genres of works associated with the haya tradition, Doubts on the Almagest.99
The fact that al-Qab composed works of significant astronomical competence, as
well as his several astrological works, illustrates that astronomy and astrology
remained intricately linked in the tenth century despite ongoing critiques and the
splintering off of the haya tradition. Al-Qabs astronomical works indicate that he
contented himself with solving astronomical problems squarely within Ptolemys
mathematical system rather than postulating about physical models (as would have
been characteristic of haya). This is especially evident from his Treatise on the
Distances and Sizes of the Celestial Bodies.100 In this treatise, his calculations are
purely mathematical and include references to the centers of epicycles being located in
physically impossible places.101 In terms of the relationship between astronomy and
99
While Saliba makes a firm distinction between the Doubts genre and the haya tradition,
Sabra argues that the Doubts genre was a crucial factor in the development of haya. See
Sabra, Configuring the Universe, 295.
100
Jan Hogendijk, Al-Qabs Treatise on the Distances and Sizes of the Celestial Bodies,
Zeitschrift fr Geschichte der arabisch-islamischen Wissenschaften 20-21 (2012-2014): 169-
233.
101
Hogendijk points this out when he recounts Maimonides criticisms of this fact: Referring
to al-Qab, Maimonides observes that the centers of the eccenters of Mars and Jupiter are
between the (outer) sphere of Mercury and the (outer) sphere of Venus, and for Saturn,
between the (outer) sphere of Mars and the (outer) sphere of Jupiter. He considers the locations
49
astrology, then, it appears that despite al-Qabs awareness of the deficiencies of the
Greek tradition, he was committed to criticizing and reformulating the tradition rather
than rejecting it.
Al-Qab was also aware of the criticisms leveled against astrology, as is
evident from the reference in the preface to the Introduction to one of his works
providing a response to the criticisms of Al ibn s.102 In the wake of the Kitab al-
mudkhl al-kabr, tenth-century astrologers had access to a philosophically robust
defense of astrology, and it is a shame that al-Qabs reply to Al ibn s is no
longer extant. He was also very likely aware of the criticisms of the famed philosopher
al-Frb, who was present at Sayfs court. Al-Frbs criticism of astrology, however,
was quite nuanced and responsive to Ab Mashars sophisticated defense.103
Generally speaking, al-Frb accepted the idea of celestial influence insofar as it
applied to the generation and corruption of the sublunar realm, but denied that
astrological prognostication was possible.104 Following Ab Mashar, al-Frb made
the traditional Greek distinction between astronomy (which he terms ilm al-nujm al-
talm) and astrology (ilm akm al-nujm). Although Damien Janos has argued that
al-Frb made a significant conceptual and epistemological distinction between the
of these centers as philosophically absurd and concludes that the heavens are beyond human
understanding. See Hogendijk, Al-Qabs Treatise, 173.
102
This is certainly the ninth-century astrolabe-maker and astronomer Al ibn s al-
Asurlb, who is known to have criticized astrology. See Marvin Bolt, Al ibn s al-
Asurlb, Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers, Thomas Hockey et al., eds. (New
York: Springer, 2007): 34.
103
Damien Janos attributes al-Frbs treatment of astrology to the contradiction of the
continued patronage of astrology in courts. See Damien Janos, Method, Structure, and
Development in Al-Frb's Cosmology (Leiden: Brill, 2012), 47.
104
Janos, Al-Frbs Cosmology, 48-49.
50
two sciences,105 he still considered them two parts of the broader science of the stars.
Al-Frb argued that there are two types of events in the sublunar world: those that
have known causes, and those whose causes are unknown, which he called accidental
events. The influences or indications of the planets are accidental events, and thus
unknowable. Therefore, it is not possible to make predictions based on experiences of
these events.106 As experience is one of the foundations of Ab Mashars
philosophical justification of astrology, al-Frb was quite at odds with him in denying
that experiences of the influences of celestial events are reliable and knowable.
Despite these criticisms at the theoretical level, an examination of the courtly
context of al-Qabs works reveals that astrology in practice was flourishing.
Theoretical and philosophical debates about astrology were distinct from the actual
practice of astrology, and this fact influenced the content of the Introduction. It is
significant, for example, that al-Qab refrained from including a philosophical
defense of astrology in the Introduction, rather than devoting a few pages to these
critiques as Ptolemy does in the Tetrabiblos. While al-Qab composed a text on the
philosophical justification for astrology (his reply to Al ibn Is), he referred the
reader to that text instead of devoting any space to this subject in the Introduction.
Furthermore, his comments in The Testing and the level of detail in the Introduction
suggest that the Abbreviation was not a sufficient introduction to astrological study and
practice. The composition of a synthetic work such as the Introduction, as well as a text
105
Damien Janos, "Al-Frb on the Method of Astronomy," Early Science and Medicine 15,
no. 3 (2010): 240.
106
Janos, Al-Frbs Cosmology, 49.
51
which tested professional competence (The Testing), reveals an established need for
legitimate astrological practice grounded in sophisticated astronomical theory.
Conclusion
There are several indications that the Introduction was well-received in the
Islamic world, although its popularity may have been eclipsed by al-Birns Kitb
tafhm li-awil inaat al-tanjm (Book of Instruction on the Elements of the Art of
Astrology),107 written less than one hundred years later in both Persian and Arabic. In a
comparison of extant manuscripts, there are twenty-five of al-Qabs Introduction,
and approximately twenty-nine Arabic and at least twenty Persian manuscripts of the
Tafhm. Al-Birn cites al-Qab for a discrepancy in his calculations for Mercury in
his treatise on the distances and sizes of the celestial bodies, indicating that al-Qabs
works were influential even shortly after his death. The Introduction was also included
in some prestigious mathematical and astronomical compendiums, one of which had
bound the Introduction with the work of Thbit ibn Qurra.108 The text appealed to a
courtly audience, but its superior organization and selection of content, as compared to
the Tetrabiblos and Abbreviation, secured its readership beyond Sayf al-Dawlas court.
Astrology, too, continued to be practiced across the Islamic world despite criticisms
leveled against it by philosophers, astronomers, poets, and legal and religious scholars.
The popularity of the text in the Islamic world ensured its transmission from the
107
Al-Birn, Kitb tafhm li-awil inaat al-tanjm, ed. and trans. Ramsay Wright (London:
1934).
108
52
eastern realm of the empire across the Maghrib to al-Andalus. Towards the end of the
tenth century, Arabic astrological texts were making their way into Christian Europe.
53
Chapter 2: Translation
Introduction
From the Eastern Mediterranean, al-Qabss Introduction made its way across
the Maghrib into al-Andalus, where it was translated into Latin around 1135 by
Johannes Hispalensis, also known as John of Seville. The translation of the
Introduction to Astrology occurred as part of a much broader wave of translations
which carried important Greek and Arabic scientific and philosophical knowledge into
Europe. Indeed, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries Europe witnessed an
extraordinary intellectual flourishing. According to Charles Haskins, the most
conspicuous element of this intellectual revival was in the domain of science, and he
documents a similar resurgence of Latin language, literature, poetry, jurisprudence,
historical writing, and philosophy.109 While historians of medieval science have
qualified the grandeur of Haskins claim by pointing to considerable intellectual
production during the Carolingian period,110 there is no doubt that the translations into
Latin of a great number of Greek (both directly and via Arabic) and Arabic scientific
and philosophical texts played a crucial role in the transformation of medieval Latin
scholarship. Almost the entire Aristotelian corpus, the extensive commentaries on his
works by Averroes, and works by Euclid, Ptolemy, Hippocrates, Galen, Ibn Sna, Ibn
109
C.H. Haskins, The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century (New York: Meridian, 1927).
110
Science in Western and Eastern Civilization in Carolingian Times, ed. P. Butzer and D.
Lohrmann (Boston: Birkhauser Verlag, 1993); Stephen McCluskey, Astronomies and Cultures
in Early Medieval Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Bruce Eastwood,
The Revival of Planetary Astronomy in Carolingian and post-Carolingian Europe (Ashgate:
Variorum, 2002); Menso Folkerts, Essays on Early Medieval Mathematics, the Latin Tradition
(Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003).
54
al-Haytham, al-Farghn, Thbit ibn Qurra, Ab Mashar, and al-Qabs circulated in
Latin manuscripts by the end of the thirteenth century and they were critically read,
studied, and assimilated into Latin intellectual culture.
By the beginning quarter of the twelfth century, Latin scholars were aware of
the sophistication and depth of Arabic learning and sought out Arabic texts for
translation. A frequently cited example is Adelard of Baths conversation with his
nephew, in which his nephew urges Adelard to discuss some new item from the
studies of the Arabs,111 and later asks him to justify his preference for the opinions of
the Saracens over the Christian schools of Gaul.112 Enthusiasm for Arabic astrology
is especially obvious from the extant manuscripts. David Justes recent survey
indicates that originally Arabic astrological manuscripts made up the majority of
astrological manuscripts in circulation in Europe well into the fifteenth century.113
Eagerness for new knowledge from the Arabic tradition, however, was tempered by
military conflicts with Muslim rulers and theological objections to Islam. The same
individuals translating Arabic astrological texts, for example, Robert of Ketton and
Hermann of Carinthia, also translated the Quran and circulated polemic pamphlets
condemning the Islamic faith. Examining the translation of a single text such as al-
111
Adelard of Bath, Conversations with His Nephew: On the Same and the Different,
Questions on Natural Science, and On Birds, edited and translated by Charles Burnett with the
collaboration of Italo Ronca, Pedro Mantas Espaa and Baudouin van den Abeele (Cambridge,
1998), 83.
112
Adelard of Bath, Conversations, 91
113
David Juste, The Impact of Arabic Sources on European Astrology: Some Facts and
Numbers, Micrologus XXIV (2016): 173-194. See especially Tables 2 and 2a on p. 179,
which indicate the perceived origin (by medieval readers) versus the real origin (as established
by modern authors) of astrological manuscripts.
55
Qabss Introduction to Astrology provides much insight into how the reception of
Arabic learning in Europe was shaped by these sentiments.
In this chapter, I demonstrate how the Arabic text of the Introduction to
Astrology was transformed into its Latin counterpart through a comparison of the Latin
translation with the Arabic original. To do so, I analyze the transliteration of Arabic
terms, interpretative material added by the translator (or an anonymous scribe) early in
the texts Latin history, and the inclusion or deletion of Islamic and Christian
references within the text.114 Before presenting this evidence, I provide an overview of
the Arabic-Latin translations that occurred from the tenth to the thirteenth centuries. I
then turn to the specific context of twelfth-century Spain, and particularly the major
developments in astrological and astronomical knowledge that occurred as a result of
the translations. After that, I discuss the specific context of Johannes Hispalensis, his
possible motivations for the translations, and what his translation style reveals about
his attitude towards Arabic learning. I then turn to an analysis of the translation itself,
showing how transliteration, interpretations, and religious references formed and
colored the Latin text with its obvious Arabic heritage. Lastly, I discuss how vernacular
translations of this text retained rather than disguised this heritage.
114
For the comparison of the Arabic and Latin texts, I have used the text established by the
critical edition (BYY). I am aware that the modern critical versions of the text do not represent
the textual realities that the translator himself experienced, and that my analysis thus carries
with it certain assumptions about and restrictions related to these textual realities. Approaching
these texts as a historian rather than a philologist, I accept the necessary approximations and
uncertainties imposed by historical research on medieval texts.
56
Arabic-Latin Translations
Beginning with a handful of mathematical and astronomical Latin texts that
showed Arabic influence in tenth-century Catalonia, modern scholars have traced the
outlines of the translation movement from Spain to the Eastern shores of the
Mediterranean, with translations occurring from the eleventh to the fourteenth
centuries.115 Several socio-political factors contributed to cultural confrontations, both
directly and indirectly. The emigration of Mozarabs from Islamic Toledo to Northern
Spain as a result of religious differences in the ninth century led to the shift of Arabic
scientific expertise northward. The reconquest of Toledo (1085), the Norman conquest
of Sicily (1072-91), and the fall of Antioch (1098), as well as trade routes across the
Mediterranean, provided ample opportunities for Latins to interact with both Greek and
Arabic-speaking populations. Once knowledge of the rich Arabic philosophical and
scientific tradition and the availability of Greek texts in Arabic became more
widespread, Latin scholars sought out Arabic texts. Transmission occurred through
several channels: diplomatic exchanges, such as the arrival of a Greek manuscript of
Ptolemys Almagest in Palermo, brought from Constantinople and translated into Latin
by Henricus Aristippus, ambassador of William I, King of Sicily, just before 1160;116
115
The classic account, which focuses especially on translators, is Charles Haskins, Studies in
the History of Mediaeval Science (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1924); See also M.T.
dAlverny, Translations and Translators, in Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth
Century, ed. Robert Benson et al. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982), 421-462. A
recent overview is provided by Charles Burnett, Translation and Transmission of Greek and
Islamic Science to Latin Christendom, in The Cambridge History of Science, vol. II, ed. M.
Shank and D. Lindberg (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 341-364. I
summarize Burnetts account here.
116
Gerard of Cremona translated the Almagest into Latin from the Arabic around 1175.
Gerards version proved to be the more popular version among medieval readers.
57
attempts at the reunification of the Greek and Latin churches, which resulted in novel
theological writings and scientific translations; and the establishment of Latin
quarters by Pisans and Venetians, and religious orders such as the Dominicans and
Franciscans, in several Mediterranean cities. Movement along well-trod pilgrimage
routes provided additional pathways for transmission, as translations occurred in
Toulouse, Leon, Astorga, and Ponte di Lima, all en route to Santiago de
Campostella.117 The reasons for the translations are complex and context-dependent,
but one initial motivation was to augment the Latin school curriculum with elements
that were missing, particularly mathematics and astronomy. Texts were also translated
to fulfill the interests of individual translators or of patrons with their own translation
schemes. There also may have been an interest in and demand for translations from
members of the educated, lay professional class, including lawyers, notaries, and
treasurers. Generally speaking, astronomical and astrological texts played a prominent
role throughout the translation period.
Arabic knowledge was distinct from the ancient Greek texts because it could be
learned directly from masters, rather than read in texts alone.118 This point is
underscored by the accounts of Adelard of Bath and Stephen the Philosopher, who
refer to their Arabic magistri in the principality of Antioch.119 In Spain, while there is
no direct evidence of Muslim scholars instructing Christians,120 the earliest textual
117
Burnett, Translation and Transformation, 349-351.
118
Burnett, Translation and Transformation, 348.
119
Burnett, Translation and Transformation, 348.
120
Dag Nikolaus Hasse, The Social Conditions of the Arabic-(Hebrew)-Latin Translation
Movements in Medieval Spain and the Renaissance, in Wissen ber Grenzen: Arabisches
58
sources denote the possibility of oral transmission.121 Among these sources, the first
evidence of Arabic influence in Europe appears in astronomical texts related to the
construction and use of the astrolabe from the late tenth or early eleventh century,122
and the oldest Latin astrolabe, dated to the tenth century, contains Arabic star names.123
Gerbert of Aurillac (ca. 955-1003), the Abbot of Fleury who became Pope Sylvester II,
and several of his associates, encountered Arabic mathematical techniques related to
the use of the astrolabe and abacus, as well as Arabic astrological doctrines.124 A
handful of eleventh-century Latin authors composed astronomical texts of Arabic
influence: Ascelin of Augsburg (f. 1011), Fulbert of Chartres (f. 1028), and Hermann
of Reichenau and his circle (f. 1040-1050). The first clear evidence of actual Arabic-
Latin translations dates to the late eleventh century in Southern Italy, when several
medical texts were translated at Salerno, notably Constantine the Africans rendition of
Wissen und lateinisches Mittelalter, ed. A. Speer and L. Wegener (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2006),
6886.
121
Arianna Borrelli argues for transmission through non-textual means, including pictures,
diagrams, and oral transmission. See A. Borrelli, Aspects of the astrolabe: architectonica
ratio in tenth- and eleventh-century Europe, Sudhoffs Archiv 57 (Stuttgart: Steiner Verlag,
2008).
122
These have anomymous authors: De mensura astrolapsus, Sententie astrolabii, De mensura
astrolabii, De utilitatibus astrolabii, the preface to Ad intimas. David Juste lists these as a
corpus primitif, and dates them between the year 980 and the early eleventh century. See D.
Juste, Les Alchandreana primitives: tudes sur les plus anciens traits astrologique latine
dorigine arabe (Leiden: Brill, 1994), 8.
123
W. Stevens, G. Beaujouan, A.J. Turner, eds., The Oldest Latin Astrolabe, Physis 32
(1995): 199-450.
124
Andre Van de Vyer, Les plus anciennes traductions latines mdivales (IX-XI s.) de
traits de lastronomie et de lastrologie, Osiris 1 (1936): 658-689; P. Kunitzsch, Les
relations scientifiques entre lOccident et le monde arabe lpoque de Gerbert, in Gerbert
leuropen, ed. Nicole Charbonnele and Jean-Eric Iung (Aurillac: La Haute-Auvergne, 1997),
193-203.
59
the Pantegni by Al ibn al-Abbs al-Majs.125 Early in the twelfth century, the
Christian convert (from Judaism) Petrus Alfonsi brought several astronomical and
astrological texts to France and England from Aragon. Petrus Alfonsi advertised the
Peripatetics of France lectures on astronomy that would rouse to life the knowledge
of this art which has disappeared among the Latins.126 Some of these texts were
subsequently translated by Adelard of Bath (fl. 1106-1149) and assimilated by
Walcher, abbot of Great Malvern (d. 1135), who composed his own astronomical
treatises.127 Adelard is best known for his translation of Euclids Elements, and he also
translated al-Khwrizms astronomical tables, which had been revised by Maslama at
Cordoba, and Ab Mashars Abbreviation to the Introduction to Astrology.
Several scholars produced translations of astronomical and astrological texts
while working in the valley of the Ebro river in northern Spain and in southern France.
Their early interest in astronomy and astrology is reflected in their letters to patrons
justifying the study of the science of the stars, particularly Hermann of Carinthia (fl.
1138-1143) to the scholar and cleric Thierry of Chartres, and Robert of Ketton (fl.
1141-1156) to the abbot and monastic reformer Bernard of Clairvaux.128 Hermann of
Carinthia translated Albumasars Great Introduction to Astrology, and may have
collaborated with Hugh of Santalla (fl. 1145) in compiling additional Arabic
125
C. Burnett and D. Jacquart, eds., Constantine the African and Ali ibn al-Abbas al-Majusi:
the Pantegni and Related Texts (Leiden: Brill, 1994).
126
C. Burnett, Translation and Transformation, 352. On Petrus Alfonsi, see John Tolan,
Petrus Alfonsi and his Medieval Readers (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1993).
127
C. Haskins, History of Medieaval Science, 113-129.
128
C. Burnett, Advertising the New Science of the Stars circa 1120-1150, in Le XII sicle,
ed. Franoise Gasparri (Paris: Le Lopard dOr, 1994), 147-157.
60
astrological texts into a pseudo-Aristotelian compendium. Plato of Tivoli (fl. 1132-
1146) translated Ptolemys astrological work the Tetrabiblos in 1138. Robert of Ketton
translated al-Khwrizms book on algebra, and together with Hermann worked on the
first Latin translation of the Quran for Peter the Venerable, illustrating the
simultaneous awareness of Arabic learning with the principle Islamic religious text.
Raymond of Marseilles (fl. 1141) and Abraham Ibn Ezra (1092-1167) were early
assimilators of Arabic science into Latin and Hebrew scholarly culture. The
translations of John of Seville took place within this context.
The next wave of translations occurred fifteen to twenty years later in Toledo,
and centered on the work of Dominicus Gundissalinus (fl. 1161-1181) and Gerard of
Cremona (1114-1187). Gerard also emphasized the need for new texts to augment the
study of the liberal arts. His list of translated works was extensive, and included
Ptolemy's Almagest and Euclid's Elements, Aristotle's De caelo, Physics, and De
generatione et corruptione, as well as Alfarabi's work on the classification of the
sciences and works by Rhazes. Dominicus translated several important philosophical
works by Avicenna, Algazel, and Avicebron. Translation activities continued well into
the thirteenth century at several locales in Spain and Italy. Michael Scot, who began his
career at Toledo, joined the court of Frederick II of Sicily and was a prolific translator
but is best known for his translations of Averroes. At the court of Alfonso X of Castile
(r. 1256-84), Jewish scholars translated several works on astronomy, astrology, and
magic into Castilian, and astronomers compiled the Alfonsine tables. The translation
activity finally came to an end towards the turn of the fourteenth century, although
there are a handful of notable exceptions: Averroess The Incoherence of the
61
Incoherence of the Philosophers (1328), Haly Abenragels On the Judgements of the
Stars (1256), and Rhazess Liber continens (1279).
As is evident from this overview, astrology and astronomy played a central role
in the Arabic-Latin translations, particularly in the Iberian peninsula. The interest in
astrological and astronomical texts and the efforts on the part of translators to acquire
knowledge from Greek and Arabic sources represents an important cultural and
intellectual shift in the late eleventh and early twelfth century.
The Transformation of Astronomy and Astrology
Modern scholars have documented the transformation of astrology from
rudimentary lunar calculations and onomancy to elaborate interpretations of celestial
influence using sophisticated calculations of planetary positions. For most of the early
Middle Ages, the practice of astronomy was somewhat limited, while astrology was
virtually non-existent. As with the stagnation of Latin intellectual culture after the fall
of the Roman Empire, the absence of astrological knowledge and practice was due to
several factors. Towards the end of the Hellenistic period, there was a steady decline in
Greek mathematical astrology, coupled with individual Church writings against
paganism, divination (including astrology), magic, and sorcery.129 There were notable
condemnations of astrology by the Church Fathers, especially Augustine,130 due to its
apparent contradiction with free will. There was no official condemnation of astrology
129
M.L.W. Laistner, The Western Church and Astrology, in The Intellectual Heritage of the
Middle Ages, ed. Chester G. Starr (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1957), 57-82.
130
According to Augustine, the planets and stars cannot cause human action. Augustine,
Confessions, 7.6.8-10; City of God, 5.1, 5.6.
62
by the Church, and astronomical texts and practices were mostly concerned with
meeting ecclesiastical needs.
Textual evidence suggests that astronomical practice was mostly devoted to
computus (calculating the date of Easter), and time reckoning. These practices are more
precisely characterized by mathematical calculations than by direct observation of the
heavens. There is no evidence of quantitative measurements or calculations that tied a
predictive celestial model to observations of the planets until the period of translations,
with the astrolabe texts of the late tenth/early eleventh-century serving a transitional
role. Quantitative calculations based on the Ptolemaic astronomical model, which
included an observational component, were necessary steps for the most basic of
astrological techniques, such as the construction of horoscopes.
In terms of astronomical and astrological knowledge, descriptions of the
heavens and the ordering of the universe were based on a handful of classical texts that
survived from antiquity and late antiquity: Calcidiuss commentary on Platos Timaeus,
Martianus Capellas De nuptiis philologiae et mercurii, Macrobiuss Commentarii in
somnium Scipionis, Aratuss Phenomena, and Plinys Historia naturalis. These texts
situated the earth at the center of the universe, with the sun, moon, and five other
planets circling it on concentric spheres. Some manuscripts of these texts contained
illustrations with diagrams of lunar and solar eclipses, the terrestrial climes, and the
ordering of the celestial spheres. The circulation of these texts was extremely limited
until the ninth century, when marginal notes in several manuscripts indicate a surge in
63
popularity.131 There were bits and pieces of astrological information in this set of texts,
including a description of the zodiac and a list of planetary houses. These descriptions
did not contain nearly enough information necessary for either the calculation or
interpretation of horoscopes or other astrological techniques. In addition, none of the
computus literature appears to have had any astrological references through the tenth
century,132 and the evidence of astrological texts circulating in Europe before the
eleventh century is quite scant. These texts, known collectively as the Alchandreana,
provide much insight into the state of astrological knowledge prior to the translations
of technical Arabic and Greek astronomical and astrological works.133
Before the translations, astrological interpretations were not made on the basis
of planetary positions. According to David Juste, the extant manuscripts indicate that
the few astrological texts which were produced were of two types: those relevant to the
casting of horoscopes and prognostic literature. Of the former there are only three
extant examples, none of which utilized planetary positions for determining the
characteristics of the native.134 These manuscripts include descriptive details about
131
Bruce Eastwood, The Revival of Planetary Astronomy in Carolingian and Post-Carolingian
Europe (Ashgate: Variorum, 2002).
132
Laistner, The Western Church and Astrology, 73.
133
The most substantial treatment of the earliest appropriation of Arabic astrological texts is in
D. Juste, Les Alchandreana primitifs: tude sur les plus anciens traits astrologiques latins
d'origine arabe, Xe sicle (Leiden: Brill, 2007). The Alchandreana are distinct from, although
related to, texts on the construction and use of the astrolabe stemming from Arabic texts in the
tenth century.
134
These texts are (1) an anonymous letter from the second half of the ninth century, perhaps
written by a monk or priest responding to the request of an abbot or bishop, (2) a text titled De
stellis fixis et stantibus, which circulated with the De die natali of Censorinus and later the
Aratus Latinus, and (3) the De mundi celestis terrestrisque constitutione, a cosmological
treatise which includes a fair amount of astrological information. Further details about these
64
planetary natures and their influences, the signs of the zodiac, houses and exaltations,
planetary aspects, and the divisions of the signs. These details comprise greater depth
and breadth of information than contained in the classical sources such as Pliny and
Macrobius, leaving open the question of whether they are based on other sources which
have since been lost.135 These texts indicate that there was at least some very basic
astrological knowledge relevant to the casting of horoscopes available, but its
circulation was highly limited.
The so-called prognostic literature was in much greater abundance, with Juste
documenting at least 400 examples from 150 manuscripts, ranging from the end of the
eighth century to the beginning of the twelfth century. Juste groups these prognostic
texts into six categories:136
1. Lunaria. These are prognostications given for each day of the 30-day lunar
month. There are five different subjects addressed: (1) the outcome of an illness, (2)
favorable or unfavorable days for bloodletting or other medical procedures, (3)
character or future of natives, (4) dream interpretations following the manner of the
Book of Daniel, and (5) predictions based on individual circumstances.
2. Zodiologia. These are very popular texts based on the lunar position in the
signs of the zodiac, related to the following subjects: (1) engaging in or avoiding
texts are in Juste, Les Alchandreana, 20. The De mundi celestis has been edited and translated
by Charles Burnett. See C. Burnett, A Treatise on the Universe and the Soul (London, 1985).
135
Juste, Les Alchandreana, 21.
136
Justes account is in Les Alchandreana, 21-23. See also Thorndike, A History of Magic and
Experimental Science, Vol. 1, 672-695, for a survey of prognostic literature and other texts on
divination during this period.
65
various activities, (2) the nature or outcome of an illness, (3) general predictions
(related to weather, the deaths of kings, signficant events, etc.), (4) other predictions
based on various individual circumstances.
3. The spheres of life and death. This is a description of a procedure which
determines the outcome of an event, based upon a calculation involving numbers
associated with an individuals name, and the day in the lunar cycle when the event
occurred.
4. Critical days. These are not Galenic critical days, but are usually bad or evil
days most often based on the calendar of Egyptian days (dies Aegyptiaci) which are
two days per month.
5. Planetary days. These are prognostications based upon days of the week, of
which there are 5 types: (1) general predictions based on the day which falls on the
kalends of January (January 1), sometimes attributed to the prophet Esdras, (2) similar
general predictions, but based upon days of thunderstorms, (3) character and future of
the native, (4) outcome of an illness, (5) predictions for particular activities, taken for
days of the week and also including planetary hours.
6. Comets. General predictions based on the appearance of comets, based upon
Marius Severus Honoratuss fourth-century commentary on Vergils Aeneid.
These were the kinds of astrological texts which were circulating prior to the
translations of the twelfth century. In general, these texts exposed readers to some basic
tenets of classical astrological doctrine, but were highly dependent on the position of
the moon and/or the day of the month or week. To this group we may add the
66
Alchandreana in the tenth century, and in the eleventh century, the limited circulation
of Maniliuss De astrologia and Firmicus Maternuss Mathesis. At the end of the tenth
century, more advanced astronomical texts began circulating, including astronomical
tables and texts on the astrolabe, linked to Gerbert of Aurillac and Abbo of Fleury.137
While no single astrological text individually provided enough information or details to
construct a horoscope or make other technical astrological calculations, taken together
these texts formed a rough outline of classical astrology. When combined with classical
cosmological doctrines and the gradual introduction of new astronomical texts into
Europe, the late eleventh century saw a sustained interest in more technical astrological
and astronomical literature, so that the translations of the early twelfth century were
sown into highly fertile ground.
John of Seville
Prior to analyzing the translation of the Introduction to Astrology, there are a few
points to consider about the translator, Johannes Hispalensis, or John of Seville. The
identity of John of Seville has previously been the subject of scholarly debate, but more
recently Charles Burnett has made a strong case for the disambiguation of several
distinct individuals.138 He argues that John of Seville is likely the same person as
137
Charles Burnett, King Ptolemy and Alchandreus the Philosopher: The Earliest Texts on the
Astrolabe and Arabic Astrology at Fleury, Micy, and Chartres, reprinted in Burnett, Arabic
into Latin in the Middle Ages: the Translators and Their Intellectual and Social Context
(Ashgate: Variorum, 2011).
138
Charles Burnett, John of Seville and John of Spain, a mise au point, Bulletin de
philosophie mdivale 44 (Brepols: Turnhout, 2002), 59-78. See also Burnett, Magister
Iohannes Hispalensis et Limiensis and Qusta ibn Luqas De differentia spiritus et animae: A
Portuguese contribution to the arts curriculum? Mediaevalia, Textos e Estudos 7-8 (Porto,
1995), 221-67. Both are reprinted in a collected volume of Burnetts works, Arabic into Latin
67
Johannes Hispalensis et Limiensis, but a distinct person from John of Spain (Iohannes
Hispanensis), Avendauth, another Magister Iohannes, and Iohannes David. This allows
Burnett to attribute authorship or likely authorship to a set of texts that are
predominantly astrological. Burnett has also argued that John was a Mozarab, or a
Christian native speaker of Arabic, since a collaborator is never mentioned. Two
manuscripts mention that he was a bishop, but there is no additional independent
confirmation of this. Very few times he is referred to as magister, and there is no
further evidence that he studied in the Latin schools.
In the majority of manuscripts of Alcabitiuss Introduction to Astrology, Johns
name is listed as the translator, frequently under the phrase "translatus/interpretatus a
Ioanne Hispalensi." While few of the earliest manuscripts have this attribution, Burnett,
Yano, and Yamamoto comment that it was not unusual to withhold ones name from
translations in this period, as Gerard of Cremona was also known to have done.139 The
precise circumstances of the translation of the Introduction to Astrology are unknown
as there is neither a preface nor a dedication, and the earliest manuscript, dated to 1135,
is no longer extant.140 However, Johns list of other known translations, as well as two
other dedications, give some indication of the context in which he was working.
in the Middle Ages: the Translators and Their Intellectual and Social Context (Ashgate:
Variorum, 2011).
139
BYY, Introduction, 201, n. 9.
140
The earliest known manuscript of the Introduction was held in the cathedral at Chartres and
gave the present year of 1135. Unfortunately this manuscript was destroyed during World
War II. It is unlikely that fragments survive.
68
In addition to Alcabitiuss Introduction to Astrology, his other known
translations are:141
1) Pseudo-Aristotle, Secret of Secrets, addressed to Theresa, the
queen of Portugal from 1112 to 1128.
2) Qus ibn Lq (Costa ben Luce), De differentia spiritus et
animae, addressed to Raymond de la Sauvetat, archbishop of Toledo
1125-52
3) Mshallh (Messehalla), De rebus eclipsium
4) Umar ibn al-Farrukhn al-abar (Aomar), De nativitatibus
5) Thbit ibn Qurra (Thebit), De imaginibus
6) Ab Mashar (Albumasar), Liber introductorii maioris ad
scientiam iudiciorum astrorum (1133)
7) Al-Farghn (Alfraganus), Liber in scientia astrorum
(Rudimenta) (March 11, 1135)
8) Mshallh (Messehalla), De interrogationibus (De receptione
planetarum)
9) A text on the construction of the astrolabe, beginning
Astrologicae speculationis exercitium
10) A text on the use of the astrolabe, beginning Primum capitulum
in inventione
141
This list follows that printed in the edition, BYY, Introduction, 200. I have not indicated (as
the edition does) those works which are attributed to Ioannes Hispalensis et Limiensis.
69
In addition, there are three other works which do not list a translator but which Burnett,
Yano and Yamamoto include in their list due to similarities in the colophon and textual
style:
11) Ab Mashar, Liber experimentorum
12) Ab Mashar, Flores
13) Ab Mashar, De magnis coniunctionibus
Lastly, Burnett, Yano, and Yamamoto mention that it is possible that some translations
of pseudo-Ptolemys Centiloquium, the astrological works of Sahl ibn Bishr (Zael), and
another Liber introductorius, should be attributed to John.
As indicated in the above list, John dedicated one of his works to Queen Teresa
of Portugal, who reigned from 1112 to 1128, and another to the archbishop Raymond
of Toledo, who held the office between 1125 and 1151. These dedications are not for
his astrological works, but nevertheless provide some insight into Johns occupation
and motivations as a translator. As a scholar he sought the patronage of renowned
individuals. His dedication to Queen Theresa references a conversation they had about
health and especially diets, despite the fact that he was not a physician, implying that
John may have addressed her at court142 and sought to appease her interests. Johns
dedication of Qus ibn Lqs important philosophical work to Raymond illustrates
Johns versatility as a translator as well as Raymonds own interests. The fact that the
other texts are almost entirely astrological may indicate Johns own interests in the
subject.
142
The preface is edited and translated in Burnett, Magister Iohannes Hispalensis et
Limiensis, 255-258.
70
In addition, there is a preface to the translation of Thebits De imaginibus
which may also have been authored by John of Seville.143 In this preface, John recounts
how he came to possess the book in Arabic, which was given to him by a Master who
had many other books, and only after John had expended much effort and time devoted
to studying the science of the stars. It is not clear whether the Master is Christian. In
the preface John professes to be placed amongst wild racesliving without help far
from the domestic <comforts of people having> complete faith towards God.144 This
could mean that he was living in Muslim-controlled lands. In giving him the book, the
Master advises John that many men who consider themselves to be experts in the
science of the stars are quite lacking in the knowledge of its essence, which is the study
of talismans. And furthermore, talismans are tools which God has bestowed upon man
for the punishment of ill-doers or the praise of the just.145 This preface links the
study of astrology to the use of talismans, which are ultimately tied to Gods will. The
preface implies that the use of talismans may have been Johns ultimate aim, and an
understanding of astrological principles is necessary to achieve this aim. Whether or
not this was true, at the very least John presents a perspective of the accommodation of
astrology, and specifically the use of talismans, to Christian faith. Additional links
between Alcabitiuss Introduction to Astrology and the use of talismans will be
addressed in later chapters.
143
This preface is also edited and translated in Burnett, Magister Iohannes Hispalensis et
Limiensis, 252-255. Burnett makes a strong case that John was the author of the preface,
despite initial skepticism from Lynn Thorndike.
144
Burnett, Magister Iohannes Hispalensis et Limiensis, 254.
145
Burnett, Magister Iohannes Hispalensis et Limiensis, 254.
71
Johns list of translations is almost entirely of Arabic authors.146 This fact
reflects not merely his preference for Arabic authors, but the reality of the abundance
of Arabic astrological texts available in the twelfth-century Iberian peninsula. A similar
point could be made about Plato of Tivoli, who translated Ptolemys Quadripartitum in
1136, with the majority of his other translated works being composed by Arabic
authors.147 In the case of astrology, translators were working either to make Arabic
astrology available to a Latin audience, or were seeking to recover ancient astrological
ideas which had been preserved in Arabic sources. As will become evident from an
analysis of the translation, while the latter case certainly remains possible, it is clear
that Latin scholars were beholden to Arabic authors for the vast majority of their
knowledge of astrology. The translation practices of scholars and their attitudes
towards the Arabic astrological tradition were closely interlinked, which becomes clear
from looking more closely at the translation itself.
Textual Transformations
When the text of the Introduction to Astrology was rendered into Latin, it
underwent a variety of transformations.148 These transformations occurred, on the one
hand, from the individual motivations and choices of the translator and reflected
146
Although attributed to Aristotle and Ptolemy, pseudo-Aristotles Secret of Secrets and
pseudo-Ptolemys Centiloquium likely had Arabic origins.
147
Plato of Tivoli translated al-Battanis Zij, the De usu astrolabii of Masalama, the Iudicia
Almansoris, the De electionibus horarum of al-Imrani, the De nativitatibus of Albohali, and the
De revolutionbius nativitatum by Albubather.
148
There are several studies of translation practices in the medieval period, few of which deal
with translations from Arabic. See Peter Anderson, ed., Pratiques de traduction au Moyen Age:
Actes du colloque de luniversit de Copenhague 25 et 26 octobre 2002 and Jeannette Beer,
ed., Translation Theory and Practice in the Middle Ages (Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Insitute,
1997).
72
broader, cultural concerns related to the context in which John was working.
Transformations in the text arose from various additions and omissions made by the
texts earliest readers, now embedded in the Latin manuscript tradition. The textual
changes are manifestations of both the attitudes of the translator and earliest readers
towards Arabic sources and the broader Arabic astrological tradition. Latin scholars
who encountered the new Arabic learning employed different Arabic-Latin translation
styles in the early twelfth century.149 Among these attitudes, Charles Burnett has
identified two distinct trends.150 The first trend shows Latin translators accommodating
the Arabic text to Classical Latin by various means, and obscuring the Arabic origins
of the text. In these cases, literal translation was avoided and some translators
abbreviated whole passages of text.151 Hermann of Carinthia utilized this approach in
his translation of Ab Mashars Great Introduction to Astrology. He justified his
method in the preface to his translation, addressing his fellow translator Robert of
Ketton, and discussing the difficulties of rendering the verbose Arabic language into
suitable Latin.152 Hermanns abbreviations were not an attempt to completely disguise
the Arabic origins of the text, however, as he did cite Arabic authorities. But, as
149
For a general account of medieval translations from Arabic to Latin, see Charles Burnett,
Translating from Arabic into Latin in the Middle Ages: Theory, Practice, and Criticism, in
diter, Traduire, Interpreter: essaies de mthodologie philosophique, ed. by S. G. Lofts and P.
W. Rosemann (Leuven: Peeters, 1997), 55-78.
150
Charles Burnett, Humanism and Orientalism in the Translations from Arabic into Latin in
the Middle Ages, in Wissen ber Grenzen, ed. Speer and Wegener, 22-31.
151
Several examples of abbreviation are found in Dag N. Hasse, Abbreviation in Medieval
Latin Translations from Arabic, in Vehicles of Transmission, 160-172.
152
You have experienced how difficult it is to turn out anything suitable to Latin speech from
an exuberance of expression (fluxus loquendi) as is characteristic of the Arabs, especially in
these subjects [that is, the science of the stars] which demand such an exact replica of the
matter. Quoted in Hasse, Abbreviation, 163, and Burnett, Translating from Arabic into
Latin, p. 60, n. 76.
73
Burnett notes, Hermann did not hesitate to include classical Greek or Latin
references.153 The other style adopted by Arabic-Latin translators was strictly literal. In
composing literal translations, oftentimes translators chose to transliterate terms for
which no acceptable Latin equivalent was found. Burnett notes that these terms usually
retained the Arabic definite article al, were left undeclined according to Latin
grammatical rules, and occasionally retained the Arabic ta marbuta at the ends of
words, translated as a, which almost always signifies feminine grammatical gender.
Furthermore, literal translations often reflect Arabic syntax.154 In other words, the
literal approach to translation laid bare the Arabic origins of the text.
John of Seville exemplified this literal translation style. He defended this
approach in a preface to his translation of pseudo-Aristotles Secret of Secrets,
dedicated to Queen Theresa of Portugal. He wrote, I followed the sense in certain
cases, the [sense and the] letter in others. Nor is it surprising if through my
inexperience I have done this, since almost all wise men who have been interpreters are
known to have acted in this way. For the differences in translations indicate that no one
is able to follow the letter always. As for me, I have rather followed the letter in all
cases lest I might depart from the path of truth by any extent.155 Johns commitment to
preserving the true meaning of the text represents his acknowledgment of the authority
of Arabic learning. John is explicit about his literal style in the preface, but the
153
Burnett, Humanism and Orientalism, 30.
154
Charles Burnett, Astrology, in Medieval Latin: an Introduction and Bibliographical
Guide, 377.
155
Quoted in Charles Burnett, Magister Ioannes Hispalensis et Limiensis, 258.
74
literalness of his translations is also very apparent from studying his translations,
particularly the Introduction to Astrology.
Johns literal style is one of many different facets of the translation by which
one may ascertain certain attitudes from a close analysis of the Arabic and Latin texts.
There are several other features of the translation which yield insight into how John
and other early readers came to appreciate the text. But comparing the Arabic and Latin
texts does involve some complications. In their edition of the Introduction to
Astrology, Burnett, Yamamoto, and Yano enumerate some of these complications that
arise when making this comparison. Most simply put, there is no single pure version
of the Latin text, free from what appear to be interpretative additions from the
translator, the texts earliest readers, or from marginalia in the Arabic manuscripts.
This may have been due to the fact that Arabic manuscripts of the Introduction were
circulating at the same time and place as the Latin manuscripts, leading readers
familiar with Arabic to make their own textual interventions. The fact that the earliest
known Latin manuscript, from 1135, was destroyed compounds this problem. Burnett,
Yamamoto, and Yano have provided four reasons that prevent us from establishing a
linear progression of the text in Latin, which also frame how we must examine the
Arabic-Latin translation. These reasons are the following:156
1) There are marginal annotations which may have been present in the
Arabic tradition which appear inconsistently in different places in different
Latin manuscripts. One example of this is the list of the greatest years of
156
I summarize these reasons here from the BYY edition, where they are clearly laid out with a
much more elaborate discussion of these examples and others, BYY, Introduction, 205-210.
75
the planets, which we find in chapter 2, sections [5], [10], [15], [22], [28],
[33], and [38]. In Arabic manuscripts these are often in the wrong place or
omitted, and in Latin manuscripts this information is omitted or sometimes
placed after great years.
2) There are corrections in both the Arabic and Latin texts with regards to
other astrological authorities. It is not obvious whether these corrections
were introduced into the Arabic tradition and then translated into Latin, or
whether they were corrections introduced by John or early Latin readers.
One example of this is in a table of values of masculine and feminine
degrees in chapter 1, [49]. In the Arabic tradition, one set of manuscripts
gives what are presumably al-Qabs values, whereas another set follows
(for the most part) Ab Mashars values. The Latin tradition reflects both
traditions, and it is possible that Latin readers could have taken Ab
Mashars values from an Arabic manuscript of al-Qab, or from the Latin
tradition of Ab Mashar.
3) There are annotations in the Latin manuscripts (both marginal and
interlinear) of alternative translations of Arabic words, from which later
scribes made different selections, and occasional attempts at retranslating
entire phrases. Sometimes this occurred because Arabic words could be
read in more than one way.
4) There are Latin explanations and discussions of Arabic terms
(transliterations) and phrases in the margins or the text itself, which may
have been added when the text was translated, and were later expanded,
76
omitted, or put in different places. For example, in chapter 1 [10], the
phrase propter effectus suos in nobis et quia facit nobis estatem has been
added to the section explaining the Suns lordship over the half of the
zodiac from the beginning of Leo to the end of Capricorn.
Keeping these challenges in mind, the BYY edition provides several means for
discovering and analyzing textual transformations. According to BYY, MS BAV Reg.
lat. 1285 gives the closest agreement of the Latin with the Arabic text, and the editors
selected Reg. lat. 1285 as the basis of their edition. BYY also recorded all of the
glosses and editorial remarks contained in Reg. lat. 1285 from a thirteenth-century
reviser. The revisers comments, and the glosses (which are found in several other
early manuscripts), appear in the edition as the first of three critical apparatus. There
are two additional critical apparatus included with the Latin text which aid in
deciphering changes to the text. The second apparatus identifies discrepancies arising
from a comparison of the Latin and Arabic texts. This second apparatus lists words or
phrases which have been added to or omitted from the Latin text. The third apparatus
provides manuscript variants. In addition, BYY have identified several phrases which
appear in the Latin text which are missing from the Arabic text and do not appear to
have been translations from Arabic. These phrases are italicized. Taken together, these
editorial tools provide sufficient evidence to analyze the textual transformations which
came about due to the translation.
The following textual analysis is divided into three sections: transliteration,
interpretation, and religious elements. The first section identifies and lists the terms
77
which were retained as transliterations from Arabic, and provides an analyis of the
effects that these transliterated terms had on early readers. The second section focuses
on the Latin phrases added to the text, i.e. Latin interpretations, which BYY have
identified in italics. Many of these phrases are short definitions of transliterated Arabic
terms, while others serve to elucidate astrological theory or the physical structure of the
heavens. Lastly, there is an analysis of the inclusion or omission of religious
terminology, and the import of these changes on early readers.
Transliteration and Interpretation
As we have seen, prior to the translations, Latin scholars were familiar with
features of ancient cosmology, but lacked the technical details to make astrological
calculations, including the casting of horoscopes. Early astronomical treatises
translated from Arabic retained Arabic terminology, such as the names of stars and
planets. None of these texts, however, contained technical astrological terms. Once the
translation of astrological texts was underway, translators encountered a whole new
range of astrological vocabulary related to technique. Some technical terms were
originally Greek and had been translated into Arabic, and others were of Indian or
Persian origin and the Arabs translated them or transliterated them into Arabic script.
Similarly, Latin translators chose to either translate terms into a suitable Latin
equivalent, or to retain the Arabic term by transliterating it into Roman script. A few
other non-astrological terms were also transliterated rather than translated. The result
was a hybrid text with a distinctly Arabic character. The literal style of translation
employed by John of Seville, which reproduced Arabic syntax, and the retention of
78
several Arabic terms solidified the link between the science of astrology and Arabic
culture.
To better understand the effects that transliterated terms had on medieval
readers, I have provided a list of the terms in order of their appearance in the text,
noting also subsequent instances. In addition, I have listed spelling variants that have
been identified in the BYY edition,157 to give a sense of the range of variations Latin
readers would have encountered. The list does not include titles or proper nouns. In the
following list, I first display the Arabic term, then the transliterated form as it appears
in the BYY edition. In parentheses, I give a selection of the variants listed in the BYY
edition, along with the occasional Latin translation exactly as it appears in the BYY
edition (preserving the grammatical form). This is followed by the English meaning.
In some cases, the Introduction makes clear the meaning of a technical term by
providing a definition, which immediately follows the word or concept in the original
Arabic version of the text. John of Seville retains these definitions in his translation.
However, there are several terms that John transliterated that were not defined in the
Arabic text. In these cases, either John himself or other early readers provided a short
definition or description of the term in Latin to clarify the meaning of the Arabic
157
For each transliterated term, I provide the chapter and the section number in brackets as it
appears in the BYY edition. The Latin variants are listed in the 3rd critical apparatus, which
give the manuscript sigla, as provided in the BYY edition, for each variant. Occasionally, there
were transliterations which appeared in only one manuscript, where the Latin Venus was
transliterated with the Arabic adzohare. See BYY, Introduction, 1: [14], 230. I have not
recorded these here but still acknowledge their role in contributing to the Arabic origins
evident in the text.
79
transliterated term, which I refer to here as interpretations.158 The BYY edition has
italicized these phrases to indicate that they do not appear to be translated from the
Arabic, and are thus additions made by the translator or other early readers. The
phrases are reproduced in the following list in italics,159 followed by an English
translation in most cases. In addition, the reviser of Reg. Lat. 1285 identified some of
these phrases with vacat or glosa, suggesting they were perhaps missing from an
Arabic manuscript in his possession and/or added by either the translator or early
readers. Terms that have been labeled vacat or glosa are identified by an asterisk.
Several of the terms, with or without accompanying Latin definitions, were sometimes
defined in the margins of later manuscripts. These additions are also indicated in the
list, but will be treated more thoroughly in the following chapter on marginalia.
1: [6] al-niq : Nithac (Nytach, Pithac, Nitach, Sytac, Nitac, Nichat; Zodiacus)
Literally means belt. Refers to the zodiacal belt.
Id est cingulus* (that is belt)
1: [14] al-minaqah : almantica (no variants; zodiacus, circulus)
158
Evidence from an early manuscript, Reg. lat. 1285, suggests that many of these
interpretations appear to have been added by John or a contemporary early reader. A reviser
of the text likely compared his Latin manuscript(s) with an Arabic original, underlining and/or
commenting on Latin phrases missing from the Arabic. The reviser of Reg. lat. 1285 labeled
many of these definitions with vacat, providing further evidence that the phrases were
missing from the original Arabic manuscripts. See BYY, Introduction, 201-202 and 216-220.
159
These short descriptive phrases also contain variants. Unless otherwise noted, in the list I
have reproduced the text selected by BYY for the edition.
80
A variation on the word nihq, referring to the zodiac belt.
Hoc est in cingulo qui latus est in medio et in ligatura strictus, et habet
significare zodiacum circulum* (This is on a belt which is wide in the middle
and drawn together where it is tied, and it indicates the zodiac circle)
1 : [52] al-zamnah : azemena (adzemani, azamena)
The term means chronic illness.
Latin passage contains subsequent instances of the term, which are occasionally
declined according to Latin syntax in other MSS (azamanas, azemeni.)
Id est gradus debilitationis corporis. Est enim azemena quedam debilitatio
corporis temporalis, ut est cecitas, surditas, amissio membrorum et cetera talia,
que quamdiu vixerit homo semper habebit secum. Cum ergo fuerit Luna cum
his gradibus in nativitate alicuius pueri, accidit participes160*
1 : [55] al-zj : aziz (ezich, azis, azig, ezyhi, liber ezibi, azizi, eszig)
Refers to the astronomical tables of planetary positions.
Id est in libro cursus siderum (that is in the book of the paths of the stars)
1 : [56] al-awtd : alauted (alamed, alasmet, alautez, eleuted, alauveth)
Refers to the astrological term cardines, which designate the cusps of the 1st,
4th, 7th, and 10th and thus refer to the ascendant, descendant, midheaven, and
lower midheaven.
160
The full text and translation are on pp. 99-100.
81
Quas nos angulos vocamus ut pulcrius sonet* (which we call angles as it
sounds nicer)
1 : [57] al-li : athalie (athale, atale, eltalah; ascendens)
Refers to the astrological term ascendant, or the zodiacal sign and degree
ascending on the eastern horizon at the time of a specific event; this term is
almost always translated as ascendens.
Id est ascendens (that is ascendant)
1 : [64, 72] al-mawrth : almauerith (almauerit, almaueriht, almientum, almauerich,
almuerit)
Refers to inheritance.
Id est substantias vel hereditates mortuorum quas debent heredes post
mortem eorum possidere.
Id est que hereditanda sunt ex mortuis, sicut superium dictus est.
Id est substantia que hereditatur a mortuis.161
1 : [77] al-mubtazz: almubtaz (almubzat, almutaz, almultath, abnubtaz, almutat,
almubtez; dux vel dominator, victor, vincens)
N.B. This transliterated word does not appear in the Arabic MSS in this point
in the text. It may have been in an Arabic MS that is no longer extant.
161
These three phrases are translated and discussed on p. 94.
82
1 : [78] al-ayyiz : alhaiz (alhaiz, alaiz, aiz, alhait, heroz, alhaiz, allaiz, elyhz, alhais;
similitudo) ; also in 3 : [6]
Refers to the astrological circumstances when a planet is in a position that
reinforces its nature, and designates, for example, when a masculine planet is in
the masculine part of the sky, or feminine planet is in the feminine part of the
sky. BYY translates as domain(distinct from houseor place).
Appears in two instances in the passage, the first with definite article in the
Arabic with Latin variations noted above, the second without definite article in
Arabic, with the following Latin variations, some of which have added an
Arabic definite article: haiz, alhayz, adhaiz, haiz, elhyz, alhais, aiz.
The early gloss offers similitudo as a translation, which is incorporated into
several manuscripts.
The term is defined in both the Arabic and Latin texts.
2 : [5] fardrya: firdarie, 4 : [20] alfirdariet
Refers to an astrological term for the years of a natives life over which a planet
has lordship, BYY edition leaves untranslated.
Later glosses provide definitions/explanations
2 : [14] al-amra : alhabra (alabra, allabra, allibra, halbabra, alhabara, alahbra, alabbra,
alvabra, alabraha)
Refers to a disease; BYY edition renders it anthrax.
83
Que est rubedo corporis cum asperitate et feditate (which is the reddening of
the body with severity and impurity)
3 : [3] jawzahar : geuzahar (geuzaar, geuthayr, iheuzaar; abscisio), 3 : [28] jawzahart :
geuzahar
Refers to the astrological term which describes the two nodes where a planets
path crosses the ecliptic, BYY edition leaves untranslated.
Id est, cum transierit per viam Solis iens a meridie in septemtrionem, ille
transitus, id est ipsa abscisio circulorum, dicitur geuzahar* (that is when it
will have passed by the way of the Sun going from the south to the north, that
transit, that is its own cutting of the circle, is called geuzahar)
Later glosses also provide further clarification.
3 : [5] al-muwjaha : almuwegeha (almuwagen, almullegua, almuegea, almigea,
almugea, almuhegea, almuwergea, almuvega, almuguegea, almuegeia)
Refers to the astrological circumstance when a planet is in a certain position
with respect to the Sun or Moon (specifically, when the distance between its
position and the Sun or Moon is equal to the difference between the house of
the planet and the house of the Sun or Moon); BYY edition translates as
facing.
The Arabic and Latin text provide an explanation/definition, and several glosses
provide supplemental definitions.
3 : [6] dustrya : duztoria (ductoria, dutoria, duxtoria)
84
Refers to a rare astrological circumstance involving a quartile relationship
between a planet and the Sun or Moon, when they are in the cardines; BYY
edition leaves untranslated.
The Arabic and Latin text provide an explanation/definition, and glosses
provide supplemental definitions.
3 : [11] al-ittil : alictisal (no variants; coniunctio, applicatio, iungo)
Refers to the astrological circumstance application, which occurs when two
planets are in two signs, aspecting each other, and the planets are in certain
positions within the signs and with respect to each other; Application is also
taken into consideration when determining additional planetary conditions.
Latin supplies and confounds coniunctio, applicatio, and the transliterated
alictisal.
3 : [19] al-qabl : alcobol
Refers to an astrological circumstance when two planets are each in their shares
in their houses and they apply to each other; BYY edition leaves untranslated.
Id est receptio (that is receiving)
3 : [21] al-intikth : alintiketh (alintichee, aluueth, alintiheth, almenez, alinthicie,
almulreb, alintikeh, alintihech, ahntmet, almatreb, elentiked, almenen)
Refers to the astrological circumstance when one planet begins an application
to another planet, but retrogrades before the application is complete; BYY
edition leaves untranslated.
85
Id est refrenatio (that is restraining)
Concept explained in Arabic/Latin text
3 : [22] al-itir : alitirad (altiraz, alitirat, altuar, aluirad, alintirad, alatired, almitirad,
alichorad)
Refers to a complex astrological circumstance involving an application
relationship between three planets; BYY edition leaves untranslated.
Id est contrarietas accidens (that is opposition to happening)
3 : [23] al-fawt : alfaut (alfauth, alfaut, alfazim)
Refers to an astrological circumstance involving three planets in application,
where one of the planets shifts to another sign; BYY edition leaves
untranslated.
Id est frustratio (that is delaying)
4: [3] al-namdr : animodar (annimodar, animordor, anni modar, elneuceredar)
Refers to nativities in astrology; BYY edition leaves untranslated.
Quod est investigatio gradus ascendentis alicuius nativitatis* (which is the
seeking of the degree of the ascendant for any birth)
86
4 : [4] al-haylj : hilesg (hilel, hiles, hyles, yles, hilegh, hiselesg, elhyleg, hyleg,
hylech)
Refers to an astrological term related to calculating the length of life; BYY
edition suggests prorogator but leaves transliterated.
Later glosses suggest meaning
4 : [5] al-kadkhudhh (alquodchodeu, alquodchodeuh, alquodhodeu, aliq(uod)hodeu,
aliq(uod) hodeu, alchocodeu, alchoden, alcocodeu, aliq(uo)dchodeu, alcogodeu,
alcodcodeu, acozcodeu, alkudchudech, alcochodeu, alcochoden)
Refers to an astrological term which determines the length of life; BYY edition
leaves transliterated.
Also in 4 : [19] : alcelchodeu, hoc est per dominum anni (this is through the
lord of the year)
4 : [8] al-slkhudhy (elsalacdey)
Refers to an astrological term. This transliteration appears in only one MS (V),
and the translator has rendered it and subsequent instances with alcelquoddeu.
4 : [9] al-hijra : Alhegerah (Alhegerat, Alhegarah, Algeruth, Eligra, Algeherat)
Refers to the flight of Mohammed from Medina to Mecca in the year 622, and
marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar.
Qui fuit primus annus annorum Arabum (Which was the first year of the years
of the Arabs)
87
4 : [9] Yazdajird : Iazdagird (Gezdageret, Gezdargird, Iardagirid, Gezdagird,
Gezdagirt); 4: [10]
Refers to a Persian King, the years of whose reign is used for astrological
calculation.
Regis Persarum (of the Persian Kings)
4 : [9] al-zj : Azige (Cicyge, Accige, Azig, Alsig)
Refers to astronomical tables of planetary positions; also in 1 [55].
Id est in libro cursuum planetarum (that is in the book on the paths of the
planets)
4 : [11] al-tasyr : (athacir, atazir id est directio)
Refers to the astrological concept prorogation, a complex calculation which
results in the degrees of an arc along the ecliptic; indicators (such as the degree
of the ascendant or Sun and Moon) moving through these degrees supply
information about the body, soul, family, etc.) BYY edition supplies degrees
of the motion.
Directio (straightening)
4 : [11] al-nar : nadir
Refers to the nadir, the point on the celestial sphere directly below the observer.
Id est oppositi (that is of the opposite)
88
4 : [14] al-jrbukhtr : algerbughtar (alger bugthar, algerbuthar, alge. burgar, algebutar,
agerbuhgtar, algerbughzahar, algerbugthar, elyarbuhtar, algebughtar)
Refers to an astrological calculation used in nativities and related to the tasyr;
BYY edition leaves untranslated.
4 : [16] al-nawbahrt : annaubaharat (annaubahanterh, almuhaharat, annauhaharat,
anauba\ha/lart, annabaharath, aunaubahahaufart, amaubaharath, alnahbuharat,
annaubarat)
Refers to an astrological calculation; BYY translates as the ninths.
Que sunt novenarie (this phrase occurs in the original Arabicwa hiya al-
tesaand is translated into the Latin as such)
Also appears in 4 : [17] in singular form, without the Arabic definite article :
naubahar, id est novenarium.
4 : [18] al-darjn : addorungen (adorugen, adurugen, adorogen, addorugen,
addorungem, eldarbigen)
Refers to an astrological calculation whereby the ascendant is divided into
thirds; BYY edition leaves untranslated.
Id est decanus (appears after 2nd instance of term; in this section the term
appears four times)
4 : [21] al-mamarr: almamar (elmumar, almanar)
89
Refers to the astrological circumstance when planets pass over other planets;
BYY edition renders the English transit.
Id est supereminentia (that is supereminence)
4 : [23] al-bust : albuzt (albuizt, albutiz, albusit id est combustio, albouyz, albur.,
albusk, albiuzt, aburezh, albuhct, albuidz, albutez)
Refers to an astrological calculation related to the twelve hours after a
conjunction and the lords of the triplicity of the Sun; BYY edition leaves
untranslated.
5 : [19] al-immi : hymz (himz, humz, hiez, hims, yrac, helmes, yrcorum hamerum,
hyms)
Garbanzo beans
5 : [19] al-msh : almecii (alsemi, aseni, almesii, milii, elmes, almusi)
5 : [19] al-aruzz : aloroz (alroz, alogoz, alozoz, alorez, alceos, elrus, alotoz)
Rice
Quod est quoddam genus farris (Which is some kind of grain)
5 : [19] al-qun : bambasii (alcothu, alchoto id est bambabasii, alcatu id est bube,
banbatii, bombicen id est cocherii, alceto, cotonis, bombaci, bombicis)
Cotton
90
5 : [19] al-simsim : alcicem (alcincem, alticem, alcemcem, alchonicen, altinicen,
alcimen, alucen id est alomiden, alcemcem, alrices, elusce, aloctan, alonicem
Sesame seeds
Quod est quoddam genus seminis albi in similitudine seminis lini et utuntur eo
medici, fitque ex eo unguentum in medicinis utile* (which is some kind of
white seed similar to flax seed and used by physicians, and from which is made
an ointment very useful for medicine)
5 : [19] al-biikh : abbathigh (alba.thaG, melonum, albathegh, abathegh, albahnna,
albthige, albathigh, albathag, albadog, albuteg, bathigh, albagith)
Melon
Qui sunt buteflez magni atque maturi et crocei (Which are large, ripe, and
yellow melons)
The majority of the terms on this list are related to technical astrology,
particularly those from chapter 4, which deals explicitly with astrological
terminology.162 Immediately evident is the range of variants to which transliterated
terms were subjected across manuscripts. For some terms transliteration was
straightforward, such as the rendering of the Arabic al-mamarr to the Latin almamar.
The transliteration of other terms resulted in much more complex variations. Variants,
of course, occurred across centuries of copying. Thus, the translators choice to
transliterate rather than translate had significant ramifications for readers in later
162
This is stated in the chapter titles in both Arabic (samt al-munajjimn) and Latin (nominum
astrologorum).
91
centuries. In transliterating a term, John may have attempted to mitigate difficulties in
deciphering its meaning by providing short interpretations, which appear italicized in
the list above. There were thus three different modes in which transliterated technical
terms appeared in early manuscripts: 1) terms were transliterated and left without an
interpretation (hilesg); 2) terms were transliterated and interpreted, and retained
the transliterated form (nadir); 3) terms were transliterated and interpreted, and
maintained their interpreted form (athalie/ascendens; awtad/angulos). In the final
case, the interpretation morphed into a translation for later instances of the term. The
interpretations played a crucial role in helping readers to understand the transliterated
text, and they also allow some insight into how the translator understood certain Arabic
terms.
In looking at the Latin interpretations of the transliterated terms, we see a
concerted effort by the translator to clearly explain their meanings. The very first word
of the first chapter, for example, is Nithac, and the translator has added id est
cingulus to clarify its meaning. Several later variants in the manuscript tradition offer
further efforts at pinning down the meaning of this very basic astrological term, the
zodiacal circle.163 When a variation on the term appears in a subsequent passage, the
translator provides the following definition (for the transliterated term almantica): hoc
est in cingulo qui latus est in medio et in ligatura strictus, et habet significare zodiacum
163
The manuscript variants listed in the edition for id est cingulus are: id est circulus, id est
essentia, circulus vel nitac id est circulus, id est nitac circulus, circulus, id est zodiacus
circulus, id est zodiacus id est circulus. See BYY, Introduction, 230.
92
circulum.164 Since it is not clear from the Latin transliterations, nithac and almantica,
that the words are related, the translator has made an additional effort to clarify the
meaning of the latter by using the same Latin term, cingulus. In subsequent references
to the zodiacal circle, one of the Latin variants, usually cingulus or circulus, is used
rather than nithac. With other transliterated terms, the translator also chose to initially
transliterate the term, and then in later instances employed the Latin translation. In the
case of the Arabic term al-awtd, referring to the cardines in astrological theory, the
translator first transliterates the term as alauted, and then notes, quas nos angulos
vocamus ut pulcrius sonet.165 Where al-awtd appears again in the Arabic text, the
translator uses the term angulus instead of the transliterated term. In the case of the
term al-li, which means ascendent, the translator has unequivocally translated the
term as ascendens in all cases except one, where he transliterates the term athalie but
then adds, id est ascendens. The ascendent and cardines are very basic technical
terms which appear frequently in the Introduction. Having retained the transliteration
in at least one instance for each term, the translator accomplished several goals: he
preserved the meaning of the term, he made the text more palatable for Latin readers,
and he illustrated a commitment to the authenticity of the Arabic text and the authority
of the Arabic tradition. There are also several terms which retained their transliterated
form.
164
BYY, Introduction, 1: [14], 230: this is on a belt which is wide in the middle and drawn
together where it is tied, and it indicates the zodiacal circle. Other manuscripts include
alternatives which shorten this to id est in circulo zodiaco, hoc est cingulus, hoc est in
circulo.
165
BYY, Introduction, 1: [56], 255: which we call angles as it sounds nicer.
93
Distributed throughout the text, transliterated Arabic terms preserve the sense in
which the text appeared foreign to Latin readers. This is especially true for
transliterated words that are repeated in multiple instances, rather than substituted with
a Latin equivalent. The term almauerith is less important for astrological theory, but is
nevertheless clearly defined. It appears in a discussion of the significations of the
houses. The passage reads: Octava domus mortis; significat timorem et mortem atque
almauerith, id est substantias vel hereditates mortuorum quas debent heredes post
mortem eorum possidere.166 Mentioning the term again, the translator notes, Id est
que hereditanda sunt ex mortuis, sicut superium dictus est.167 In another instance, the
translator gives an abbreviated version of his first definition: id est substantia que
hereditatur a mortuis.168 In English, as noted in the list above, almauerith is best
translated as inheritance. The translator chose to leave this word as a transliterated
term rather than using the Latin hereditas. However, he had already used hereditas for
the translation of another Arabic term, al-iqrt, which has a more specific sense of
inherited property. Whatever his reasons, the transliterated term contributes to the
Arabic feel of the text.
The term al-haylj (hilesg) is another example of a retained transliteration. Al-
haylj appears frequently in chapter four, on the technical terms of the astrologers,
although it is never clearly defined. The translator does not decline al-haylj according
166
BYY, Introduction, 1: [64], 258: the eighth house is of death; it signifies fear and death
and almauerith, that is the property or inheritances of the dead which the heirs should take
possession of after their death.
167
BYY, Introduction, 1: [64], 258: that is what is to be inherited from the dead, as has been
said above.
168
BYY, Introduction, 1: [72], 262: that is the property which is inherited from the dead.
94
to the Latin syntax, despite the fact that it is used in several different grammatical
constructions within the Arabic text and thus takes on several different forms, which
usually would result in differences in transliteration. In the Arabic text, the term is used
as a noun as the subject in a sentence (al-haylj), as a predicate (hayljan), and as a
direct object which takes the Arabic preposition li meaning for (lil-hayljyati).
The translator does not transliterate these different occurrences, choosing instead to
consistently transliterate the term in its truncated noun form hilesg. The term appears
almost always without the definite article, although it does appear in some variants.
The translator has accommodated the Latin syntax to capture the sense of the Arabic
sentence. Despite the grammatical variations in the term itself, the Arabic constructions
consistently employ the same verb, alaa (translated to be suitable in BYY),
conjugated in the same manner for every instance of the term al-haylj. The Latin, on
the other hand, uses a variety of constructions to discuss the hilesg, most often with the
adjective aptus (also meaning suitable), declined according to Latin syntax, and
occasionally with the passive form of the verb apto. The cumulative effect of the
different ways in which aptus/apto was accommodated to hilesg is difficult to imagine
for medieval readers, but the concept of the hilesg was important enough to sustain the
use of the transliterated term throughout the Latin textual history of the Introduction.
At the very least, the incorporation of the term into Latin astrological vocabulary
confirms the idea that advanced astrological concepts were strongly linked to the
Arabic tradition.169
169
Although, in fact, the concept originates in ancient texts and the term itself comes from
Persian.
95
A similar case may be made for the term alquodchodeuh, although the
translator has treated this term slightly differently. The meaning of the term is similar
to the hilesg, but utilizes the hilesg in the calculation. The translator conjugated the
term according to the genitive case on a few occasions, and thus we see this
transliteration: Quis horum fuerit fortior et plus autentior in loco hilesg et aspexerit
hilesg, erit dignior al[i]quodcodeie.170 The translator has also distinguished between
instances in the Arabic text where the definite article is preserved or dropped, resulting
in several appearances of quodchodeuh in the Latin text. The use of the definite article
in transliterations is, however, inconsistent with its appearance in the Arabic text.171
The term is defined in the Arabic text as the indicator of the length of life, which the
translator has rendered quod est significator vite or the indicator of life. As there is
no simple, single Latin word which could accommodate the meaning of this term, John
chose to preserve the Arabic transliterated term rather than employ the noun phrase
significator vite for every instance of its use.
Retaining the transliterated term has several effects on readers. It demonstrates
a respect for and appreciation of Arabic astrology. When a word is transliterated rather
than translated, there is a sense that the true meaning of the text resides in the term
itself, creating a sense of reverence for the Arabic text. In the case of nithac, the
translator reminds the reader of the Arabic origins of the text by beginning the first
chapter with an Arabic term. The Latin astronomical vocabulary related to stars,
170
BYY, Introduction, 4: [5], 324: Whichever of these would be stronger and more bold in the
place of the hyleg and will be aspecting the hyleg, it will be more worthy of the alchocoden.
171
There are two occasions where the definite article appears in the transliterated text but not in
the Arabic original. See BYY, Introduction, 4: [6], 325.
96
planets, and heavens was well-established by the early twelfth century, and the
translators decisions about transliteration reveal the complex processes behind
establishing a consistent astrological vocabulary. This process reinforces the sense in
which astrology was novel to Latin scholars, and hence they did not have their own
technical vocabulary for astrology. It also underscores the Arabic origins of the text. In
several cases, transliterated Arabic terms remained the dominant form for a particular
concept throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. This was especially true for
technical terms; all of the technical astrological terms discussed in chapter 4 of the
Introduction retained their transliterated form in manuscripts. Transliteration represents
a conscious choice on the part of the translator to preserve the original sense of Arabic
astrological vocabulary. While in some cases a Latin equivalent is provided as an
alternative, the persistence of Arabic vocabulary in the text represents an underlying
adherence to Arabic astrological terminology and thus the authority of the Arabic
Interpretative Explanations
In the previous section on transliterations, we examined how short, descriptive
phrases clarified the meaning of Arabic terms while retaining their original sense.
Several additional phrases in the Latin text but not in the Arabic original provide
further clarification of points even in the absence of a transliterated Arabic term.
Indeed, these phrases range from short clarifications to much lengthier explanations of
concepts, and they appear on virtually every page of text. They are frequently
demarcated by id est, which has no equivalent in the Arabic text and further
underscores these phrases as Latin interventions. As indicated in the previous section,
97
the BYY edition has italicized all of these Latin phrases to clearly distinguish them
from the Arabic original, and I reproduce the italics in the following analysis.
Furthermore, the astute labeling of the reviser of the manuscript Reg. lat. 1285 gives a
further hint about which of these phrases may have been added by the translator and
which of them were glosses by early readers. For the additions, as we have seen in the
previous section, the reviser used the word vacat to surround words or phrases which
are missing in the Arabic text. For the glosses, he has written the phrases in the
margins using clear reference symbols, or used the term glosa to embrace
interpretations of Arabic words or phrases found in the main text.
Some of the interpretative additions are quite obvious to the modern reader.
Consider the following example. In a section of chapter two which concerns the nature
of Saturn, the Arabic text reads: Mshallh said that it indicates Judaism and black
clothes.172 The Latin text of this section reads in full: Et dixit Messehalla, id est quod
Deux voluit, qui fuit unus astrologus in scientia perspicuus Indus qui sic dictus est,
quod significat fidem iudaicamet est ex antiquioribus, et omnes confitentur eam et
ipsa nullam aliam, sicut Saturnus, cui omnes iunguntur et ipse nulliet indumenta
negra.173 The italicized phrases in this passage are clearly missing from the Arabic
text. The reviser of Reg. Lat. 1285 labeled id est quoddictus est as glosa, whereas
et est ex antiquioribuset ipse nulli is labeled vacat and according to BYY
172
BYY, Introduction, 2:[4], 64-5: wa qala Mshallh yadala ala al-yawhudayya wa labis
al-sawad.
173
BYY, Introduction, 2:[4], 269: The passage reads: And Messehalla said, that is what God
wills, who was an Indian astrologer perspicuous in knowledge, who is thus called, that it
signifies the Jewish faithand it is among the most ancient, and all acknowledge it and itself
not any other, just as Saturn, to which all are joined and itself to noneand black clothes.
98
reproduces text from Abu Mashar, De magnis coniunctionibus. The added text
clarifies the identity of Messahala, an Indian astrologer, the first time his name is
mentioned in the text, whereas the text copied from De magnis coniunctionibus
identifies Judaism as the oldest faith, and compares it to Saturn, which has priority over
other planets. While there is no definitive evidence that these interpretations were
added by a single individual to a single manuscript, they were incorporated into the
main body of the text very early and were not always distinguishable from the
translation (except by the astute reviser of Reg. lat. 1285). I thus treat the
interpretations as resulting from the translation itself, particularly for those marked
vacat, with the most likely agent of interpretations being the translator, John of Seville.
By examining these interpretations, it is possible to discover what kinds of textual
material resulted from the Arabic-Latin translation and early assimilation of the text
into Latin culture.
Several of these interpretative additions are points that clarify astrological
theory, including the physical framework of the heavens, astro-medical ideas, and
astrological terms and concepts. In the case of the Arabic term azemena, or chronic
illness, John provides a lengthy explanation of its meaning and its relevance to
astrological calculations. The full passage is as follows:
And there are some degrees in the signs which are called degrees of azemena,
that is degrees of the weakness of the body. The azemena is a certain
debilitation of the body for a time, such as blindness, deafness, loss of limbs
and things like that, which a man will always have for as long as he lives. When
the moon is with these degrees in the birth of a boy, the aforesaid azemena
afflicts him according to the indication of the position and the aspects or
99
positions of the planets. The azemena is also indicated through the stars in
different ways, as you will find in the books on nativities.174
This passage illustrates Johns grasp of astrological theory, since he has provided not
only a clear explanation of the meaning of the Arabic term, that is degrees of the
weakness of the body, but also an indication of its use in making astrological
calculations related to nativities. While the explanation is not specific enough in
providing information for making an actual calculation, John mentions the importance
of the moon in determining chronic illness, and refers the reader to other books on
nativities for additional methods of calculation. John is known to have translated at
least one book on nativities, al-abars (Aomar) De nativitatibus, and so he would
have been familiar with astro-medical calculations related to nativities.
Occasionally, relevant information has been included that cannot be found
elsewhere in the text. In a passage on the relationship between the planets and
gestational months, for example, there is a comment about the relationship between
birth and Saturn. After listing the other planets and their corresponding gestational
months, the text links Saturn to the eighth month. The text continues, he who is born
in the eighth month will not live, because he was born under the power of Saturn.175
The malefic effects of Saturn perhaps could have been surmised by readers, but this
174
BYY, Introduction, 1:[52], 251-252: Et sunt in signis quidam gradus qui dicuntur gradus
azemena, id est gradus debilitationis corporis. Est enim azemena quedam debilitatio corporis
temporalis, ut est cecitas, surditas, amissio membrorum et cetera talia, que quamdiu vixerit
homo semper habebit secum. Cum ergo fuerit Luna cum his gradibus in nativitate alicuius
pueri, accidit ei predicta azemena secundum significationem loci et aspectus seu loca
planetarum. Significatur quoque azemena per astra diversis modis, sicut in libris nativitatem
invenies. The section in italics is the text missing from the Arabic manuscripts, incorporated
into the Latin textual tradition.
175
BYY, Introduction, 2:[44], 292: octavus Saturni, et ideo non vivit qui nascitur in octavo
mense, eo quod sub potestate Saturni nascatur, nonus vero Iovis.
100
addition specifies the loss of life. Stemming from the work of Hippocrates and
Aristotle, medieval medical doctrine stipulated that infants born during the seventh
month of gestation would live, whereas those born in the eighth month would likely
die. The reviser of Reg. Lat. 1285 has labeled this phrase: this is a gloss until the
end.176 One might give less confidence that John added this phrase since it is labeled
glosa, but John certainly could have added it to the text, and the net effect on early
readers of its inclusion is the same.
Many interpretative phrases provide examples of a particular concept,
introduced by the phrase verbi gratia (for example), and serve to elucidate
astrological definitions. The original Arabic text is somewhat lacking in the
consideration of specific examples, but when Alcabitius does give an example he uses
the Arabic mithl (example), which is translated as verbi gratia. John also used verbi
gratia to introduce examples. There is a brief passage where Alcabitius groups the
twelve zodiacal signs into three kinds: mobile, fixed, and shared.177 This grouping is
explained by an interpretation which first provides definitions of the three kinds, and
then examples. The passage reads: They are called mobile because, when the Sun
enters any of them, the season is moved forward, that is changed; or it [the sign] is
fixed, that is preserved in the same place; or it [the sign] is shared, that is half of it will
be in one season and half in another. For example: when the Sun enters the sign of
176
BYY, Introduction, 2:[44], 292: Hec una glosa et usque ad finem. It is not clear from the
BYY edition what finem refers to; one assumes it is the end of the phrase, i.e. Saturni
nascatur, since most of the rest of the section is clearly translated from the Arabic.
177
BYY, Introduction, 1:[17], 233: Quatuor quoque ex his signis dicuntur esse mobilia, id est
Aries, Cancer, Libra, et Capricorn et quatuor fixa, id est Taurus, Leo, Scorpio, et Aquarius;
reliqua vero quatuor, id est Gemini, Virgo, Saittarius et Piscis, sunt communia.
101
Aries, the season is changed, that is winter is turned into spring; and when it enters
Taurus, it is fixed in the same time of Spring; when however the Sun enters Gemini, it
[the sign] is of shared time, that is, half will be in spring and half will be in summer,
and so on with the others178 Labeled vacat by the reviser of Reg. Lat. 1285, this
lengthy explanatory passage makes the meaning of the three terms quite clear. The
astronomical concept is very basic, but John has gone to the effort of spelling out in
detail each term, with an example.
In the section immediately following this passage, John has provided additional
clarification for the concept of astrological aspects, again with an example introduced
with the phrase verbi gratia. The passage begins with an explanation of the sextile
aspect: The signs are said to aspect each other, that is every sign aspects the third
before it and the third after it, which is the eleventh, and this is called the sextile aspect,
and it is an aspect of love and friendship.179 The interpretation clarifies this definition
and provides a specific example: It [the aspect] is called sextile, because it has a sixth
part of the zodiac, that is 60 degrees. For instance, a planet which is in the beginning
of Aries aspects one which is in Gemini before it and one which is in Aquarius after
178
BYY, Introduction, 1:[17], 233-4: Dicuntur autem mobilia quia, quando ingreditur Sol
aliquod istorum, movetur, id est mutatur, tempus; vel figitur, id est in eodem statu perseverat;
aut fit commune, id est medietas illius erit unius temporis et medietas alterius. Verbi gratia:
quando Sol signum Arietis ingreditur, mutatur tempus, id est vertitur hyems in ver; et quando
intrat Taurum, figitur idem tempus vernale; quando vero Sol ingreditur Geminos, fit tempus
commune, id est dimidium erit veris et dimidium estatis, et sic de ceteris...
179
BYY, Introduction, 1:[18], 234: Dicuntur etiam signa se aspicere, hoc est omne signum
aspicit terium ante se et tertium post se, quod est undecimum, et hic aspectus dicitur sextilis, et
est aspectus dilectionis atque amicitie. Note that modern counting customs would be the
second and tenth sign rather than the third and eleventh.
102
it.180 There are similar clarifications for the quartile aspect of 90 degrees and the trine
aspect of 120 degrees181. The reviser of Reg. Lat. 1285 has labeled the first two
instances (for sextile and quartile aspects) as vacat while the third case (for trine
aspect) is labeled glosa, despite the syntactical similarities between the three
interpretative phrases.182
An additional interpretative example, introduced by verbi gratia, concerns the
relationship between aspects and astrological rays:
When a planet is in any sign, its rays will be in those signs which aspect that
sign in the same degree and minute. For instance, if Mars is in the first degree
of Aries and in the first minute of the same degree, its rays will be in the first
degree of the sign Libra and in the first minute of the same degree. You thus
understand the other aspects.183
Although the text doesnt specify this, the aspect relationship in this case is one of
opposition, or 180 degrees, as Aries and Libra are opposite each other in the zodiac.
This example is also labeled glosa by the reviser. The examples of aspect relationships
illustrate various planetary positions within signs, which enable the reader to imagine
concrete celestial circumstances. The text is rife with explanatory phrases such as
180
BYY, Introduction, 1:[18], 234: Dicitur etiam sextilis, eo quod teneat sextam partem
circuli, id est .lx. gradus. Verbi gratia, planeta qui fuerit in initio Arietis aspicit eum qui fuerit
in Geminis ante se et eum qui fuerit in Aquario post se.
181
BYY, Introduction, 1:[18], 234-5: et hic aspectus vocatur tetragona radiatio, eo quod
teneat quartum partem celi, id est nonaginta gradus and et hic aspectus dicitur trigona
radiatio, eo quod teneat tertiam partem celi, id est centum .xx. gradus
182
One possible explanation for this is that the Latin manuscript or manuscripts in the revisers
possession could have contained the phrase about the trine aspect in the margin, whereas the
first two phrases were part of the main text. This would reflect the case where John clarified
the first two instances as part of the translation, and a later hand added the third in the margin.
183
BYY, Introduction, 1:[18], 235: Cum vero fuerit planeta in aliquo signo, erunt radiis eius
in signis illis que aspiciunt ipsum signum in simili gradu atque minuto. Verbi gratia, si fuerit
Mars in primo gradu Arietis et in primo minuto eiusdem gradus, erunt radiis eius in primo
gradu signi Libre et in primo minuto eiusdem gradus. Sic intellige de ceteris aspectibus.
103
these, each instance illustrating either a concrete case, or sometimes clarifying a certain
concept or phrase. While the text was already written as an Introduction by Alcabitius,
these examples and others demonstrate the care that was taken by John in making the
text clear for Latin readers, and contribute to the pedagogical tone of the Introduction.
Additional remarks added by John also give the Introduction a didactic feel. In
the text quoted above, John used the imperative command intellige to complete the
explanation, directing the reader to understand the example. This command appears a
few additional times in the text. After listing the powers of the shares of the planets in
the signs, John concludes: Understand therefore from this number the powers of the
planets; whichever is more abundant in number, is more abundant in power.184 In a
few cases, John has reflected the use of the second person in the Arabic text in one of
his interpretations. For example, on calculating the ruler of a topic, Alcabitius begins,
And when you want to know the ruling planet of a topic, you look at whichever planet
is more authoritative in the house of the topic and the planet which indicates the nature
of that topic, just as we have said on the natures of the planetsthus you see which
planet is stronger in the house of the topic.185 In another case, John follows the second
person of the main text, but concludes with a rather forceful imperative: Because if
they will have come together in this, you make that which is faster to be changed from
184
BYY, Introduction, 1:[22], 239-240. The complete passage reads, Nam dominus domus
habet quinque fortitudines, et dominus exaltationis .iv., et dominus triplicitatis .iii., et dominus
termini duas, et dominus faciei unam. Intellige ergo ex hoc numero fortitudines planetarum;
qui enim magis habundat in numero, magis habundat in fortitudine. The reviser marks this
instance vacat.
185
BYY, Introduction, 1:[77], 265: Et cum volueris scire planetam dominatorem rei, aspicies
quis planetarum sit plus auctoritatis in domo rei et planeta qui signficat naturam illius rei, sicuti
dicemus in naturis planetarumvide ergo quis planeta sit fortior in domo rei
104
its condition to that which is better, that is that which desires to leave from any sign in
which it is and enter another [sign] in which it will have more dignities, or if they are
east of the sun, you select that which is nearer to the Sun and not under its rays. If they
are in a cardine, that one is selected which would be closer to the same degree of the
cardine. Understand!186 The command to understand and the consistent use of the
second person in explaining how to make calculations emphasize the didactic nature of
the text. The text is not meant to passively transmit astrological knowledge, but rather
to instruct readers so that they may practice astrology.
If this didactic tone was already present in the Arabic textual tradition, it was
magnified by the translators addition of interpretive comments and pedagogical
directives, which may or may not have stemmed from an Arabic marginalia
tradition.187 And, regardless of whether the translator chose to incorporate marginalia
from an Arabic manuscript or to add this language himself, the end result was the
same. One textual transformation that occured as a result of the translation was thus the
rendering of the text as more accessible to less informed or less adept readers. As
modern readers, however, we find that these interpretations are an indication of the
care with which new astrological works were being assimilated. They reveal both a
186
BYY, Introduction, 4:[3], 319: Quod si in hoc etiam convenerint, constitues eum qui
velocius debet mutari ab esse suo ad illud quod fuerit melius, id est eum qui voluerit exire de
aliquo signo in quo fuerit et intrare aliud in quo habuerit plus dignitatis vel, si fuerint a Sole
orientales, eliges eum qui Soli fuerit propior et non fuerit sub radiis. Si vero in angulo fuerint,
ille est eligendus qui gradui eiusdem anguli fuerit propior. Intellige!
187
The Arabic manuscripts in the BYY edition did not contain any marginalia. However, BYY
surmise that some of the early interventions on the text may have stemmed from Arabic
marginalia.
105
commitment to the accuracy of astrological theory and a desire to make astrological
theory more accessible to Latin readers through explanations and examples.
Religious Elements in the Introduction
One final point to consider in comparing the Arabic and Latin texts concerns
the extent to which the translator and subsequent scribes retained or omitted religious
language in the text. The Arabic text contains several religious expressions or
references, some of which were translated into Latin. For Islamic pious language, these
phrases were occasionally translated into suitable Latin equivalents of Christian piety,
but other times these phrases were omitted. The translation and omission of Muslim
expressions and references had the effect of obfuscating the Islamic origins of the text.
In translating these Muslim religious expressions into suitable Christian equivalents,
the translator adapted the text so that it conformed to the norms of medieval Christian
culture. In contrast with the retention of Arabic technical terms, this indicates the
tensions between the respect afforded to the Arabic intellectual tradition and the
disdain for the religion of Islam. While often subtle, the language employed for
religious terminology and references underscores the complexities of accommodating
Arabic astrological knowledge to Latin readers.
Throughout both the Arabic and Latin versions of the text, there are several
invocations of the deity. At the beginning of the Arabic text, we find an invocation of
God and the prophet, known as the bismillah: In the name of God, the merciful and
compassionate, and may God bless our Lord Mohammed, his family, and his
106
companions and grant them salvation.188 The bismillah is common to virtually every
book produced by Muslims,189 and the translator aptly rendered the first portion of the
phrase In nomine dei. This Latin expression appears in many, but not all, of the Latin
manuscripts. However, the blessing of Mohammed is ommitted in all manuscripts, with
only one manuscript retaining the merciful and compassionate (miseratoris et
misericordis). Several other manuscripts have modified the phrase to read In nomine
dei Ihesu Christi.190 The addition of the name of Christ in this expression solidifies the
Christian sense of the phrase. The Latin manuscripts are also missing another Islamic
laudatory expression for God, which occurs at the beginning of the dedication to Sayf
al-Dawla. The Arabic text reads: After asking God, powerful and exalted, for length
of life our Lord the Emir Sayf al-Dawla191 The Latin manuscripts omit powerful
and exalted192 but translate the rest of the phrase. By modifying or leaving out these
typical Islamic pious expressions, the Latin text obscures the Islamic elements in the
text.
To further conceal Islamic interventions on the text, Christian pious expressions
are included throughout. At the end of the first chapter, the Arabic text ends with a
common pious expression, inshaallah, if God wills, which serves as a transition to
the second chapter: we will follow this [the first chapter] with a description of the
188
189
It is also included in books by foreign authors, such as Aristotle, as scribes wrote out the
bismillah to bless their work.
190
These modifications, along with references to specific manuscripts, are discussed in BYY,
Introduction, 203-204.
191
192
107
seven planets and their natures, their conditions, and what they signify, if God the
exalted wills.193 In the Latin text, the expression if God the exalted wills is missing
at the end of this sentence, but the phrase auxiliante Deo, with the help of God, has
been added to the beginning of the same sentence.194 There are several additional
appearances of the phrase auxiliante Deo or annuente Deo, with Gods favor, which
almost always indicate a transition between two sections. One such transitional
sentence reads: Since, with the help of God, we have already put forth the essential
conditions of the zodiac, now we provide the accidental ones.195 Another passage
begins, Since, with Gods favor, we have now treated the powers of the planets in the
signs196 Another invocation of God ends the second chapter.197 In one case, Gods
help is referenced for having constructed a table198 of values of masculine and feminine
degrees. None of the previous instances are accompanied by references to the deity in
the known Arabic manuscripts, indicating that several pious Christian phrases were
193
194
BYY, Introduction, 1:[79], 266: Et quia, auxiliante Deo, iam peregimus quod proposuimus
tractare de circulo signorum et eius accidentibus
195
Set quia, auxiliante Deo, iam protulimus esse circuli signorum essentiale, nunc proferamus
etiam accidentale. BYY, Introduction, 1:[55], 253.
196
Et quia, annuente Deo, iam tractavimus de potestatibus planetarum in signis BYY,
Introduction, 1:[22], 239.
197
Et quia, Deo annuente, iam peregimus esse planetarum in semetipsis et quid significant
198
BYY, Introduction, 1:[49], 248: et hoc modo depinximus in tabula ut levius redderentur
opus, Deo auxiliante. Although this entire phrase is missing from the Arabic manuscripts, the
editors did not identify it as an interpretation, i.e. italicized, but rather merely missing from
the Arabic text.
108
incorporated into the text at the moment of translation.199 These phrases, in effect,
christened the text with Gods approbation, mitigating any misgivings early Christian
readers may have had about an Islamic astrological text.
In addition, there is only one instance in which the phrase inshaallah appears
in the main body of the Arabic text, noted above. However, the phrase appears in Latin
translation in two other passages. The Latin, si Deus volet, is a literal translation of the
Arabic inshallah. The first appearance of this phrase occurs with reference to the
construction of a table on the values of degrees, classified as bright, dark, smoky, or
empty: ex quibus faciemus tabulam si Deus volet.200 BYY state in their critical
apparatus that this phrase is missing from some other manuscripts, and occasionally
appears as si Deus voluerit.201 This passage immediately follows the passage invoking
God to construct the table of masculine and feminine degrees, where the Christian
pious expression Deo auxiliante was added. The phrase si Deus voluerit appears one
additional time in a lengthy passage which is missing from the Arabic text.202 The
passage is on the unequal hours of the days, and provides an example which lists, for
199
It is certainly possible that the Arabic manuscript used for the translation contained
invocations which were translated into Latin, and these invocations were not preserved in any
other extant manuscript. The text of Ab Mashars De magnis coniunctionibus, for example,
contains several similar invocations: cum adiutorio Dei, cum auxilio Dei and Deo adiuvante.
These phrases are used to translate the Arabic bi awn Allah, which occurs seven times in the
text. If it is the case that John of Seville also translated the De magnis coniunctionibus (which
BYY surmise), then he was able to accommodate Islamic pious language using a variety of
different Latin expressions.
200
BYY, Introduction, 1:[50], 250: and from these we will make a table, if God wills.
201
BYY, Introduction, 1:[50], 250, n. 67.
202
BYY, Introduction, 2:[49], 294: Et incipit dies sabati, cuius prima hora est Saturni, et
ipsius est tota dies, sic per ordinem numerando invenies horas dierum et noctium et divisiones
earum super planetis, si Deus voluerit.
109
each hour, the planet associated with that hour. From the evidence presented, there are
several possibilities. It appears that the phrase inshaallah may have appeared in the
Arabic manuscript in the translators possession, and that the translator was
inconsistent in his literal translation of this phrase versus his substitution of the
Christian expressions Deo auxiliante or Deo annuente. Alternatively, the translator
may have added these Christian pious expressions where there was no Islamic
equivalent in the Arabic text. Whatever the case, the end result was the same for the
medieval Christian reader. Christian pious expressions were scattered throughout the
text, and Islamic pious elements were obscured.
The Arabic text of the Introduction makes reference to Muslim tenets or
practices seldomly, but Latin translations of these references provide further insight
into how attitudes towards Islam transformed the text. One passage in particular
exemplifies these subtile cues. This passage provides an explanation of the calculation
of an astrological term, the terminal point (al-intih, profectio) for the years of the
world, and uses an example about the rise of Islam. The BYY translation of the Arabic
passage reads:203
As for the intih (terminal point) from the years of the world, al-Kindi says
that between the year of the Conjunction indicating the religion and the Hegira
there were 52 solar years. The ascendant of the year of the Conjunction of the
religion was Gemini and the year in which the Prophet (May the prayers and
blessings of God be upon Him!) fled <to Medina> arrived at Virgo. Between
the Hegira and Yazdigird were 3624 days. When you want to know this, take
the years of Yazdigird and convert them into days as was explained for you in
the Zig, and add to this the days which are between the Hegira and Yazdigird
and divide this <result> by 365 1/4 days. What results are the solar years. The
remainder is the months and days which belong to the incomplete (I.e. Current)
203
110
year. The sum of the years are the solar years after the Hegira. Take one sign
for each year and begin with Virgo. Then, wherever your counting of signs has
arrived is the sign at which the Year of the world has arrived from the
ascendant of the Conjunction of the religion.
For comparison, the Latin passage is:204
Profectio autem ex annis mundi. Dixit Alchindi quia fuerunt inter annum
coniunctionis que significavit sectam Saracenorum et inter annum Alhegerah,
qui fuit primus annus annorum Arabum, .lii. Anni solares, et fuit ascendens
anni coniunctionis predicte secte signum Geminorum, et pervenit profectio
eiusdem anni ad Virginem, et inter ipsum annum primum annorum Arabum et
primum annorum Iazdagird, regis Persarum, fuerunt tria milia et .dc. Et. .xxiiii.
Dies. Cum ergo volueris habere notitiam huius rei, accipe annos Iazdagird et
verte eos in dies sicut expositum est in Azige, id est in libro cursuum
planetarum, et adde desuper dies qui sunt inter primum annorum Arabum et
Iazdagird, et divide hoc per .ccclxv. Dies et quartam partem diei, et quot
divisiones exierint, tot erunt anni solares; et quod remanserit ex mensibus et
diebus erit ex anno imperfecto, quodque coniunctum fuerit ex annis, ipsi sunt
anni solares ab initio annorum Arabum. Proice ergo omni anno signum unum,
et incipe a Virgine, et ad quodcunque signum perduxerit te numerus, ipsum erit
signum ad quod pervenit annus mundi ab ascensione coniunctionis predicte
secte.
In the Arabic text, the religion, is of course understood to be self-referential,
meaning Islam. Drawing on the contextual reference to the hijra,205 the Latin translator
used the phrase secta Saracenorum to specify the sect of the Saracens, which is
Islam. The phrase secta Saracenorum is used only in the first instance, with two further
instances having employed predicta secta, or the aforementioned sect. In the first
reference to the hijra in the Latin text, the term is transliterated Alhegerah. The
translator then added the following definition: which is the first year of the Arabic
204
205
The hijra is a reference to the flight of Muhammed from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE,
which marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar.
111
years. In addition, subsequent references in the Arabic text to the hijra are translated
as some variation on the explanatory phrase the first of the Arabic years, rather than
transliterated.206 As was the case for other transliterated terms, sometimes a short Latin
phrase substituted for a transliteration. It is noteworthy, however, that terminology for
the most important date of the Islamic calendar has been omitted and replaced by the
more religiously neutral first of the Arabic years. Furthermore, the Arabic text
mentions the flight of the Prophet explicitly in order to distinguish between the
ascendant of the conjunction indicating the religion (which occured in 571 CE) and the
ascendant of the hijra (622 CE). The Latin text, however, does not mention the Prophet
at all, nor the exaltations to him, but rather refers to the location of the terminal point:
and the ascendant of the year of the conjunction of the aforementioned religion is
the sign of Gemini, and the terminal point of that same year arrives at Virgo. Lastly,
the treatment of the reference to the hijra and secta Saracenorum should be contrasted
with the treatment of the term Iazdagird.207 In the latter case, Iazdagird, the King of
the Persians, was unproblematically transliterated and retained in transliteration.
The omissions and translations in this passage illustrate how the Muslim faith
elements were downplayed while a link to the Arabic tradition was retained. All
Islamic religious references have been omitted, except for secta Saracenorum, which is
mentioned only once. This is despite the fact that the calculation is based on the most
important date of the Islamic calendar. The beginning of the Arabic years, or calendar,
206
BYY, Introduction, 4:[9], 329: annum primum annorum Arabum, primum annorum
Arabum, ab initio annorum Arabum.
207
Iazdagird refers to Yazdegerd III, the last King of the Sasanian Empire, who ascended to
the thrown in 632 CE.
112
was referenced frequently in Latin medieval astronomy and astrology since all Arabic
texts, of course, utilized the Islamic calendar for making calculations. The tone of the
passage is also neutral, without any disparaging remarks made towards Islamic faith or
Mohamed. This is in contrast to references to Islam in two of the manuscripts of De
magnis coniunctionibus, which may also have been translated by John of Seville. In
these manuscripts, one of which dates to 1248, the discussion of the hijra includes the
phrase repulsus et odium fuit Prophete, super quem sit maledictio, or the repulsion
and hatred was of the Prophet, upon whom may there be a curse.208 It is worth noting
here that this passage of the Introduction does include a marginal note present in two
manuscripts, and in the text of two other manuscripts, which gloss Alhegerah with the
phrase i.e. seditionis Machometi, or the revolt of Mohamed.209 As a marginal note, this
comment will be discussed further in the chapter on marginalia.
Vernacular Translations
In addition to the translation of the text from Arabic into Latin by John of
Seville, the Introduction was translated from Latin into several other languages over
the course of the Middle Ages. In considering the importance of Arabic learning to
medieval European intellectual culture beyond Latin readership, the retention of Arabic
astrological terms and references to Islam within vernacular texts is certainly a
208
C. Burnett, The Strategy of Revision in Arabic-Latin Translations from Toledo: The Case
of Abu Mashars On the Great Conjunctions, in Les Traducers au Travail: leurs manuscrits
et leurs methodes, ed. J. Hamesse (Brepols, 2001). The manuscript is Vienna, Osterreichische
Nationalbibliothek, 5478.
209
According to BYY, the comment appears in the marginalia of two other manuscripts and in
the text of a third. Another manuscript has seductionis Magmech in the text. See BYY,
Introduction, 4:[9], 329 (y).
113
valuable path of inquiry. Assuming that similar transformations occurred in the
numerous vernacular translations of the text, most of which appear to have been made
by astrologers, it is likely that Arabic learning received similar esteem among a broader
literate population. The contexts of these additional translations, and some initial
observations from the extant manuscripts (particularly regarding the persistence of
Arabic vocabulary), yield further insight into the scope of Arabic influence on
medieval Europe. While the level of detail afforded to the Arabic-Latin translation in
this study cannot yet be achieved, it is nevertheless worthwhile to briefly consider what
is known about the other translations of the Introduction.
Hebrew: The Hebrew translations of the text are unique in that Hebrew was the
language of the Jewish scholarly tradition, which was quite rich in astrology and
astronomy during this period. Charles Burnett has identified the Hebrew manuscripts
and other references to Alcabitius within the Jewish tradition, and I repeat his findings
here.210 A complete Hebrew translation of the Introduction, the only one extant, is in a
sixteenth-century manuscript in Jerusalem.211 There are two additional copies in
Hebrew, although they are written in Arabic script. Burnett reports that one of these
appears to be from Syria,212 and the other from seventeenth- or eighteenth-century
Egypt.213 Finally, there is a Castilian manuscript written in Hebrew script, dated to the
210
C. Burnett, Al-Qabisis Introduction to Astrology 46-47.
211
MS Jeursalem, Jewish National Library, Heb 28 2033, fols. 143r-152v. Burnett notes that
the script is from sixteenth-century Provence and that the manuscript includes John of
Saxonys commentary (Provencal).
212
Oxford, Bodleian Library, Huntington 582, fols. 19a-61a.
213
Moscow, Russian State Library, Gnzburg, 813.
114
fifteenth-century and accompanied by the Libro de las cruzes.214 There is only one
other surviving manuscript of the Libro de las cruzes, which was translated from
Arabic at the court of Alfonso X, the king of Lon and Castile, on February 26, 1259.
Presumably al-Qabs Introduction and the Libro de las cruzes were translated
together, another example of al-Qabisis vernacular popularity in courts.
French: There are two known French manuscripts of the Introduction, one of which is
copied from the other.215 In one version, Oxford, St. Johns College MS 164, the
Introduction appears with two other known translations by Plerin de Prusse: his
treatise on the astrolabe, which in part contains a French translation of John of Sevilles
Latin rendition of Messehallas Compositio et operatio astrolabii, and a Livret des
elections. This manuscript also contains Nicole Oresmes Trait de lespere.216 The
Livret is dedicated to the future Charles V of France, on July 11, 1361.217 In the other
214
Burnett corrected the misattribution of this copy of the Libro de las cruzes to al-Qab,
which had been erroneously identified as possibly being a unique manuscript of another of his
works, by M. Steinschneider, Die hebraeischen Uebersetzungen des Mittelalters (Berlin,
1893), 562, and A. Schwarz, Die Hebrischen Handschriften der Nationalbibliothek in Wien
(Vienna, 1924), 233. See Burnett, From Courtly Entertainment, 46, n. 21.
215
One manuscript dates to the fourteenth century and is at Oxford, St. Johns College, MS
164. It is described in Edgar Laird, Plerin de Prusse on the Astrolabe (New York, 1995), 3-5.
The other manuscript is MS BAV Reg. lat. 1337, which I have examined. The latter manuscript
lacks initial rubrications, which may indicate that it was a copy of the former.
216
Nicole Oresme likely disapproved of having his works bound with astrological texts. For
Nicole and the controversy of astrology at the court of Charles V, see Joan Cadden, Charles
V, Nicole Oresme, and Christine de Pizan, in Text and Contexts in Ancient and Medieval
Science, ed. Edith Scylla and Michael McVaugh (Leiden: Brill, 1997), 208-244.
217
There are two separate inscriptions which record a date of copying in 1361 in MS BAV
Reg. lat. 1337. The first is on 88r: Et cette regle generalle ay de mise au bout de cette partie de
ce livret des elections universelles de 12 maisons affin quelle soit la clef de toute autres et
fermetures (?) lesquelles jay accomply par layde du Dieu a mon pouvoir lan de grace 1361.
Le 11 jour de juillet, ascendant la 15 degre de Libra. Le soleil a midy 4e etc. En la petit
consergerie de lhostel de monsieur de normandie de coste saint pol lez Paris.
115
version, BAV Reg. Lat. 1337, the Introduction appears with the Livret, along with a
nativity for the prince as well as brilliantly colored planetary diagrams, tables, and two
astrological volvelles. A later owner of the text, the royal physician Francois Rasse de
Neux, inscribed his name on this copy in 1546.
Italian: There is only one known, non-extant Italian translation of the text. The Italian
Introduction is listed in Leonardo da Vincis library, as a gift from the Florentine
astrologer Francesco Sirigatti.218 Sirigatti also translated Guido Bonattis Liber
astronomiae and Lucio Bellantis Tractatus astronomiae.
Dutch: There are two known Middle Dutch translations of the first differentia (chapter)
of the Introduction. The earlier translation, from the first half of the fourteenth century,
was commissioned by the noblewoman Aleid van Zandenburg, the illegitimate
daughter of the count of Holland and Hainault, who married into the nobility.219 This
translation has a prologue invoking the Trinity and Saint Mary, and an introductory
The second appears to be a partial copy of the first, with the added date of 1561 on 45v reads:
De lastrologie judiciare deux livres faits par Pelerin de Pruce par le commandement de tres
excellent et puissant Prince et tres redoute seigneure Monseigneure Charles fils aisne du Roy
de France Duc de Normandie et Dauphin de viennoys. Et fut accomply par layde du Dieu lan
de grace 1361. Le 11. jour de juillet, ascendant la 15 degre du Libra. Le soleil a mydi 4e etc.
En la petit consergerie du lhostel de monsieur de normandie de coste sami pant les Paris.
1561
218
The reference is in Carlo Pedretti, ed., The Literary Works of Leonardo da Vinci, vol. 1,
(University of California Press, 1977), 358: (32) alcabitio vulgare del serigatto; this
translation is also mentioned by Monica Azzolini, The Duke and the Stars: Politics and
Astrology in Renaissance Milan, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2013), 45, n. 88.
219
L. Veltman, "Een astrologisch tractaat voor een adellijke dame. Aleid van Zandenburg en de
Berlijnse codex mgq 1404', in: E. Huizenga, O.S.H. Lie and L.M. Veltman, Een wereld van
kennis. Bloemlezing uit de Middelnederlandse artesliteratuur, (Hilversum 2002), 85-105.
There is a dedication in verse to Aleid van Zandenburg.
116
chapter on the zodiac. The second translation dates to the late fifteenth century, and the
text has been shortened and partially replaced by tables.220
English: There are three Middle English manuscripts. According to Charles Burnett,
one was translated from the French221 in 1460 and there are two English versions
translated from the Latin.222 It is possible that the Latin-English translations are the
same.
German: A German translation was made by Arnold of Freiburg, an astrologer and
Dominican friar, in 1312 and it survives in several manuscripts.223
Through these translations, Arabic learning was made available to a broader audience
of the medieval literate public. The fact that Arabic learning penetrated literate
vernacular culture is a reminder that Arabic astrology was acknowledged as
authoritative outside of universities.
Conclusion
The medieval attribution of the translation of the Introduction to Astrology to
John of Seville was most often noted in manuscripts with the phrase interpretatus a
220
Vienna, sterreichische Nationalbibliothek, 2818.
221
New York, Kraus booksellers, Bute 13 (15th cent.), fols. 4r-46v. Burnett quotes the relevant
passage in From Courtly Entertainment, 47, n. 25: translated out of Frenche into Englysch
be Brokhole be the sayd seigneur the yer of our lord 1460 (fol. 46v).
222
Cambridge, Trinity College, O.5.26, fols. 3r-29v (14th cent.) John North used this copy for
his overview of astrology in Chaucers Universe, 192-220. The other manuscript is in
Cambridge, Trinity College, O.7.2C, fols. 1r-8v, continued in O.7.2B, fols. 1r-27r.
223
The earliest of these manuscripts, as noted by Burnett in From Courtly Entertainment, 48,
n. 27, are Berlin, Staatsbibliothek-Preussischer Kulturbesitz, germ. Fol. 479 (written in Vienna
in 1385) and Wroclaw, Biblioteka Uniwersytecka, Akc. 1948/207, fols. 40v-63v (14th cent.).
117
Iohanne Hispalensi. The meaning of interpretatus in this context firstly connotes
translation, although the word also refers to an explanation or interpretation. This
latter sense is implied in a discussion about the authority of texts translated from the
Arabic in pseudo-Alberts Speculum astronomiae from approximately 1260, where the
author specifically mentions Alcabitiuss Introduction. There, after a discussion about
the nativity of Christ and the possibility of illicit material contained in astrological
texts, the author concludes: Again, what merit has the book by Abdilaziz, whom he
calls Alcabitius, which was similarly included amongst the iniquitous books deserved?
If there are names in an unknown language in his text, their meanings are immediately
added to the text itself; but if perhaps the meanings of some [of these words] should be
missing, [there is a] man prepared to supply them.224 The foreign terms mentioned
here, which are immediately added to the text itself, are likely references to the
interpretations added by the translator. Pseudo-Albert also implies that foreign terms
should not be an obstacle to understanding, and encourages readers to look elsewhere
for their meaning, perhaps in annotations or commentaries.225
Pseudo-Alberts comment exemplifies an attitude of accommodation towards
Arabic texts that many early Latin readers espoused. The preservation of Arabic
technical astrological terms within the Introduction, and the efforts made to make the
text more accessible to medieval Latin readers through interpretations, illustrates an
224
Paula Zambelli, The Speculum astronomiae and its Enigma (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic,
1992), 257. The Latin text reads: Quid iterum meruit liber Abdilaziz quem uocat Alkabitium,
qui similiter cum iniquis deputatus est? Si sunt in textu eius nomina ignotae linguae, statim
subduntur in lettera interpretationes eorum; quod si forte aliquorum interpretationes defuerint,
paratus est vir earum copiam exhibere.
225
The double-layered interpretation sense of this passage is suggested by BYY in the
Introduction, 209, n. 33.
118
appreciation of and commitment to the authority of the Arabic astrological tradition.
However, there were certainly some concerns with the Islamic origins of the text, as
revealed by how the translator dealt with religious terminology. Johns treatment of
religious terminology exhibits a subtle distinction made between the Arabic tradition
and the Muslim faith. Whereas Arabic knowledge and the astrological tradition were
preserved and revered, Islamic pious language and religious references were hidden or
transformed into Christian equivalents. As a result, the Introduction became a hybrid
text: full of Arabic terms, yet conforming to Christian norms. The translation of the
text preserved the texts Arabic heritage and solified the link between astrology and
Arabic culture. As it became one of the most popular texts on astrology in the medieval
period, subsequent readers of Alcabitiuss Introduction continued to treat it as
invaluable in learning the skills of an astrologer.
119
Chapter 3: Marginalia and Annotations
Introduction
Marginalia serve as written records of the interaction between an individual and
the text. For medieval readers, marginal annotations could have been spontaneous
interventions made to the text, or perhaps well-planned guides for subsequent readers,
or copies of another readers set of notes. There is no other type of evidence which
provides as much insight into how medieval readers made use of their texts. As the
lives of some manuscripts spanned centuries, annotations written in the margins
formed the backdrop against which later readers encountered and understood what they
read.226 Annotations were often sources of additional information or interpretations not
found in the text itself. Marginalia that were standardized and copied into multiple
manuscripts, or scholia, became the basis of commentaries, or were essential
components for spreading popular interpretations.227 While these practices shifted
somewhat as humanistic interests and printing technology reshaped both reading
practices and the format of books, the role of marginalia as evidence of the interpretive
framework of reader and text was present throughout the premodern period. Marginalia
are found in almost every genre of the written tradition: literary, theological,
226
A general survey of medieval reading can be found in M.B. Parkes, Reading, copying and
interpreting a text in the early Middle Ages, in A History of Reading in the West, eds.
Guglielmo Cavallo, Roger Chartier, and Lydia Cochrane (Amherst: University of
Massachusetts Press, 1999).
227
The standard Biblical gloss, the glossa ordinaria, is the most famous example of this
practice. See L. Smith, The Glossa ordinaria: the Making of a Biblical Commentary (Leiden:
Brill, 2009).
120
philosophical, medical, and scientific texts all contain evidence of readers
relationships with the written word.228
In this chapter, I present and analyze the marginalia from several manuscripts
and two printed versions of Alcabitiuss Introduction to Astrology. The marginalia
range from one of the earliest manuscripts of the text, dating to the thirteenth century,
to some of the latest manuscripts of the text, which date to the late fifteenth century.229
While there are certainly shifts in annotation practices across the centuries, there are
several general features and common themes about the kinds of annotations being
made in Alcabitiuss Introduction that I wish to highlight. By drawing attention to
these general features through several examples, I place the practice of annotation of
these astrological manuscripts within the norms of broader medieval scribal culture. In
addition, I establish different modes of readership of the text, which are tied to
different kinds of readers, and point out how shifts in marginalia practices over the
centuries reflect the needs and interests of these various groups of readers. After that, I
analyze the frequency and manner of the citation of Arabic sources within manuscripts
of the Introduction. This establishes the broad familiarity of Arabic astrological
authorities among the Introductions readers. The presence of transliterated Arabic
228
Much of the literature on theoretical approaches to marginalia and the history of readership
is from the perspective of literary scholarship and criticism. Some general themes are
addressed in The Medieval Professional Reader at Work: evidence from manuscripts of
Chaucer, Langland, Kempe, and Gower, eds. K. Kerby-Fulton and M. Hilmo (Victoria, BC:
University of Victoria Press, 2001). See also Reading and Literacy in the Middle Ages and
Renaissance, ed. I. Moulton (Turnhout: Brepols, 2004). For marginalia in printed books, see
William Sherman, Used Books: Marking Readers in Renaissance England (Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008).
229
A near-complete list of both Latin and Arabic manuscripts is available in the BYY edition.
See Introduction, 156-198.
121
terms in the manuscripts, as well as the scribal errors, corrections, and variants listed in
the margins, enhance the sense in which astrology was foreign, and particularly Arabic,
for early Latin readers. I conclude that citation practices, annotations, and the retention
of transliterated terms are indicative of the attitudes of medieval Latin scholars towards
Arabic astrology in particular, and Arabic learning more generally.
Examples of Marginalia from Manuscripts and Printed Texts
There are several general features about the marginalia in both the manuscripts
and printed versions of the Introduction that remain static over centuries of readership.
These features are consistent with marginalia in other scientific and mathematical
manuscripts.230 Rather than discuss each manuscript in detail, Ive drawn several
representative examples of marginalia from various manuscripts, ranging from the
thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries. These examples serve to elucidate the various
types, subjects, and formats of marginalia, as well as the terminology I use to
distinguish between them. I have grouped the marginalia into the following categories:
scribal corrections, translation variants and variant spellings of transliterated words,
subject headings, interlinear remarks, explanations or definitions of technical doctrines
and terms, examples of technical doctrines, and lengthier discussions of technical
points. The evidence presented here is based upon my own transcriptions of
230
A few other examples may be found in C. Burnett and D. Jacquart, eds., Scientia in
margine: tudes sur les marginalia dans les manuscrits scientifiques du moyen ge la
renaissance (Genve: Droz, 2005); J. E. Murdoch, Transmission into Use: the Evidence of
Marginalia in the medieval Euclides Latinus, in Revue dhistoire des Sciences 56, 2 (2003):
369-382; A. M. I. Van Oppenraay, The Reception of Aristotles History of Animals in the
Marginalia of Some Latin Manuscripts of Michael Scots Arabic-Latin Translation, Early
Science & Medicine 8, 4 (2003): 387-403.
122
manuscripts consulted in situ, as well as marginalia from early in the Latin textual
tradition which have been recorded in the BYY edition.231
Textual corrections
Some of the most common types of marginalia are corrections made to the text
by the scribe himself or subsequent readers. In the case of the Introduction, these may
include incorrectly copied words or spellings, or mistakes related to astrological values.
The marginalia in BAV Vat. lat. 4079 include several scribal corrections which appear
in boxes in the margins on the same line as the miscopied text. These corrections range
from simple substitutions of numerical values to corrections of corrupt text, or the
addition of text that was left out during the copying process. For example, in a section
listing numerical values for the degrees in which a planet is said to be in a well
(puteus), the number 7 is left out for Capricorn and added in the margin, and the
number 22 is corrected to 24 for Aquarius.232 The scribe has also given some variant
readings which appear in boxes. In total, there are at least thirty boxed scribal
corrections in the twenty-four folio pages of Vat. lat. 4079. While none of the other
manuscripts considered in this study has anything like the distinctive box used by the
scribe of Vat. lat. 4079, there are certainly corrections of corrupt text or of mistaken
values added by later readers in manuscripts until the late fifteenth century. In Reg. lat.
1285, for example, the annotator has made a point of clarifying a particular term,
231
The glosses have been recorded in the first critical apparatus. In these notes, textual
references to the glosses include the chapter, section number in brackets, followed by the page
number and an italicized lowercase letter which identifies the phrase in the main text associated
with the gloss. I have also at times retained the manuscript sigla from the BYY edition.
232
BAV Vat. lat. 4079, f. 43r. The corresponding section in the edition is BYY, Introduction,
1: [51], 251.
123
writing: ubicumque invenitur in isto hoc nomen cavilla debet esse calcanei, or
wherever the word ankle is found in this, it should be heels.233 Cavilla and
calcaneum refer to the ankle and heel, respectively, but cavilla is used more in the
vernacular (compare with cheville in French). The Latin meaning of cavilla can also be
scoffing or jeering, hence the need for disambiguation.
Translation variants and variant spellings
Upon encountering an unfamiliar or difficult Arabic term, oftentimes with a
specific astrological meaning, the translator could pursue several different options. One
possibility was to transliterate the term, often resulting in a large number of variant
spellings in later manuscripts, as we have seen in the previous chapter. The Arabic
term al-tli, ascendant, for example, was initially transliterated athalie, and then later
translated ascendens (which was then retained for the remainder of the text). An
annotator in Vat. Lat. 4079 has labeled the first instance of the term athalie id est
horoscopus, and an interlinear annotation reads id est ascendens.234 Another
possibility for the translator would be to select a translation, and then include two or
three variants in the margins. Burnett, Yamamoto, and Yano suggest that one
individual, who revised the text in the manuscript Reg. lat. 1285, was familiar with
Arabic and was also likely responsible for introducing several translation variants into
the text.235 This is evident from his suggestion of variants which are closer to the
meaning of the Arabic word. For example, in one instance the translator has rendered
233
BYY, Introduction, 1: [35], 246 (v).
234
BAV Vat. lat. 4079, f. 43va. BYY, Introduction, 1:[57], 255.
235
This manuscript and the reviser are discussed in BYY, Introduction, 216-220.
124
al-iqbl as perfectionem, and the reviser has noted in a adventum in the margin.236
The sense of adventus, arrival, is closer to the meaning of al-iqbl than perfectio,
completion. Two other early manuscripts have the variant profectio, the astrological
meaning of which is terminal point, which also signifies arrival.237 Translation
variants also appear more frequently in the margins of early manuscripts than the later
ones, permitting later scribes to have agency in their selection of terms and their
appropriation of the text. We may consider the selection among translation variants,
along with scribal corrections, as examples of a contextual reading rather than an
arbitrary choice. Marginalia associated with transliterated Arabic terms remained quite
common throughout the centuries, and we will return to this topic later in the chapter.
Subject/Section headings
Several manuscripts have marginalia which label different sections of text,
delineating both astrological categories and different subject matter. Often these
section headings demarcate the general subject of the text, especially in the first
chapter of the Introduction where Alcabitius covers several areas of astrological
terminology and basic concepts. An annotator of BAV Pal. Lat. 1340 has labeled
various sections in the first chapter, including the four different kinds of triplicities, and
236
BYY, Introduction, 1:[71], 261 (h). BYY argue that the use of in a, which is only once
expanded as in alio libro (2:[42]), likely refers to another Arabic manuscript, as the
translations which it introduces are not found in any other manuscript and they are similar to a
family of manuscripts not used by John of Seville. See BYY, Introduction, 217-218, and 217,
n. 57.
237
The use of profectio could have been intentional, or it could have been a simple scribal
mistake (per/pro).
125
the decans.238 One very frequently finds, as well, either the names of the planets or the
signs of the zodiac, or their affiliated symbols, noted in the margin when these appear
together in the text.239 BAV Pal. lat. 1408 contains marginalia which have been made
entirely in red ink. Most marginalia in this manuscript are section headings related to
planets, signs of the zodiac, houses, and lots, although there are also frequent notations
of variant spellings, particularly for transliterated Arabic terms. Labeling the subject or
sections of text continued even after a printed table of contents was added to the text,
as evident from the 1512 edition held at the Newberry Library, which contains labeling
very similar to its medieval counterparts.240 The marginalia in the University of
Oklahoma Librarys copy of the 1512 edition of the Introduction also contains labels
identifying the sections in John of Saxonys commentary which correspond to the main
text.241
Interlinear remarks
Not many of the manuscripts examined in this study contained interlinear
marginalia, although there are a few interesting examples which have some similarities
with the practice of labeling subjects noted above. In Vat. lat. 4079 there is a single
hand that has added interlinear notes throughout the text. Many of these are
corrections, but several also serve as labels and reminders to the reader. For example,
238
BAV Pal. lat. 1340, triplicitas prima, f. 166r, triplicitas secunda, triplicitas tertia,
triplicitas quarta, f. 166v; facies prima, facies secunda, facies tertia, f. 167v.
239
E.g. de sole, de marte, de luna, etc. or de ariete, de cancro, etc. The zodiac symbols appear
as labels in Pal. lat. 1340, f. 168v and f. 169r.
240
Alchabitius cum commento (Venice: Sessa, 1512), Newberry Library, Case B 8635.01.
241
Alchabitius cum commento (Venice: Sessa, 1512), University of Oklahoma Libraries.
126
there are several notes about the relationship between Mars and the use of iron in
medical practices. The second chapter of the Introduction lists the natures of the seven
planets, including what features or activities are expected when the planet mixes
(complectitur) with the other planets. In the passage about Mars, the annotator has
added this is done with iron, for several practices,242 including blood-letting (for
Mars alone), the cutting of hair and nails (when mixed with Venus), the removal of
teeth and the cleaning of ears (when mixed with the Moon). Presumably, the idea as
indicated by the annotator is that these practices are performed with iron tools, and the
activities should be performed under an appropriate celestial configuration.
Definitions, Examples, and Explanations
The last several types of marginalia highlight the depth and attention readers
devoted to the text, and range from efforts to elucidate the text through definitions,
examples of specific points, and the explanation of terms and concepts. Short
definitions appear frequently in several manuscripts, often for transliterated terms.
Definitions could be very basic. One gloss defines the world year as follows: The year
which begins when the Sun enters the first minute of Aries is called the year of the
world.243 An annotation that appears in at least three early manuscripts defines the
transliterated term firdaria: Firdaria is a Persian word and it is translated rulership
and it is understood as the years of firdaria for any planet, that is the years of rulership
242
Vat. lat. 4079, f. 45ra, hoc fit cum ferro.
BYY, Introduction, 2: [14], 273-4.

243
BYY, Introduction, 4:[8], p.326 (p): Annus mundi dicitur annus qui incipit cum Sol intrat
primum minutum Arietis.
127
for any planet, that means the years in which the planet has rulership over the life of
the native, and how this is done is explained fully in the fifth chapter of this book.244
Annotators may also provide clarifications or explanations that contain specific
examples, rather than simple definitions. In the first chapter, Alcabitius lists the names
of the houses in which the lords take pleasure in entering them, according to the Greek
astrological author Dorotheus of Sidon. An annotator of Vat. lat. 4079 explained why
this was the case, with a specific example: Note that in these signs one or both of the
qualities of the planets are counterbalanced, since Saturn is cold and dry, Aquarius is
warm and wet. Thus it [Saturn] takes pleasure in Aquarius245 Several early
manuscripts illustrate marginalia of this type, as well as some printed books.
Discussions.
Some manuscripts contain fairly substantial passages of marginal comments
which discuss an astrological technique with a specific example. These comments may
suggest alternative methods for making the same calculation. They are distinguished
from the previous set of marginalia (definitions/examples) because of their length and
depth of commentary. Lengthier marginal comments are valuable in that they enable us
to evaluate the level of competence of the reader. Often discussions revolve around
some point of astrological theory, and long, critical comments help us to see the extent
244
BYY, Introduction, 2: [5], 270 (g): Firdaria est nomen Persicum et interpretatur
dominatio et videntur anni firdarie alicuius planete, id est anni dominationis alicuius planete,
scilicet anni in quibus planeta ille habet dominium super vitam nati, et qualiter hoc fiat in .5.
differentia huius libri habetur plenarie.
245
BYY, Introduction, 1: [14], 230-1. Vat. lat. 4079, f. 41rb: Nota quod in istis signis una uel
ambe qualitates planetarum contemperantur, quia Saturnus est frigida et sicca, Aquarius est
calidus et humidus. Ergo gaudet in Aquario
128
of the readers astrological knowledge. They also reveal sections of the text that the
reader found particularly valuable or interesting, indicating which astrological topics
appealed to different readers at different times and places. Discussions which take up
entire margins of one or both sides of the page, as well as the top or bottom of the page,
appear to be limited mostly to the manuscript tradition rather than printed books.
Examples of long marginal comments will be discussed in the next section.
Approximately one third of the thirty manuscripts I have studied contain fairly
substantial marginalia.246 All of the various forms of marginalia play a role in
reconstructing the history of the texts readership, particularly in understanding how
these forms of marginalia were used in different contexts at different times. In the
following section, I examine how different kinds of marginalia provide a sense of how
the readership of the text may have changed over the centuries, and more specifically
what kinds of readers were using the text.
Readers and Contexts of Readership
The marginalia present clear evidence of readership, but the identities of the
vast majority of individual readers remain anonymous. The scribe or copyist
occasionally wrote down his identity, and sometimes there are other ownership
inscriptions in manuscripts or printed books, but it is unusual to find an inscription that
matches an annotating hand, particularly if there are multiple hands. Annotators very
rarely claimed their marginalia. In addition, while dates are rare and place-names even
246
There are three reasons that some manuscripts were left out of consideration: there were no
marginalia at all; too much of the marginalia was illegible; the marginalia are limited to subject
headings or minor notes on a few pages. Marginalia also may be missing from texts that had
margins cut in the binding process.
129
more difficult to find in the extant manuscripts of the Introduction, ownership
inscriptions can provide valuable clues. In establishing the readership of the
Introduction, we must consider both the evidence known to us regarding specific
individuals, times, or places, and reconstruct other possible contexts taking cues from
the marginalia itself. In this section, I have identified four different classes of readers
associated with contexts of readership. There is certainly overlap among the classes,
and these groupings are meant to aid our understanding of the texts readership rather
than refer to distinct historical categories, although further study will contribute to
establishing the latter more thoroughly. I begin with the groups earliest readers, the
skilled scholars, and then consider university students and professors, astrological
practitioners, and astrological enthusiasts.
The skilled scholars were some of the texts earliest readers, and their
comments reveal that they had a fair grasp of astrological principles, as well as the
desire to make clear Alcabitiuss Introduction to themselves and later readers. The
skilled scholars took John of Sevilles translation and offered revisions, corrections,
and further layers of appropriation through their comments on the text. While they do
not exactly demonstrate established expertise or innovation in astrological knowedge,
they are certainly acquiring and assimilating new knowledge quickly and efficiently,
and applying this knowledge to their own contexts. Thus, their mid-level competence
in astrology allows them to serve as scholarly intermediaries between the context of
classical Latin learning and the new Arabic astrological knowledge. One skilled
scholar who exemplifies this model is Raymond of Marseilles, who mentioned
130
Alcabitius in 1141.247 Raymond adapted a set of Latin astronomical tables for Toledo
(which had been translated from Arabic) to the meridian of Marseilles in his Liber
cursuum planetarum, and also composed his own summary of judicial astrology (the
Liber iudiciorum) based on translations of the works of Albumasar, Alcabitius, and
Zael.248 Skilled scholars may also have worked as astrologers in court settings, as one
of the lots from the fifth chapter of the Introduction was included in an astrological
judgement composed for Henry, Duke of Normandy, in 1151.249
The efforts of skilled scholars to explain and clarify the text are represented by
marginalia in several of the earliest extant manuscripts of the Introduction, the oldest
of which contains the date of 1181, although BYY have noted that this may be an
erroneous attribution of the date of translation.250 This manuscript contains a
significant amount of marginalia, most of which are alternative readings or spellings of
Arabic terms which appear to have been added by a later hand.251 Another manuscript,
Reg. lat. 1285,252 contains marginalia which BYY have recorded in the first apparatus
247
BYY make this claim based on evidence from MS Paris BNF lat. 16208, fols. 13r-26r. See
248
C. Burnett, Raymond of Marseile, in Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers
(Springer, 2014), 1804-1805.
249
The lot is the pars tritici and appears uniquely in BYY, Introduction, 5: [19]. See BYY,
Introduction, 201, n. 12; see also North, Some Norman Horoscopes, 151.
250
BAV, Barberini 236. The date of the inscription reads: Perfectus introductorius liber
Alcabisii ad magisterium iudiciorum astrorum octavo die mensis Ianuarii tercie indicionis
annis Domini perfectis .1181. BYY argue that the date doesnt make sense, since John of
Seville was active in the 1120s and 1130s, and the third indiction does not correspond to either
1181 or 1181 of the Spanish era (1143). See BYY, Introduction, 201.
251
For a full description of this manuscript, see BYY, Introduction, 211-213.
252
An analysis of this manuscript appears in BYY, Introduction, 216-220.
131
of their critical edition of the Introduction. These marginalia also appear in several
other manuscript families and thus are referred to as the Gloss by BYY. According to
BYY, the text of Reg. Lat. 1285 was subjected to a critical revision process by an
individual familiar with Arabic, and this reviser also carefully and diligently annotated
the text with alternative translations and copied the Gloss into the margins. The date of
the Gloss has not been definitively determined, although BYY suggest that it is also
from early in the texts history, sometime in the twelfth century.253
Unlike the early glosses in the previous chapter which we treated as
interpretations and the product of translation, the Gloss remained distinct from the
main text of the Introduction. As we have seen, there are several phrases and passages
of the Latin text that were added as interpretations very early in the texts Latin history.
In some of these early manuscripts, the Gloss was written occasionally in the margins,
and sometimes as part of the main body of text, thus making it indistinguishable for
subsequent readers (along with the interpretations) from the text as it was initially
received in Arabic. Initially, then, the Gloss formed a distinct set of remarks compiled
by an individual different from the author of the interpretative additions, which I have
argued were likely integrated into the text at the moment of the translation by John of
Seville. For this reason, I treat the Gloss as part of the marginalia, even though sections
of it appear in the main text. If anything, the further merging of interpretive elements,
such as the Gloss, with the main text, serves to underscore the point that the hybridity
of the text emerged at the moment of translation and continued to unfold for decades
253
BYY give several reasons for this, but emphasize that the fact that the Gloss is found in at
least eight manuscripts in several different families underscores this point. See BYY,
132
afterwards. Another early manuscript, Vat. lat. 4079, dates to the thirteenth century and
also contains copious marginalia which appear to be the work of an individual reader.
These marginalia illustrate several features in common with the Gloss as recorded by
BYY, particularly the efforts to explain and clarify technical doctrine.
The coherence of the Gloss reflects the interests, skills, and character of a
skilled scholar. There are several comments which indicate that the annotator was
competent in astrology and astronomy, and that he sought to clarify the text for later
readers. BYY point out that several of these remarks begin with explanatory phrasing:
nota quod (note that), subaudi (understand), and vult ut ([the author] means
that].254 One type of comment clarifies definitions, occasionally with reference to
alternative authors, which is the case with the definition of a conjunction provided in
the first chapter of the Introduction. The gloss reads: For a conjunction is when two
planets are joined together in one sign and there are fifteen degrees or less between
them, this is the boundary of a conjunction. Likewise, the sextile aspect of the first and
the eleventh [house] is stronger than the [sextile] aspect of the first and the third
[house], and the quartile aspect of the first to the tenth is stronger than the [quartile]
aspect of the first to the fourth.255 This alternative definition, which includes a tighter
definition of a conjunction and adds information about the strength of aspects, indicates
254
255
In another manuscript, BL Harley 13, which is identified by sigla G in BYY, this definition
is attributed to Zael. BYY, Introduction, 1: [18], 235 (n): Nam (Zael G) coniunctio est quando
duo planete coniungitur in uno signo et (si G) fuerint inter eos .15. gradus vel infra, hic (quia
.15. G) est terminus coniunctionis. Idem (propterea G) aspectus sextilis primi et .xi. fortior est
aspectu primi et tertii, et aspectus quartus primi ad decimum fortior est aspectu primi ad
quartum.
133
that the annotator was familiar with other astrological authorities. In one manuscript,
this definition is attributed to Zael.
Another comment in the Gloss in the section on planetary relationships with
malefics concerns the lunar relationship with the ascending or descending nodes of the
moon: The meaning is that the moon is especially hindered if the distance from its
head or its tail [the ascending and descending nodes] is less than twelve degrees, that
is, it is more hindered in the head and tail [of the moon] than in the nodes of others, and
similarly the Sun is more hindered in the head and tail than in the nodes of others, since
it undergoes an eclipse, and so each one of the planets is weak when it is in its own
node because they fear being eclipsed by the Moon, and this could be when their node
and the node of the Moon were in one boundary.256 The annotator is explaining that
malefic effects result when a planet approaches the lunar nodes, but that other
planetary nodes are neutral.257 The malefic effects are tied to eclipses, which occur
only near the lunar nodes. Eclipses are not explicitly mentioned in the main text, and
the annotator makes clear that the strongest effects of malefics occur in the ascending
or descending nodes because these are the points where eclipses occur.
256
BYY, Introduction, 3:[28], 311 (w): Sensus est quod Luna maxime impedietur si distabit a
suo capite vel cauda minus .xii. gradibus, id est plus impeditur in capite et cauda quam in
geuzahar aliorum, et similiter Sol plus impeditur in capite et cauda quam in geuzahar aliorum,
quoniam in eis patitur eclipsim, et sic unusquisque planeta est debilis cum fuerit in suo
geuzahar proprio quia timent ut eclipsentur a Luna, et hoc posset esse cum geuzahar eius et
geuzehar Lune essent in uno termino.
257
Although most astrological theory deals only with lunar nodes (geuzahar), or the Head and
Tail of the Dragon, all of the planets have nodes. The nodes are the points where the plane of
the planets deferent crosses the ecliptic, which are ascending (when it crosses from south to
north) and descending (when it crosses from north to south).
134
The annotator provides an explanation for the different lengths of time between
the major conjunctions. Alcabitius explains that there are six of these conjunctions at
the beginning of chapter 4, including the conjunctions between Saturn and Jupiter
which occur every 20, 240, and 960 years. The annotator has written, Note that Jupiter
is in conjunction with Saturn every twenty years and twelve times in each triplicity.
Multiplying twenty by twelve makes 240, and since in 240 years they are in
conjunction twelve times in one triplicity, then if they are multiplied by 4 that makes
960 years, and similarly in 960 [years] their conjunction will return to the beginning of
Aries or to the beginning of whichever other triplicity.258 This is just an explanation of
how the conjunctions are related to each other, but it is an important point for
understanding the significance of conjunctions in the broader astrological scheme. A
similar explanation appears in John of Saxonys commentary. Another example
includes an explanation of the calculation for the equation (equatio) which is part of
the calculation of the tasyr (gradus directionis, degree of motion.) The annotator
explains, The sense of this is that from the remainder which is between the two
indicators, you should take a part of such kind, the hours of the distance from the
aforementioned cardine are from six, and this is what he says, and you multiply its six
by the hours, that is if the hours were two, you take from that remainder two of its six,
and this is what he says, or through multiplication, if you want, that is multiplying the
258
BYY, Introduction, 4:[2], 315 (c): Nota quod Iupiter coniungitur cum Saturno in .20. annis
tantum et in unaquoque triplicitate duodecis. Multiplicenter .20. in .12. fient .240., et sic in
.240. annis coniungitur duodecis in una triplicitate, quod si ducantur in .4. fiunt .960. anni, et
sic in .960. redibit eorum coniunctio ad principium Arietis vel ad principium cuiuslibet alterius
triplicitatis.
135
remainder by the hours and dividing by six, and this shows the same thing.259 These
comments demonstrate that the annotator of the Gloss was competent in recognizing
alternative means of making calculations, and he sought to share those means with
future readers.
There are several similar kinds of explanatory comments and phrases in Vat.
Lat. 4079. The manuscript itself dates to the thirteenth century, and there are
contemporary scribal corrections (in boxes), along with an additional hand which is
similar to the scribes. This annotator makes it clear relatively early in the manuscript
that he is more highly skilled than a simple novice, writing, Since this book is an
introduction, he [the author] does not speak completely about this.260 In response to
the section where Alcabitius defines the planetary houses and planetary lords, the
annotator of Vat. Lat. 4079 provides a simple reason for why planets may take pleasure
in entering the houses over which they rule, which is because their qualities
counterbalance each other.261 The annotator goes on to explain other circumstances in
which planets may take pleasure which are not listed in the main text:
And thus the diurnal planets take pleasure when they are in the east, that is
when they are rising at dawn. And the nocturnal planets take pleasure when
they appear in the evening in the Western hemisphere. Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars
also take pleasure when they are in a masculine part of the zodiac band, when it
is from the midheaven to the ascendent, and from the fourth sign to the seventh;
259
BYY, Introduction, 4:[12], 333 (t): Sensus huius est quod de residuo quod est inter duos
significatores debet accipere talem partem qualis pars sunt hore longitudinis ab angulo predicto
de .6. et hoc est quod dicit, et multiplicabis sextam illius in horas, id est si hore fuerint .2.,
accipies de illo residuo .2. sextas eius, et hoc est quod dicit vel per multiplicationem, si
volueris, id est multiplica residuum in horas et divide per .6. et exibit illud idem.
260
Vat. lat. 4079, f. 41vb: Quia iste liber est introductorius non dicit perfecte de hoc.
261
This example is considered in the previous section under the subheading Definitions and
Examples. Cf. p. 128, n. 245.
136
the Moon and Venus take pleasure when they are in a feminine part, which is
the seventh until the midheaven, and from the ascendent until the cardine of the
earth, which is the fourth house, Mercury in both parts. And when a planet is
masculine it takes pleasure in a masculine part and when a planet is feminine it
takes pleasure in a feminine part.262
Whereas Alcabitius lists, according to Dorotheus, the signs of the zodiac in which each
planet takes pleasure, the annotator has given additional information about other
circumstances in which a planet may take pleasure. The annotator has provided
reasoning here for the assignment of planetary lords, that is that planets and their
houses temper each other, as well as further information about other astrological
conditions whereby a planet may take pleasure in entering different segments of the
sky.
Similar explanatory notes appear in a discussion in Alcabitiuss third chapter on
planetary conditions, and especially about the transfer of planetary natures between
light and heavy planets due to their aspect relationships. Several paragraphs on the
concept of astrological application have been heavily annotated and include interlinear
remarks as well. In one paragraph, the main text describes a process by which a third
planet transfers the nature of the first to the second through application: And when a
light planet [1] is separated from a heavier planet [2] and it is applied to another [3], it
[1] transfers the nature of the first [2] to the second [3]. A planet also transfers nature
by another manner, this is when a light planet is applied to a heavier planet, and that
262
BYY, Introduction, 1:[14], 230-1. Vat. lat. 4079, f. 41rb: Igitur gaudent planete diurni cum
fuerint in oriente, id est quando oriuntur in mane, et planete nocturni quando apparuerint in
uespere in emisperio occidentali. Gaudent etiam saturnus iupiter et mars cum fuerint in parte
circuli masculina; ut est a medio celi in ascendentem, et a signo 4 in 7 luna uero et uenus
gaudent cum fuerint in parte feminina, que est ab 7 usque ad medium celum, et ab ascendente
usque in angulum terre quod est signnum 4 mercurius in totam partem. Cum fuerit cum planeta
masculina gaudet in parte masculina et cum planeta feminina gaudem in parte feminina.
137
heavier planet again applies to a still heavier planet; then the middle [heavier planet]
transfers the nature of the light planet to the heavier [i.e. the heaviest one].263 There
are several explanatory notes related to this passage, all of which are listed at the
bottom of the left column of text rather than in the margin. The first one reads: Note
that if the light planet is separated from the heavy planet, according to the sextile
aspect, and the light planet is applied to either, or according to the sextile aspect or
according to any other aspect or according to conjunction of bodies, that [planet]
transfers the nature of the first to the second. And what is said should be understood
about all the others.264 This statement clarifies that the transfer of planetary nature
occurs under any aspect, including sextile aspects and conjunctions. Immediately
underneath this note is another: Note that always the light planet is applied to the
heavier one, but never is the heavier planet applied to the light one.265 Lastly, the
annotator adds, Note that the light planet is the one which moves swiftly.266 The last
two remarks are not at all implied in the main text. The annotator demonstrates that he
is already familiar with astrological theory, and is adding further information to make
the discussion about astrological application more clear to a novice reader.
263
BYY, Introduction, 3:[14], 303-4: Et cum separatur planeta levis a planeta ponderosiori et
iunctus fuerit alii, transfert naturam primi ad secundum. Transfert etiam planeta naturam alio
modo, hoc est ut iungatur planeta levis planete ponderosiori se, et ipse ponderosior iterum alteri
se ponderosiori; tunc medius transfert naturam levis ad ponderosiorem.
264
Vat. lat. 4079, f. 47va: Nota quod si planeta leuis separatur a ponderosiori, secundum
sextilem aspectum, et ille leuis iunctus fuerit alii, uel secundum sextilem aspectum uel
secundum quemquam alium aspectum, uel secundum coniunctionem corporis, ipse transfert
naturam primi ad secundum, et sit intelligendum de aliis omnibus quod dicitur.
265
Vat. lat. 4079, f. 47va: Nota quod semper planeta leuis iungitur ponderosiori, sed
numquam planeta ponderosior iungitur leuiori.
266
Vat. lat. 4079, f. 47va: Nota quod planeta leuis est ille que uelociter movet.
138
The marginalia in the Gloss and in Vat. lat. 4079 indicate that the skilled
scholars who annotated the text were already familiar with the basics of astrological
theory. At the time they made their marginal notes they were already familiar with
several other astrological texts. The skilled scholars drew on additional knowledge
gleaned from these texts, indicating their broad familiarity and competence with the
new Arabic astrological doctrines. Their glosses made the text more intelligible to a
Latin audience who was largely unfamiliar with many of the basic tenets of Arabic
astrology. Later readers benefited from the marginalia applied to the text by skilled
scholars, and the popularity of the Introduction rose over the course of the thirteenth
century. There are many indications that the text was being taught at universities at the
beginning of the fourteenth century, notably the commentaries on the Introduction
written by Cecco dAscoli and John of Saxony in the 1320s and 1330s. The
commentaries will be analyzed in the following chapter. In terms of marginal
annotations, there are also several manuscripts which suggest a university setting.
Student manuscripts are usually easily identifiable by their codicological
features, especially inexpensively made parchment which is well-worn. BAV Pal. Lat.
1372 illustrates some aspects of student readership in the variety of marginal
annotations it contains. The manuscript dates to the fourteenth century and is quite
well-worn. It is bound with a number of other astrological texts, including works by
Zael, Albumasar, and Messahalla. There are several different marginal hands within
the manuscript, indicating different readers, which one would expect of a shared
university textbook that was passed on over the years. The marginalia are mostly
devoted to labeling sections or providing additional terms or short phrases to clarify the
139
text. There are, for example, labels for Alcabitiuss explanations of the houses (de
prima domo) and the planets (de iove, de venere) in the first chapter.267 There are some
additional short notes for clarifying particular points, but these are somewhat limited.
In the discussion of the animodar, or the calculation of the degree of the ascendant at
birth in chapter four, Alcabitius discusses how to establish the cardines based on the
planetary longitude for the ruling planet at birth. The main text reads, Then you will
see whether the degree of that planet is in the sign in which it is nearer to the degree of
the tenth house or the degree of the ascendent, and for whichever of these it is nearer,
you make this cardine the same as the degree of that planet and its minute, and you
divide the twelve houses through it.268 The annotator has written, that is, you suppose
the total degree of that sign in which the cardine is nearer is equal to the planet in that
cardine, () the degree of the planet is equal in the sign in which the same planet
is.269 This statement rephrases the main text, basically restating that the degree of the
planet should be equated to the cardine (the tenth or the ascendent) to which it is
nearer. In this manuscript, the absence of more extensive annotations characteristic of
the skilled scholars is quite obvious. Where the annotations reproduce the main text,
they do so through paraphrasing rather than adding additional information from
external sources. The simplicity of the glosses reflects the lack of expertise one would
expect from beginning students. In addition, some sections of the text seem to be
267
Pal. lat. 1372, f. 3r, f. 3v, f. 4r, f. 4v.
268
BYY, Introduction, 4:[3], 318: Deinde aspicies utrum sit gradus illius planete in signo in
quo est proprior gradui decime domus an gradui ascendentis, et cui horum propior fuerit, facies
hunc angulum ad instar gradus ipsius planete et eius minuti, et divides .xii. domos per eum.
269
Pal. lat. 1372, f. 8v: id est totum gradum illius signa in quo est angulus propior est planete
equus pones in ipso angulo, () est gradus planete equus in signo in quo est idem planete.
140
labeled somewhat inconsistently. In terms of establishing the identities of individual
students, there is still much work to be done. Many manuscripts were copied and
owned by students, and occasionally they have recorded their names. Some of these
individuals are considered in chapter five.
Keeping this context of the university in mind, we may evaluate the marginalia
for additional university readers, including the use of the text by university professors.
University professors may have learned astrology from Alcabitius as students, and then
taught the same text at a later date. This was the case for Johannes Borotin at the
University in Prague in the early fifteenth century, who used his copy of the
Introduction both during his student years and later as the basis for his lectures on
astrology,270 for which he provides an introduction and commentary on the
Introduction. Whereas Borotin clearly identifies himself as the author of various
annotations in his own copy, it is likely that other copies of the Introduction were put
to similar uses by professors at other universities but unfortunately the owners did not
record their names. MS Plut. 29.3, for example, contains several glosses which seem
much too sophisticated to have been authored by a student, and other glosses which are
specific examples that clearly illustrate a specific point. At the beginning of the third
chapter, Alcabitius discusses how the indications of the planets change with respect to
their motion, specifically concerning their position with respect to the apogee. The
annotator of Plut. 29.3 has taken this discussion and adapted it to account for eccentric
and epicyclic motion. He writes: Note that when the planet ascends along its eccentric
270
Charles Burnett, The Teaching of the Science of the Stars in Prague University in the Early
Fifteenth Century: Master Johannes Borotin, Aither 2 (Prague, 2014): 9-50.
141
circle [the deferent] in this manner it may be in the superior part not far from the
apogee, its motion then is slower as regards the motion of the center of the epicycle and
it is then said to be stronger.271 The marginal note then goes on to give an account of
the astrological indications with details of theoretical astronomy which are much more
descriptive than the main text of the Introduction.
The same marginal hand in Plut. 29.3 also provides several short, very specific
examples of various concepts throughout the text, which are always noted example
(exemplum). In the margin next to Alcabitiuss section on the transfer of planetary
natures between heavy and light planets we encountered in a previous example, this
annotator has written: Example: the Moon aspects Jupiter with any of the aspects and
Jupiter aspects Saturn. Jupiter then will transfer the nature of the moon to Saturn.272
There are several other example cases the annotator has added to illustrate specific
points. In giving a lecture, it is possible these examples were added in the margins to
provide the lecturer with a quick and simple means for discussing specific points. This
possibility is suggested in an annotation where the annotator gives an explanation using
the imperative, and then an example using the first person: When you want to know
the degree of the ascendent for any newborn, consider the conjunction or opposition
which precedes the birthExample: I suppose that in the hour of a certain birth the
ascendent was Libra, but I do not know which degree, and I suppose that the birth was
nocturnal and a conjunction was before it in the 6th degree of Aquarius, I see that
271
Bib. Lauren. Plut. 29.3, f. 9v: Nota quod quando planeta ascendit in circulo suo eccentrico
itaque sit in superiori parte non distans ab auge eius cursus tunc est tardus quantum ad motum
centri epicicli et dicitur tunc fortior.
272
Bib. Lauren. Plut. 29.3, f. 11r: Exemplum: Luna aspiciat iouem aliquo aspectuum et
Iuppiter aspiciat Saturnum. Iupiter tunc transfert naturam Lune ad Saturnum.
142
Saturn is strong in that degree273 The use of the first and second person and the
imperative indicate these notes may have been used while lecturing.
Lastly, there are other manuscripts which contain primarily lengthy discussions
of technical points. The detailed annotations found in these manuscripts may have
originated from a university context, but it is also possible they were the result of close
study by practicing astrologers. One annotation found in a fifteenth-century manuscript
(MS Cicogna 3747) takes up the entire left and bottom margins of the folio in order to
discuss and compare two different ways of calculating the ruling planet for a particular
topic (such as property, marriage, wealth, etc.) or the lord of the year or the lord of the
ascendent. The annotator notes that several astrologers have given methods but two are
considered authentic and true.274 The first method is attributed to Hermes, and
involves locating the planets in the cardines and their succedents.275 The second
method is that of Haly and also Alcabitius, who are both cited in the annotation, and is
the preferred method. This method (as Alcabitius explains in the main text) involves
the calculation and comparison of the number of dignities in the house of a particular
273
Bib. Lauren. Plut. 29.3, f. 12r: Cum volueris inuenire gradum ascendentis alicuius natalis:
considera coniunctionem uel preuentionem que precessit natumExemplum. Pono quod in
hora natalis alicuius ascendens fuit libra sed nescio quis gradus eius et pono quod natalis fuit
nocturnalis et coniunctio precedens eam fuit in 6 gradum aquarii, video quod saturnus est
fortior in illo gradu
274
Museo Correr MS Cicogna 3747, f. 52v: Nota quod ad sciendum quis planetarum fuerit
dominator rei uel dominus anni uel ascendentis plures apud astrologos dantur modi sed aliis
omissis de duobus tantum dicant que magis uidentur autentici et ueri.
275
Museo Correr MS Cicogna 3747, f. 52v: Primus modus est hermetis qui dicit quod cum
volumus habere dominum anni uel ascendentis et cetera debemus considerare erecta figura et
planetis in ipsa collocatis siquis eorum in aliquis angulorum reperitur et maxime in ascendente
uel in medio celi et tunc talem dicemus esse dominatorem uel similus reperiretur in angulis et
tamen reperiretur aliquis eorum in succendentibus et maxime in 2a uel in 4a iterum ille erit
dominator secundum predictam opinionem.
143
topic, but counting the number of dignities may also be used for calculating the lord of
the year or the lord of the ascendant.276 The annotator then provides an example of this
method drawn from the annual prediction (iudicium) of 1445 of Johannes de Fundis of
Bologna.277 The level of competence with astrological technique demonstrated by this
annotator demonstrates a level of familiarity with the topic that could not have been
written by a novice. In addition to these more sophisticated comments, the marginalia
also reproduces portions of the Gloss.278 I suggest that for more sophisticated
discussions of this type, the annotator is using the text as a practicing astrologer,
having gained experience with it as a university student.
Practicing astrologers may also have used the text as a reference manual. Many
of the manuscripts contain at least some subject headings next to passages that discuss
differences among the planets and the houses, as well as the lots. The frequency of this
276
Museo Correr MS Cicogna 3747, f. 52v: Alius est modus haly quem etiam ut in litera patet
in supra alchabicius qui dicit quod cum uolumus habere dominatorem rei uel anni et cetera et
tunc debemus considerare corecta figura ac planetis in ipsa collocatis quis illorum fuerit plus
auctoritatis. Id est plures habuerit dignitates in domo illius rei aut dominum queris uel si
dominum anni queris considera quis illorum habuerit plures dignitates in ascendente tempore
in introitus solis in arietem et talis erit dominus ascendentis uel dominus anni, et hic est melior
modus secundum cum tamen ambo obseruari possunt faciendum est uel melius ac uerius res se
abeu(n)t.
277
Museo Correr MS Cicogna 3747, f. 52v: Sicut fecit M. Ioannes de fundis bonnonie cum
iudicium fecit anni domini 1445, qui commentat tunc temporis hora introitus solis in arietem
ascendebat 4 gradus cancri in quo iupiter tunc reperibatur et quam ipse exaltatur in cancro ideo
in ipso habent 4or fortitudines propterea quia luna in ipso cancro habent 5 fortitudines quam
cancri est domus lune ideo secundum hunc modum debetur esse luna dominus anni cum plures
habeat fortitudines propterea M. iohannes predictus adaptauit se ad utrumque modum quam
cum iupiter in ascendente habeat quatuor fortidudines et cum hic reperitur in ascendente non
fecit ipsum iouem dominum anni secundum predictum modum et quia luna habet in ascendente
5 fortidudines et est uincens ideo fecit ipsam dominum ascendentis secundum modum
secundum et sit faciendum est in reliquis et cetera.
278
MS Cicogna 3747 reproduces some of the references to Albumasar found in the Gloss. See
especially f. 58v.
144
practice of labeling, which appears in early manuscripts and throughout the texts
printed history, suggests that the text served as a reference tool for many individuals
eager to quickly identify the relevant portion of text for their astrological calculations.
There are several manuscripts which contain only this type of marginalia. While it is
certainly the case that students also labeled texts, practicing astrologers would have
been fairly systematic with their labeling. This group would also have included
physicians.279 Not all physicians practiced astrology, but those who did would likely
have found Alcabitius useful, and adding subject headings would have guided them
through the text much more swiftly. The correspondence of the planets to various
illnesses and parts of the body is found in chapter two of the Introduction, and so heavy
labeling in this section indicates the potential for use of the text as a reference tool by
physicians.
The last set of readers who annotated the Introduction are individuals who may
have encountered the text as students, and maintained an interest in astrology after
university despite not having become practicing astrologers themselves. There is some
evidence of this type of reader, whom I call the astrological enthusiast, in a manuscript
in the Biblioteca Laurenziana in Florence.280 At the end of the Introduction, the scribe
has written his name, Laurentius Silvestris, and the date, 1460.281 We find an additional
279
Roger French, "Astrology in Medical Practice," in Practical Medicine from Salerno to the
Black Death eds. Luis Garca-Ballester, Roger French, Jon Arrizabalaga and Andrew
Cunningham (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994): 30-59.
280
The library is part of the Basilica of San Lorenzo, which was owned by the Medici family.
281
Bib. Lauren. Plut. 29.3, f. 18r: Explicit alcabitius scriptus mei manibus laurentii filii
silvestrii 1460. There are at least two hands in this manuscript. The first makes the
annotations which appear to have been authored by a university professor. The others, which
are more labels, resemble the hand of Laurentius Silvestris.
145
inscription from Laurentius at the end of a commentary on pseudo-Ptolemys
Centiloquium in the same volume, who transcribed the text in 1477 when he had
become a canon of the Basilica of San Lorenzo.282 The commentary, however, was not
Halys, which up to this point was the most popular commentary on the Centiloquium
and frequently circulated with it in manuscripts. The author of the commentary was
another Laurentius, Laurentius Bonincontrius. Laurentius Bonincontrius was a
humanist poet and astrologer who lived in Florence from 1475-1478. It is possible that
he personally gave his commentary to the astrologer-enthusiast, the Canon Laurentius,
in 1477, to be copied.283 The text of the commentary is highly annotated, but the script
of the annotator does not match that of Laurentius Silvestris. However, there are some
labels of subject headings throughout which resemble the hand of the Canon
Laurentius. At the very least, we have here an example of Alcabitius being read by the
young Laurentius, possibly at university but also possibly for self-study, and used later
as a reference tool, as indicated by the subject headings in the text. Laurentius was
certainly an enthusiastadding a recent commentary on the Centiloquium to his
repertoire of astrological knowledge indicates an interest in astrology that persisted
throughout his life. The fact that Laurentius was interested in adding the new
commentary on Ptolemys Centiloquium to his astrological and astronomical
compendium raises the question of how much fifteenth-century scholars turned
282
Bib. Lauren. Plut. 29.3: Laurentii Bonincontrii Miniatensis commentum super Centilogo
ptholomei feliciter explicit; Transcriptum per Me Laurentium Silvestri Canonicum ecclisie
sancti Laurentii florentium die x may 1477. hora 231/2.
283
Bonincontrius also wrote a long commentary on the classical Latin author Maniliuss
astrological poem Astronomica. See Stefan Heilen, De rebus naturalibus et divinis : zwei
Lehrgedichte an Lorenzo de' Medici und Ferdinand von Aragonien / Laurentius Bonincontrius
Miniatensis (Stuttgart: Teubner, 1999).
146
towards contemporaries to supply works that supplemented or even replaced the Arabic
tradition.
Having gained an understanding of the types of readers who annotated the
Introduction, we may now examine evidence from the marginalia that offers some
insight into the subtle cues and assumptions of these readers towards Arabic astrology
and Arabic learning more generally. The annotation practices preserved in the text are
evidence of readers interpretations, evaluations, and implicit assumptions that were
absorbed by later readers. As there is an abundance of Arabic source material in the
text, including transliterated Arabic terms (both for technical astrology and words for
which no Latin equivalent was immediately found by the translator), marginal
definitions of these terms, citations of Arabic authors, and references to Islam or to the
Islamic calendar, marginalia related to this material is indicative of how readers
attitudes may have shifted (or not) in different contexts.
Citations of Arabic Authors
By the end of the thirteenth century, most of the major texts from the Arabic
astronomical-astrological tradition had been translated into Latin and were being
assimilated into Latin learning by the skilled scholars we encountered in the previous
section. Many Arabic astrological authors were included in pseudo-Alberts thirteenth-
century Speculum astronomiae,284 which dates to around 1260. The Speculum includes
284
There is some uncertainty about the authorship of the Speculum astronomiae, although
medieval readers would have accepted Albertus Magnus as the author. For a recent appraisal of
the evidence, see J. Hackett, Albert the Great and the Speculum astronomiae: The State of
Research at the Beginning of the 21st Century, in Irven Michael Resnick, ed., A Companion
to Albert the Great: Theology, Philosophy, and the Sciences (Leiden: Brill, 2013), 437-450.
147
a very short introduction to spherical astronomy and astrology, a justification for the
study of astrology, and a list of licit and illicit astrological texts.285 The list of licit texts
includes Alcabitiuss Introduction, which is listed after Ptolemys Tetrabiblos and
Albumasars Great Introduction to Astrology. Alberts list provides access to the range
of Arabic astrological texts which were known (at least) to the skilled astrological
scholars, and underscores the point that Arabic astrological authors were legitimate
sources of astrological knowledge. Examining citation practices in the Introduction by
Latin scholars further demonstrates that Arabic authors were regarded as authorities
and heirs to the astrological tradition that was initially rooted in Greek thought.286 In
reading the Introduction, Latin scholars often compared Alcabitiuss views with other
authors, occasionally noting errant values, or contrasting points of doctrine. The Arabic
authors most often cited in the margins of Alcabitiuss Latin manuscripts include
Albumasar, Messahala, Alkindi, Haly, and Zael.287
285
Paola Zambelli, The Speculum Astronomiae and Its Enigma: Astrology, Theology, and
Science in Albertus Magnus and His Contemporaries, Boston Studies in the Philosophy of
Science, v. 135 (Boston: Kluwer Academic, 1992). Pseudo-Albert cites several astrological
authors in compiling his list of licit and illicit astrological texts: Ptolemy, Messahala, Geber,
Albategnius, Albumasar, Alcabitius, Johannes Hispalensis, Haly, Zael, Alkindi, and Jafar (and
others).
286
For medieval and early modern citation practices more generally, see the two-volume study,
Citation, Intertextuality and Memory in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, eds. Yolanda
Plumley, Giuliano Bacco, and Stefano Jossa (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011). See also
Anthony Grafton, The Footnote: A Curious History (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
1999).
287
The two astrological authors cited most frequently in the marginalia of manuscrips of the
Introduction are Ptolemy and Albumasar. Ptolemys Tetrabiblos was translated in 1138 by
Plato of Tivoli, with the most popular commentary on the text, that of Haly (Al ibn Riwn),
translated in the thirteenth century. Albumasars two introductory texts on astrology, The Great
Introduction and the Abbreviation to the Introduction, were translated roughly
contemporaneously with Alcabitius Introduction in the 1130s, the former by the same
translator Johannes Hispalensis and the latter by Adelard of Bath. It is important to recall that
while Alcabitius draws heavily from Albumasars work, he does not once cite him by name.
148
The citations of Arabic authors have different formats, the simplest of which is
just a cross-reference to another author. The earliest readers of the Introduction, the
skilled scholars, were well aware of Albumasars influence on Alcabitius. Albumasar is
frequently cross-referenced in the early manuscripts, occasionally with specific
sections and chapters cited in either the Great Introduction or Abbreviation. One brief
reference to Albumasar in the Gloss is a reminder that Alcabitius refrained from
explicitly citing him. Where Alcabitius mentions the others apart from Alkindi, the
annotator has added, for instance Albumasar.288 In Vat. lat. 4079, one reference is
made to Albumasars Great Introduction, where one finds the discussion of signs that
are crooked in rising (tortuosa ascendentia) or direct in rising (directa ascendentia).289
Another reference in the same manuscript just reads, Albumasar, greater, a reference
to the Great Introduction.290 We have already encountered one reference to Zael in a
gloss on the definition of a conjunction.291 A reference to Zael also occurs in a
discussion about restoring (reddo) of the light, where the annotator mentions, This
explanation is in Zael.292 Cross references indicate that Latin scholars acknowledged
internal consistencies within the Arabic astrological tradition, which contributed to its
authoritative standpoint. Latin scholars also frequently compared different readings of
astrological texts.
288
BYY, Introduction, 4:[10], 330 (g).
289
Vat. lat. 4079, f. 41ra: in libro Albumasar in 6 libro in 5 capitulo. Alcabitius defines
these in 1:[8]. See BYY, Introduction, 228.
290
Vat. lat. 4079, f. 44rb, bottom of page: Albumasar maius.
291
Cf. p. 133, n. 255.
292
BYY, Introduction, 3:[15], 304 (s): Hic expositum est in Zael.
149
In the Gloss, the annotator provided a different reading from Albumasar when
Alcabitius mentioned the shares: In Albumasar is found in the distinctions, that is in
the house and exaltations and those things in the sixth chapter of the seventh book.293
In another instance, in Vat. lat. 4079, the annotator compares Alcabitiuss definition of
aspects with Albumasars in this brief comment: The aspect, he says, is from a sign to
a sign, the most powerful [is] from degree to degree, as Albumasar says.294 These
comparisons indicate that Latin scholars acknowledged slight distinctions between
astrological authors, and that they were very attentive to these distinctions. The
comparison of astrological authors in marginalia could also be more robust. The
annotator of Vat. lat. 4079 cites the opinion of Albumasar after listing three different
readings about signs which are agreeing in path, (concordantia in itinere): I say the
three lines should be brought together since Albumasar wishes thus in book six,
chapter 1.295 The annotator of the Gloss also seems to have preferred Albumasars
explanation in several points regarding the technical terms of the astrologers in chapter
4, stating explicitly, This is better said in the appropriate book and chapter of
Albumasars texts.296 In one case, the annotator of the Gloss draws on Albumasar to
advise future readers with an alternative explanation on the calculation of the twelfths
293
BYY, Introduction, 3:[26], 309 (o): In Albumasar habetur in ornamentis id est in domo et
exaltatione et cetera in sexta differentia septimi tractatus.
294
Vat. lat. 4079, f. 41vb, aspectus dicit est de signo ad signum ualidissimus de gradu ad
gradum ut dicit albumasar.
295
Vat. lat. 4079, f. 41ra: 3 uersus dico debent simul legi quia ita uult albumasar in 6 libro 1
capitulo. This reference is to the Great Introduction.
296
See BYY, Introduction, 4:[16], 339 (i): Hoc melius dictum est in 17 differentia quinti
tractatus Albumasar. See also 4:[21], 345 (b): Hoc melius dictum est in principio 6 tractatus
libri Albumasar de coniunctionibus.
150
(duodenariae): This is said more fully in chapter 18 of the fifth book of
Albumasardo as the book says, and it is not necessary that you add to them the
degree which you have multiplied, since it is superfluous, neither did Albumasar add
them.297 Similarly, in the section on the terminal point, the annotator of the Gloss
supplements the Introduction with information from Albumasars book on
conjunctions.298 The critical comparison of Alcabitius and Albumasar by both the
annotator of the Gloss and of Vat. Lat. 4079 illustrate a concerted effort to compile and
assimilate Arabic astrological ideas. This demonstrates their commitment to and
enthusiasm for the Arabic astrological tradition.
Furthermore, as evidenced by the early manuscripts, there are more citations to
Albumasar than there are to Ptolemy. Vat. Lat. 4079 contains four citations of
Albumasar whereas there are only two citations to Ptolemy, and the Gloss includes
several citations to Albumasar, and Ptolemy is only mentioned twice.299 In one instance
in the Gloss, Ptolemy and Alcabitius are compared as equals: Note that Ptolemy does
297
BYY, Introduction, 4:[15], 338 (g): Hoc latius dictum est in 18 differentia 5 tractatus
Abumasar et est ut dividas quodque signum in 12 divisiones quarum queque est 2 gradus et
medietas, et in unaqueque earum est natura 12 signorum, id est in prima natura eiusdem signi et
in secunda natura secundi ab eo et in tertia tertii signi, et sic de reliquis. Cum ergo habueris
aliquot gradus alicuius signi in quibus sit aliquis planeta vel gradus domus et volueris scire in
natura cuius signi est, fac ut dicit liber, et non oportet ut addas super illos gradus quot
multiplicasti, quoniam superfluum est, nec Albumasar illos addidit.
298
The annotator mentions this book twice in this section. See BYY, Introduction, 4:[10], 330
(i): Hoc ita invenit Abumasar in prima figura ultime differencie libri sui de alchiren in regione
sue. See also 4:[10], 330 (k): Hic sciendum est quod Maumet non fuit dictus rex, immo
propheta, et ideo regnum non incepit a tempore eius, set incepit longo tempore post, scilicet
transactis 117 annis Persidis, et inceperunt Arabes regnare et redierat ascendens ad Virginem.
Et puto errorem in his locis fore in littera. Hoc non est ita, immo tunc mutatum est regnum
Arabum ad nigredinem Erachlie ut habetur in secunda figura trium figurarum ultime differentie
libri alchiren.
299
One citation is to the Centiloquium. BYY, Introduction, 4:[12], 336 (y): Hoc habetur ex
verbo 77 Ptolomei.
151
not mention the indicator (directio gradus/tasyr) of the conjunction or opposition,
neither still has Alcabitius explained it.300 While Ptolemys Tetrabiblos is certainly
included in these efforts towards creating a coherent astrological framework, the
frequency and manner of citation suggest that the most interesting and important
astrological texts for Latin readers are from the Arabic tradition. Comparing citations
of Arabic authors with Greek authors, as well as to contemporary Latin authors, we
find that at least within Arabic astrological texts, Arabic authors continue to be cited
the most frequently throughout the duration of the Introductions popularity. It is very
unlikely to find contemporary Latin scholars mentioned in marginalia in the
manuscripts. One manuscript which dates to the fourteenth century contains a citation
to Johannes Hispalensis.301 Medieval authors did not refrain from citing their
contemporaries, but Latin astrological authors such as Pietro dAbano, Pierre dAilly,
and Guido Bonatti are noticeably absent from the marginal citations in the
Introduction. Their absence in many ways underscores the authority afforded to the
Arabic tradition by early medieval readers.
Citation practices had shifted somewhat by the fifteenth century, when there
are more contemporary Latin authors authoring texts, although mentioning them by
name was still relatively infrequent. Returning to the example of the fifteenth-century
manuscript MS Cicogna 3747, we remember the comparison of two methods for
300
BYY, Introduction, 4:[12], 336 (b): Nota quod Ptolomeus non fecit mentionem de
directione gradus coniunctionis vel preventionis nec etiam Alkabitius exemplificavit de ea,
quare dubitamus de ea et nescimus ad quid proprie debeat dirigi, verum dicimus quod quando
dirigimus eam videbimus cum qua ex predictis convenerit, tunc dicemus quod illa erit fortior.
This gloss also appears in BAV Pal. lat. 1382, f. 11r.
301
BAV Pal. Lat. 1372, f. 8v: Qui dicuntur potestas a Johannes Hyspalensis.
152
computing the planetary ruler for a topic, and the lord of the year and of the ascendent.
The annotator mentions Hermes and Haly, and the annual prediction (iudicium) of
Joannes de Fundis of Bologna for the year 1445. The annotator also cites Albumasar in
the section in chapter four on the ninths (novenaria), including a book and chapter
number, presumably of the Great Introduction.302 This fifteenth-century manuscript
follows the earlier tradition in continuing to cite Arabic authorities more than the Greek
ones, or contemporary Latin authors, than the medieval manuscript tradition. In the
fifteenth century one also finds manuscripts full of very detailed annotations and yet
often lacking citation. The annotator of Plut. 29.3, for example, mentions both Ptolemy
and Haly in discussing the technical terms of the astrologers. However, Alcabitius cites
Ptolemy here, and the annotator merely repeats this.303 In the case of the citation to
Haly, the annotator mentions a divergence from Haly in discussing the least, middle,
and greatest years.304
What is noteworthy here is that the frequent citations of Arabic authors, which
provide alternative methods or support for astrological knowledge, indicate a continued
respect and reverence for Arabic authorities from at least one hundred years after the
translations, and this continues well into the fifteenth century. Also notably absent
from the manuscripts are any marks of critique or negativity towards Arabic astrology
or Arabic learning more generally. Thus in the early period of assimilation of Arabic
302
Cicogna 3737, f. 60r.
303
Bibl. Laur. Plut. 29.3, f. 12v: Dicit auctor secundum intentionem Ptholomeus que debemus
accipere gradius illius luminaris
304
Bibl. Laur. Plut. 29.3, f. 12v: Nota quod more in fortitudinem [] matrum non sunt
equales sicut dicit Haly.
153
astrological texts the Latin readers would have considered them to be at least as
authoritative, if not more so, than the ancient Greeks, and certainly more authoritative
than contemporary Latin astrological writings. In looking at the citations alone, we
may conclude that legitimate astrological knowledge was grounded in Arabic learning.
Latin readers viewed Arabic astrology as authoritative, and this attitude does not
appear to have decreased over time. We will now turn to other aspects of the
marginalia that elucidate the strong ties between astrology and the Islamic world.
Astrology as Arabic in Medieval Europe
The influx of Arabic astrological knowledge into Europe in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries flooded the scholarly landscape, and Latin scholars were met with
an abundance of technical astrological literature which far surpassed the Classical
tradition preserved in the medieval Latin West. The Arabic-Latin translators were often
unable or unwilling to find suitable Latin terminology for several of Arabic technical
terms. In the previous chapter on the translation of the Introduction, we encountered
many of these terms and analyzed the different ways in which they were handled by the
translator. Many of the terms were transliterated, often with an accompanying
interpretation that the translator introduced to the text. After the initial translation
into Latin, scholars continued to introduce glosses on transliterated terms to clarify
their meaning, and they often listed transliteration variants in the margins. As with the
interpretations, the glosses from later readers contributed to the sense in which the text
was foreign and particularly Arabic. In addition, the passages of the Introduction on the
rise of Islam and the great conjunctions were frequently annotated, which served to
create a community of Latin readers who postured themselves in a certain way with
154
respect to Arabic learning. Astrological texts very obviously retained their Arabic
roots.
Marginalia played an important role in both the initial assimilation of Arabic
astrological knowledge and the continued association of this knowledge with the
Arabic astrological tradition. As discussed in the previous chapter, the process of
translating Arabic astrological and astronomical texts into Latin led to several
terminological issues, mostly centered on the fact that many Arabic astrological terms
had no suitable Latin equivalent. Some of these terms were Greek in origin, some
stemmed from Persian, and others were Arabic. Many of these short explanatory
phrases, which mirror those supplied by John of Seville, are part of the Gloss. I have
reproduced several of them here:
1:[78] alhaiz : similitudo (likeness)
1:[78] in suo aiz: in sua similitudine (in its likeness)
2:[14] alhabra : scilicet impetiginem (that is impetigo)
3:[5] almuwegeha: hoc est de visione invicem facie ad faciem; in conspectu
(this is about looking at each other face to face; in sight of)
3:[6] duztoria: id est dexteratio vel securitas; ductoria dicitur cum fuerit inter
planetam orientalem et Solem .60. gradus secundum quosdam (that is rightness
or security; it is called leadership when there are sixty degrees between an
eastern planet and the sun, following those)
3:[21] alintiketh: id est refrenatio (that is restraining)
155
3:[22] alitirad: id est contrarietas accidens (that is opposition to happening)
3:[23] alfaut: id est frustratio (that is delaying)
Readers of the Introduction also continued to offer or reproduce transliteration
variants in the margins well into the sixteenth century. MS Cicogna 3747, for example,
lists several variants for animodar in a vertical list in the margin: almudar, elmudaz,
and elanudar.305 A similar list, for alcochoden, appears in the right margin of f. 23rb in
MS BNM VIII 33, with a gloss on the term below the column: alcocoden est planeta
horaris pluries dignitatis in loca ylex [hyleg].306 Transliteration variants and glosses on
transliterated terms illustrate how the Introduction retained its association with Arabic
learning for as long as it was read. A detailed look at two terms in particular illustrates
this point more thoroughly.
Consider the case of hyleg and alcochoden, technical words referring to the
calculation of the length of life based on the natal horoscope. The terms were noted and
defined much more frequently in the marginalia than any of the other transliterated
terms over the course of the Latin textual history of the Introduction. As noted in the
previous chapter on translation, hyleg and alcochoden have an enormous number of
spelling variations in the manuscripts.307 Hyleg refers to a particular celestial point that
enables one to calculate the length of ones life. It is not clearly defined in the Arabic
305
MS Cicogna 3747, f. 57v., left column.
306
Bib. Mar. VIII 33, f. 23rb.
307
In this text, for both terms I use the spelling of the 1512 printed edition. The manuscripts
have several variants. The hyleg variants are: hilesg, hilel, hiles, hyles, yles, hilegh, yle,
hiselesg, elhyleg, hyleg, hylech, hylez; the Alcochoden variants are: alquodchodeuh,
alkudchudech, alquodhodeu, aliq(uod)hodeu, aliq(uod) hodeu, alchocodeu, alchoden,
alcocodeu, aliq(uo)dchodeu, alcogodeu, alcodcodeu, acozcodeu, alcochodeu, alcochoden.
156
text; rather, a description is given of how to calculate it. Only four Latin manuscripts
and the printed edition include the descriptive phrase, that is, the place of life
following hyleg in the main text.308 Alcochoden is defined as the indicator of the
length of life in the Arabic text, a literal translation of which also appears in the Latin
text, significator vite.309 This indicates that they were important terms for many
readers and were likely frequently calculated. It is no surprise, as foreknowledge of the
length of ones life (particularly for rulers) would be enticing in a period when death
from war, plagues, other illnesses, and childbirth was common. Hyleg and alcochoden
also demonstrate how scholars continued to draw on a range of sources in their
explanations of the Introduction. Pal. Lat. 1372 contains marginalia that provide
definitions of these terms, with some significant variation in meaning.310 First, the
annotator has introduced a gender distinction between the two terms, associating the
hyleg with the wife, and the alcochoden with the man/husband.311 Secondly, the
annotators definition of hyleg refers to the quality of life (good or bad) and to well-
being (sickness or health), neither of which is present in the main text. Not a single
annotator nor scribe attempted to come up with Latin terms for the hyleg and
308
BYY, Introduction, 4:[4], 319 (x): id est locus vite. The English translation employed by
BYY is prorogator.
309
BYY, Introduction, 4:[5], 323: quod est signficator vite.
310
Pal. lat. 1372, f. 8va: hylak interpretatur uxor et est dispositor annorum nati ad bonum uel
malum uel ad infirmitatem [uel] sanitatem et filiam. In the case of alcohoden, the annotator
has written, Alkocoden interpretatur uir et est dator annorum nati, Pal. lat. 1372, f. 8ra.
311
The origin of this gender distinction appears to be from the work of Mshallah and/or al-
abar. It does appear in Mashaallahs Book on Eclipses. See Abraham Ibn Ezra, The Book of
the World: A Parallel Hebrew-English Critical Edition of the Two Versions of the Text, ed. and
trans. Shlomo Sela, (Leiden: Brill, 2010), 253. It is also reported in al-abars Book on
Nativities, as recorded in S. Sela, Abraham Ibn Ezra on Nativities and Continuous Horoscopy
(Brill, 2013), 450-7.
157
alcochoden, and there was no Latin equivalent. This reveals, at the very least, a respect
for tradition, and it also indicates a commitment to the authority of the Arabs.
As the text was accommodated to the needs of Latin readers, it retained its
Arabic character through transliterated terms and especially the attention drawn to
these terms through marginal annotations. One particularly striking example of this is
evident in the fourteenth-century manuscript Pal. lat. 1408. The reader and principle
annotator of this manuscript, which contains marginalia only in red ink, paid special
attention to the Arabic terminology. The annotator has carefully copied and
standardized the spelling of Arabic terms in the margins, and corrected spelling in the
main text. This indicates an attention to detail and accuracy for the Arabic astrological
terminology, and an effort to preserve it. While some manuscripts have alternative
Latin translations given for other Arabic words, there are no marginalia or annotations
in any of the manuscripts that indicate efforts on the part of readers to find suitable
Latin terminology that would fit the same Arabic astrological concept. Rather, the
Arabic transliteration is taken as the dominant form for the astrological concept. The
highlighting of Arabic words Pal. Lat. 1408 exemplifies in vivid, visual form how
Latin readers would have encountered foreign cultural elements in the text.
The last set of annotations which indicate attention from annotators to the
Arabic origins of the Introduction concern several references to the secta
Saracenorum, or Muslims. In Alcabitiuss fifth chapter, he discusses how to calculate
the length of rule for kings as part of the section on the calculation of the Lot of
Fortune. In order to make this calculation, one must base the calculation on the time of
the most recent conjunction that indicates a shift in religion. This is the conjunction of
158
Saturn and Jupiter, and it occurs once approximately every 20 years. Albumasar was
the first astrologer to associate the rise of Islam with the conjunction between Saturn
and Jupiter in the sign of Scorpio in his book Religions and Dynasties.312 In Vat. lat.
4079, the annotator explains this particular example, and mentions the rise of Islam and
its association with this conjunction several times. The discussion of this conjunction
in the context of the length of rule of kings allows us to gain insight into how this
particular reader treated the claim that religions themselves are influenced by planetary
configurations. There is obviously no problem in explaining how planets influenced the
rise of Islam, but there is no mention of this conjunction and its influence on
Christianity.313
In addition, there are very few disparaging remarks made in the marginalia
towards the Islamic faith. One has been recorded in the Gloss, which refers to the
revolt of Mohamed (seditionis Machometi). The absence of critical remarks of this
nature is noteworthy, given that throughout the period of readership of the
Introduction, there were some anti-Islamic sentiments circulated, usually associated
with military conflicts.
312
Ab Mashar, On historical astrology: the book of religions and dynasties (on the great
conjunctions), ed. Keiji Yamamoto and Charles Burnett (Leiden: Brill, 2000).
313
The theological issues surrounding conjunctions have been well-documented in G. Federici
Vescovini, The Theological Debate, in A Companion to Astrology in the Renaissance, ed.
Brendan Dooley, (Leiden: Brill, 2004). See also John North, Astrology and the Fortunes of
Churches, in Stars, Minds, and Fate: Essays in Ancient and Medieval Cosmology (London,
1989), 59-89.
159
Conclusion
Marginal annotations are very clear evidence of the process by which Latin
scholars assimilated Arabic astrological knowledge, but assimilation seems to fall
short of capturing the complexities of how Latin scholars read, questioned, understood,
commented upon, and adapted astrological ideas to their own needs. From very early in
the manuscript tradition, Latin scholars were critical and engaged recipients of Arabic
astrological knowledge. The Introductions readers compared Arabic authors with the
text of the Introduction and noted the differences in the margins. These differences
could be simple and straightforward, such as the spelling of transliterated terms, subtle
distinctions regarding a definition, or more complex differences of doctrine. The
process of comparing Arabic astrological texts involved the recognition of Arabic
astrology as a distinct tradition from which Latin scholars could draw in building their
own astrological framework. While it is evident that Latin scholars adapted this
framework as new knowledge became available, new tables were constructed, and
astronomical and astrological understanding developed more fully, Arabic astrology
maintained its position as an authoritative intellectual tradition throughout the period of
the Introductions readership. The fact that Arabic transliterated terms were retained,
despite transliteration variants, also contributed to both the sense in which astrology
was an Arabic science and to its authoritative position. The retention of terms is
particularly noteworthy given the large number of spelling inconsistencies. Lastly, the
citations of Arabic authors illustrate that Arabic astrology was considered highly
respected and revered well into the sixteenth century. For a more formalized
160
understanding of the text than marginal notes, we may look to the several
commentaries written on the Introduction.
161
Chapter 4: Commentaries
Introduction
Commentaries indicate deliberate and reflective acts of readership, the result of
which is a new text that expands on and explains the needs and interests of the author
of the commentary. In many cases, medieval commentaries were the product of the use
of the text in university lectures. The principle introductory text on astronomy,
Sacroboscos Sphaera, for example, received multiple commentaries from university
professors.314 The principle introductory text on astrology, Alcabitiuss Introduction,
also received several commentaries. The Introduction does not have near as many
commentaries as the Sphaera, but it was the only astrological text translated from the
original Arabic to Latin that was commented upon in the medieval period,315 and this
reflects the univerity context and contemporary importance of the text. In examining
the commentaries, we may consider which parts of the Introduction were of most
interest to the commentators, what kind of information was added by them, and the
contexts in which the commentaries were written and what they reveal about attitudes
towards Arabic astrology. Taken in comparison, the commentaries illustrate that
among university scholars, the Arabic astrological tradition was highly respected in the
fourteenth century. This attitude dissipated somewhat by the sixteenth century, when
the effects of humanists writings encouraged a return to original Greek sources.
314
Lynn Thorndike, The Sphere of Sacrobosco and its Commentators (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1949).
315
Very few commentaries were written on astrological texts. Girolamo Cardano wrote a
commentary on the Tetrabiblos in 1554, just before the last commentary on the Introduction
was written by Valentin Naibod in 1560.
162
However, the fact that the Introduction continued to receive commentaries in the
sixteenth century indicates how well-entrenched the Arabic tradition had become in
European astrological thought.
Several commentaries were written in the early fourteenth century. The first
was written by Cecco dAscoli, the infamous professor of Bologna and Padua who was
later burned at the stake for his necromantic views. Ceccos commentary covers only
the first fifty-four paragraphs of the first chapter of the Introduction, and is somewhat
detailed.316 A little bit later, in 1331 John of Saxony wrote a commentary on the
Introduction at the University of Paris. This commentary became very popular and
appears in at least thirty-two manuscripts and nine of the twelve printed editions. In
1359, the Dominican John of Stendhal wrote a commentary on the Introduction when
he was a censor at Erfurt for students at the University of Erfurt.317 A three hundred-
page commentary of the Introduction was written in 1393 and then preserved in a copy
made by Joannes in 1400.318 A 1440 ownership inscription associates this manuscript
with Joannes Marchanova, a doctor of arts and medicine at Padua. Thorndike suggests
a few possibilities for the authorship of this commentary. One is Blasius of Parma, who
316
G. Boffito, Il commento inedito di Cecco dAscoli allAlcabizzo (Florence, 1905).
317
Bernkastel-Kues, Bibliothek des Bibliothek des St.-Nikolaus-Hospitals, 212, 15th cent., fol.
204r: Explicit scriptum super Alkabicium compilatum per fratrem Johannem de Stendal ordinis
predicatorum domus magdeburgensis ad instanciam reverendorum magistrorum et studentium
Ertfordum se existentem censorem Ertfordum anno domini 1359, in L. Thorndike, History of
Magic and Experimental Science, III (New York, 1934): 223. This commentary does not
appear in BAV Pal. lat. 1354 as listed in the BYY edition. This manuscript contains in fact
John of Saxonys commentary, but is missing the first several paragraphs. It has the same
incipit as John of Stendhals commentary: Ptolomeus in prima propositione Centiloquii
dicit
318
Biblioteca Marciana, Lat. VIII 30.
163
was teaching mathematics and philosophy at Pavia at that time, but there is no evidence
in the manuscript itself to indicate this.319 This commentary, which was classified as
such perhaps owing to its length, appears to be an aggrandized paraphrase.320 There
was a commentary written in the fifteenth century by the astrologer Louis de Langle (d.
1463).321 Louis de Langle is known for having successfully predicted the victory of
Charles VII against the English in the battle of Formigny in 1450.322
There are two commentaries from the sixteenth century, both of which indicate
a university setting. The first is that of Jeronimo Muoz, a professor of Hebrew and
mathematics at Valencia and Salamanca.323 The other commentary was printed in 1560
by the astronomer and astrologer Valentin Naibod. Naibod was a professor of
mathematics at the University of Cologne, but his commentary is markedly different
from the commentaries of his fourteenth-century predecessors. Naibod sought to
319
The attribution to Blasius is due to the similarity of the incipit to the commenary on the
Introduction to the incipit to Blasiuss commentary on Aristotles De caelo. The other
possibilities spring from a misattribution of authorship in the manuscript from a later period, to
the fifteenth-century author Nicolas de Comitibus, who lived too late to have authored the
commentary. Thorndike considers another set of Nicolass as authors, but no name of Nicolas
appears in the manuscript colophon or flyleaf pages. See Thorndike, HMES III (New York:
1934), 600-601.
320
The script is quite large and does not appear to add any additional information to the
rephrasing of the Introduction.
321
The complete commentary is in Paris, BNF lat. 7321, f. 1r-78v. A fragment is preserved in
Lyon, Bibliotheque municipale de Lyon, ms. 329, f. 287-291.
322
tienne Hustache, Une vre de vulgarisation gographique du XVe sicle: le De figura
seu imagine mundi de Louis de Langle, Positions des Thses (Paris: cole de Chartes, 1980),
97-104.
323
Jeronimo Muoz, Libro del Nuevo Cometa, ed. V. Navarro-Brotons (Valencia, 1981): 28
31.
164
compare Alcabitiuss text with Ptolemys astrological doctrines, realigning the
Introduction with the Greek tradition.
This chapter examines how commentaries were used to supplement the
teaching of Alcabitiuss Introduction at universities, and focuses on the commentaries
of Cecco dAscoli and John of Saxony. First, I provide an overview of the teaching of
astrology at universities. I then turn to Ceccos commentary and context of
composition, and provide some examples of how the Introduction was explained by
Cecco. I then turn to Johns commentary, and provide several examples of how Johns
commentary supplemented the Introduction and became quite a useful teaching text
itself. Lastly, I contrast these commentaries with a brief consideration of Naibods
commentary, which reflects the humanist interests of the sixteenth century.
Astrology at Universities
The evidence of the teaching of astrology at universities abounds. Several
contemporary scholars have outlined the teaching of astrology at universities and its
relationship to astronomy and medicine. There were certainly regional variations. As
Hilary Carey notes, Almost certainly, astrology never achieved the same level of
acceptance in England that it was accorded in the universities of Italy, Germany, and
France.324 Nevertheless, she adds, Yet the authorities cited in John Aschendens
mighty Summa judicialis confirm that the works of Arabic astrologers such as
Albumasar, Alkindi or Alcabitius must have been freely available, at least in the library
324
Hilary Carey, Courting Disaster: Astrology at the English Court and University in the Later
Middle Ages (New York: St. Martins Press, 1992), 53.
165
of Merton College, Oxford.325 The case of astrology at Italian universities has
received more attention, although there is still no general survey.326 One oft-cited
example is the 1405 curriculum at the University of Bologna, which instructs that the
Introduction be read in the third year, along with pseudo-Ptolemys Centiloquium and
the commentary of Haly,327 Book III of Euclids Elements, and a treatise on the
quadrant. The first and second years are devoted to mathematical and astronomical
studies with several texts from the corpus astronomicum, and the fourth year lists the
Tetrabiblos, William of Englands De urina non visa, and the third book of the
Almagest.328 Claudia Kren, Michael Shank, and Darin Hayton have dealt with teaching
of astrology in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries at the University of Vienna,329
where the Introduction appears in the ordinary lectures in the Acts of the Faculty of
Arts at the University of Vienna in 1390.330 Lastly, Richard Lemays 1976 article
325
Carey, Courting Disaster, 53.
326
Paul Grendler, The Universities of the Italian Renaissance (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University Press, 2002). See also Monica Azzolini, The Duke and the Stars, chapter 1.
327
Frequently equivocated in the medieval period with Haly, the author of the commentary on
the Tetrabiblos (Al ibn Riwn), this was actually the ninth-century author Amed ibn Ysuf.
328
C. Malagola, Statuti delle Universit e dei Collegi dello Studio Bolognese (Bologna, 1881),
276. See also Graziella Federici Vescovini, I programmi degli insegnamenti del Collegio di
medicina, filosofia e astrologia dello statuto delluniversit di Bologna del 1405, in Roma,
magistra mundi: Itineraria culturae medievalis, Mlanges offerts au Pre L. E. Boyle, 2 vols.
(Louvain: La Neuve, 1998), 1: 193223.
329
See Claudia Kren, Astronomical Teaching at the Late Medieval University of Vienna,
History of Universities 3 (1983): 15-30; Michael Shank, Academic Consulting in Fifteenth-
Century Vienna: the Case of Astrology, in Texts and Contexts in Ancient and Medieval
Science, ed. Edith Scylla and Michael McVaugh (Leiden: Brill, 1997), 245-270; Darin Hayton,
The Crown and the Cosmos: Astrology and the Politics of Maximilian I (Pittsburgh: University
of Pittsburgh Press, 2015).
330
Acta Facultatis Artium Universitatis Vindobonensis, 1385-1416, ed. Paul Uiblein (Vienna:
Bhlau Verlag, 1968), 54. The lecturer was a former student from the University of Prague,
Benedikt de Makra.
166
remains the standard reference for the teaching of astrology at the University of
Paris.331 Given these regional variations, we may still make some general comments
about several aspects of the study of astrology at universities, including which texts
were taught, the nature of astrological instruction, and the career prospects for students
of astrology.
Monica Azzolini has provided an outline332 of a corpus astrologicum based off
of a Pavian student notebook333 and a bound collection of miscellaneous astrological
texts belonging to the Paduan professor Bartolomeo Valdizocco. In the student
notebook, Azzolini remarks that the manuscript contains much more Arabic astrology
than the two texts listed in the 1405 Bologna curriculum. She also points out that there
is an abundance of texts related to astrological medicine. Though missing Alcabitiuss
Introduction, the notebook contains a De natura Scorpionis et de saturni et jovis in
scorpio coniunctionis significatione and three other works on conjunctions,
Albumasars De magnis coniunctionibus, Messahalas Epistola, and Abraham ibn
Ezras Liber de coniunctionibus. The other texts are Messahalas De revolutionibus
annorum mundi, Sententia almansoris, Zaels Quinquaginta praecepta, pseudo-
Ptolemys Centiloquium, and the Centiloquium of Hermes. Azzolini concludes that
Arabic astrological texts made up a large share of the corpus astrologicum, even
though the university records of curricular studies do not always reflect this fact.
331
Richard Lemay, The Teaching of Astronomy in Medieval Universities, Principally at Paris
in the Fourteenth Century, Manuscripta XX, no. 3 (1976): 197-217. Lemay cites John of
Saxonys commentary as evidence that Alcabitius was read at Paris.
332
Azzoini, The Duke and the Stars, 22-64.
333
The notebook is found in British Library MS Arundel 88.
167
Furthermore, Azzolini notes that these sets of texts were not limited to Alcabitiuss
Introduction, but included more advanced treatises on nativities, interrogations, and
elections. The Arabic dominance of the corpus astrologicum is considered more in
depth in the following chapter.
The medical applications of astrology are well-documented.334 University
medical texts combined prognosis, diagnosis, regimen, and treatment with astrological
principles. These included Galens De diebus criticis, pseudo-Hippocratess Astrologia
Ypocratis, and William of Englands De urina non visa. Recent scholarship continues
to assume that university mathematical studies included astrology because of its links
with medicine.335 While the applications of astrology to medical prognosis may have
been the primary goal of astrological instruction at many universities,336 astrology was
also taught in its own right in Faculties of Arts.337 There were many physicians who
practiced astrology, such as Pietro dAbano, but there were also many astrologers who
did not practice medicine, such as Guido Bonatti. Michael Shank has shown that the
practice of astrology may have had different emphases at different times and in
334
Nancy Siraisi, Arts and Sciences at Padua (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval
Studies, 1973), 84-89; Hilary Carey, Medieval Latin Astrology and the Cycles of Life:
William English and English Medicine in Cambridge, Trinity College MS O.5.26, in Astro-
medicine: Astrology and Medicine, East and West, eds. Anna Akasoy, Charles Burnett, and
Ronit Yoeli-Tlalim, Micrologus Library 25 (Florence: Sismel Edizioni del Galluzzo, 2008).
335
Paul Grendler, The Universities of the Italian Renaissance, 409.
336
See Lemay, The Teaching of Astronomy, 200-209; Pearl Kibre, The Intellectual Interests
Reflected in Libraries of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries, Journal of the History of
Ideas, 7 (1946), 257-297.
337
Roger French provides the most balanced account, in which astrology is valued, studied,
and practiced for its own sake and doctors make use of it as best they can. See Roger French,
Foretelling the Future: Arabic Astrology and English Medicine in the Late Twelfth Century,
Isis 87 (1996): 453-480.
168
different places, in one case shifting from a more medically-based focus to
mathematical astronomy to prophecy in the fifteenth century.338 Shank also highlights
the fact that the university was the locus for astrological practices which spread
outwards into civic and courtly environments. Azzolini also emphasizes the links
between the Sforza court and the astrologers at the University of Pavia, and Hayton
describes a fair amount of control exercized by Maximilian I over the astrologers at the
University of Vienna.
At the University of Bologna, professors of astrology had clearly stipulated
duties which were specified in the statutes and represented ties between the university
and the city. For example, they were required to issue an annual iudicium, i.e. a
prognostication for the city and its inhabitants concerning weather, natural disasters,
illnesses, the fate of crops, wars, and fluctuations in the pricing of commodities.
University astrologers were also required to produce an annual almanac with the
calendar, the seasons, the positions of the planets, and eclipses.339 This stipulation was
echoed very closely in Ferrara, and also in the Florence statutes of 1402, which stated
ad legendum astrologiam et faciendum taccuinum, or reading astrology and making
an almanac.340 In German contexts, the iudicium was known as a practica, and was
338
Michael Shank, Academic Consulting in Fifteenth-Century Vienna: the Case of
Astrology, in Texts and Contexts in Ancient and Medieval Science, ed. Edith Scylla and
Michael McVaugh (Leiden: Brill, 1997), 245-270.
339
Malagola, Statuti, 264. See also Grendler, The Universities of the Italian Renaissance, 409-
412.
340
A. Gherardi, Statuti dellUniversit e Studio Fiorentino dellanno MCCCLXXXVII (Forni,
1973), 377.
169
also often issued by university professors.341 There is also evidence of this practice
from the 1476 statutes at the University at Krakow, where Alcabitius was also read.342
Robert Westman gives a thorough discussion of the annual prognostication in the late
fifteenth century and sixteenth century at several universities.343
As is evident from the range of astrological texts available, individual
university professors exercised a certain amount of freedom in selecting which texts to
teach. However, lists of texts do not inform us about the nature of astrological
instruction, i.e. what precisely happened during lectures. Darin Hayton has suggested
that astrological instruction at Vienna in the early sixteenth century was based on
demonstrations which frequently employed paper instruments, and that lectures were
more focused on astrological practice rather than theory.344 Charles Burnett has shown
how Alcabitiuss Introduction was introduced to the students of Johannes Borotin,
through an elaborate preface recounting the history of the science of the stars.345
Different cases illustrate different levels of competence required of the students, which
may not always be reflected in lists of texts. The commentaries also provide some
341
Hayton, The Crown and the Cosmos, 119-144.
342
I. Stelcel, Codex diplomaticus universitatis studii generalis Cracoviensis: pars teria ab
anno 1471 usque ad annum 1506 (Krakw, 1880), 47: Magistri Martini autem dicti Rex
Ptolomeum in Quadripartito, Alcabicium, Centiloquium verborum Ptolomei, Albumasar et
alios libros spectantes ad astrologiam, iudicium quoque correctum et a senioribus in eadem
facultate revisum et approbatum, universitati singulis annis praesentabit.
343
Robert Westman, The Copernican Question (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011),
62-66.
344
Darin Hayton, Instruments and demonstrations in the astrological curriculum: evidence
from the University of Vienna, 1500-1530, Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, Part
C 41 (2010): 124-34.
345
Fifteenth Century: Master Johannes Borotin, Aither 2 (Prague, 2014): 9-50.
170
insight into what may have happened during lectures. The range of commentaries on
the Sphaera illustrates a range of varying interests related to spherical astronomy.
There are fewer commentaries on the Introduction, but these also reveal the varying
interests in the teaching of astrology at universities.
Cecco dAscolis Commentary
Cecco dAscoli is known primarily for his poem lAcerba, which has long been
associated with Dantes poetry, and for having been the first university professor to be
burned at the stake by the Inquisition, in 1327.346 As a professor at the University of
Bologna, Cecco wrote commentaries on the two most popular texts for teaching the
science of the stars at universities: Sacroboscos Sphaera and Alcabitiuss
Introduction. Ceccos astrological ideas were cited as the reasons for heretical charges
raised against him in 1324 in Bologna, but it was his failure to respect his punishment
in these proceedings which led to his death in Florence in 1327. In addition, according
to the contemporary chronicler Giovanni Villani, it was Ceccos astronomical
commentary on the Sphaera which was deemed heretical, not the commentary on the
Introduction. In considering the contents of the two texts it is fairly obvious why this is
the case: the Sphaera commentary frequently speaks of the summoning of demons.347
Although he frequently refers to his Sphaera commentary in his commentary in the
Introduction, the latter is mostly devoted to the explication of astrological doctrine. In
the commentary on the Introduction, however, Cecco does indeed once refer to
346
Lynn Thorndike, Cecco dAscoli, HMES II,948-968.
347
For an example of this, see Thorndike, The Sphaere of Sacrobosco, 406-407. According to
Thorndike, the Sphaera commentary is less a commentary upon Sacroboscos text than a
manual of astrological necromancy. See Thorndike, Cecco dAscoli, 966.
171
conjuring spirits by carving astrological images, despite his acknowledgment that
necromancy is contrary to the Christian faith. He mostly restricts these controversial
views to the Sphaera commentary rather than including them in the commentary on the
Introduction, which is quite tame in comparison.
Ceccos commentary on the Introduction covers only the first fifty-four
paragraphs of the first chapter.348 It begins with a short preface praising the study of
astrology, and then gives an overview of the Introduction before dealing with specific
sections. In the preface, Cecco cites Ptolemy, Hipparchus, Zoroaster, Messahala, and
Astaphon. He praises examining celestial things and knowing their working as being
truly the noblest thing.349 Cecco also quotes the well-known saying in pseudo-
Ptolemys Centiloquium that the foreknowledge of events helps one to better prepare
for the future.350 He gives several examples, the first of which is medical and refers to
preparing for a sickness of heat by making oneself and surroundings cold.351 Another
example is quite relevant for Ceccos audience of university students. He writes, and
348
The text is preserved in BAV Vat. lat. 2366: Incipit scriptum super librum de principiis
astrologie secundum Cicchum dum iuvenis erat electus per universitatem Bononie ad
legendum. The text of this manuscript is fairly illegible, which is reflected in some of the
nonsensical Latin of Boffitos edition. My translations follow Boffitos text quite literally and
thus reflect this fact.
349
Boffito, Alcabizzo, 336: Speculari celestia et ipsorum actionum noscere quod est uerum
nobilissimum
350
Optimus, inquit, astrologus multum malum prohibere poterit quod secundum stellas
euenturum est cum eius naturam presiuerit; sic enim premuniet cum malum futurum est ut id
pati possit. Boffito, Alcabizzo, 336.
351
Boffito, Alcabizzo, 336: Ergo si sciuero per natiuitatem alicuius, per directionis gradum
ascendentis quod tali anno die tali debeat egritudine callida ergotare ante illud tempus faciam
uti infrigidatinis quod adueniente illo tempore infirmitas non erit. The same example is given
in Amad ibn Ysufs commentary on verbum 5 of the Centiloquium, and also by John of
Saxony in his commentary in the Introduction.
172
if the heavens denote good for someone, that he may become a physician or a jurist, he
can through his own will augment this by uninterrupted studying and by listening to the
most brilliant teachers in the city.352 Cecco then warns the students: because if he
does the opposite, perhaps he will be a physician or a jurist, but he will be an ignorant
man and worthless in the aforementioned ability.353 Ceccos overview of the
Introduction also indicates his description of the text to students who perhaps owned
their own copies. In discussing the divisions of the text into chapters and parts,354 he
gives the incipits for each section.355 If students were listening to his lecture and
following along in their own copies, these references could have served as signposts.
The university setting is also obvious at several other points in the commentary,
where he addresses students directly: In order that you, Young people, understand,
there are four triplicities, which are the cause of the four elements.356 Later, he writes,
About this part, you young people, you should know that whichever of those signs has
thirty degrees in longitude His explanations for the iuuenes, or students, are almost
always given in the imperative: you should understand (debetis intelligere) or you
352
Boffito, Alcabizzo, 336: Et si celum alicui bonum designat ut quod efficiatur etiam (?)
medicus uel iurista istud potest per suum arbitrium augmentare studendo continue et audiendo
doctores clarissimos ciuitatis.
353
Boffito, Alcabizzo, 336-7: quod si contrarium faciet, erit forsan medicus uel iurista sed
erit homo ignorans et uilis supradicte facultatis.
354
This scholastic practice of introducing divisions was typical of commentaries.
355
Boffito, Alcabizzo, 337: Secunda ibi Saturnus masculus malus, etc. Tertia ibi
Significatio planetarum, etc.; Quarta ibi Differentia 4a, etc.; Quinta ibi Differentia 5a, etc.
356
Boffito, Alcabizzo, 339: Ut vos, Juuenes, intelligatis, quattuor sunt triplicitates que sunt
cause quattuor elementorum. Another example of addressing the students directly is on p.
340: Iuxta quam partem vos iuuenes, debetis scire quod quodlibet istorum signorum habet 30
gradus in longitudine
173
should know (debetis scire), or also you read the whole [part] (legatis totum). The
use of the imperative and addressing the students directly gives the commentary a
conversational tone which gives the impression that it was read as a lecture. Indeed,
most of the commentary paraphrases the main text by explaining particular points in
different language. For example, in the section of the Introduction describing the four
quadrants of the sky, it reads: And that quadrant part of the circle which is from the
beginning of Aries to the end of Gemini is called the hot moist quadrant, vernal,
youthful, and sanguine.357 The Introduction continues describing the other quadrants.
Ceccos commentary reads: There he puts the division of the zodiac into four
quandrants, and this part [of the text] is divided into four parts, for in the first he shows
that which is the hot and humid quandrant and the second that which is the hot and dry
quadrant, in the third that which is the cold and dry quandrant, and in the fourth that
which is the cold and humidHe says that the first part which is the quandrant of the
zodiac, that is from the beginning of Aries until the end of Gemini, is humid and hot,
springlike, childlike, and sanguine, that is signifying the time of spring, childhood, and
blood.358 As is evident in this section, Cecco is not supplying any new information,
merely rephrasing the text of the Introduction.
357
BYY, Introduction, 1:[11], p.? : Et vocatur illa quarta pars circuli que est ab initio Arietis
usque in finem Geminorum quarta calida humida, vernalis, puerilis, sanginea.
358
Boffito, Alcabizzo, 344: Hic ponit divisionem zodvaci in quatuor quartas et dividitur ista
pars in partes quatuor, nam in prima ostendit quae sit quarta callida et humida et in secunda que
sit calida et sicca, in tertia que sit frigida et sicca et in quarta que sit frigida et humidaDicit
de prima parte quod quarta pars zodyaci, scilicet illa que est a principio arietis usque in finem
geminorum est humida vernalis puerilis et sanginea, id est significans tempus ueris pueritiam et
sanguinem.
174
In other sections Cecco provides additional information, which displays a range
of competence in his explanations of astrology, astronomy, and natural philosophy.
Many of his explanations are quite basic and obviously for the beginning student, and
some are more useful than others. In one passage, he explains why the signs have their
names, with reference to the Sun.359 In discussing the division of the four quadrants of
the sky, which are then given qualities which are related to the elements, humors, ages
of life, and times of the year, Cecco gives additional information relevant to medicine:
And so the humors of our bodies are elevated and lowered by the motion of the moon.
Hence I suppose that for anyone who has a fever from blood and the signs of digestion
will already appear, when the moon will be in its humid quadrant which indicates
blood and that quadrant is impeded, then the blood will be elevated in the veins and
arteries360 Cecco also provides information for how information may be used in the
interpretation of a horoscope. For example, Cecco substantially elaborates on
Alcabitiuss discussion of bicorporeal signs. After referencing this distinction, Cecco
writes: About this part you should understand that four are bicorporeal signs, that is:
Gemini, Sagittarius, Virgo, and Pisces. From which if Gemini is in the ascendent,
Virgo will be in the cardine of the earth which indicates treasure, Pisces in the
midheaven which significes honor, Sagittarius in the western cardine which signifies
359
For example, he writes: Taurus is called thus because when the Sun is in Taurus it begins
to raise the horns of its rays and it renders the land arable. Gemini is called thus because the
Sun stays in that sign for two days more than in another sign. Boffito, Alcabizzo, 339:
Taurus dicitur eo quod cum sol est in tauro incipit elevare cornua radiorum suorum et redit
terram arabilem; Gemini dicitur eo quod sol stat in illo signo duobus diebus plus quam in alio
signo.
360
Boffito, Alcabizzo, 345: Et sic humores nostri corporis eleuantur et deprimuntur motu
lune. Unde pono quod aliquis habeat febrem ex sanguine et iam apparuerint signa digestionis,
cum luna erit in quarta sua humida que significat sanguinem et illa quarta fuerit impedita, tunc
elevabitur sanguis in venis et artariis
175
the departure on account of women; from which if their lords are strong and it was of a
reasonable nativity, the newborn will also be rich, because when the same planet is the
lord of the ascendant and the lord of the fourth, the born is disposed to wealth, as
Almasor says in his Aphorisms361 From these examples it is evident that Cecco was
explaining the main text through providing specific examples, which could then be in
application for particular horoscopes.
In another practical passage, Cecco defines the meaning of the Head and Tail of
the Dragon, which Alcabitius frequently discusses without ever properly defining
them. He writes, About this part you should understand, you young people, the head
and tail are the intersections of the circle of the equator and the deferent and they are
not stars placed in the sky in the manner of a dragonand these intersections are called
nodes and they are moved by every natural day 3 minutes and 2 seconds towards the
west and the Head is composed from the nature of Jupiter and Venus and the Tail from
the nature of Saturn and Mars.362 A few lines later, he appears to address more
experienced students, writing: You greater ones, however, should understand that in
those intersections of the circles are many hidden operations, which are unknown for a
361
Boffito, Alcabizzo, 346: Iuxta quod debetis intelligere quod quatuor sunt signa
bicorporea, scilicet: gemini, sagittarius, virgo, et piscis. Unde si gemini fuerint in ascendente,
virgo erit in angulo terre qui significat thesaurum, piscis in angulo celi quod significat
honorem, sagittarius in angulo occidentis qui significat profectum ex causis mulierum; unde si
domini eorum sint fortes et sic fuerit nativitatis rationalis, erit natus et dives, quia quando
dominus ascendentis et dominus quarte fuerit idem planeta natus ad diuitias disponetur, ut dicit
Almasor in suis Afforismis
362
Boffito, Alcabizzo, 348: quod caput et cauda sunt intersecationes circulorum equatoris
et deferentis et non sunt stelle posite in celo ad modum draconiset iste intersecationes
uocantur nodi et mouentur omni die naturali 3 minutis et 2 secundis versus occidentem et
capud est compositum ex natura Iouis et Veneris et cauda ex natura Saturni et Martis.
176
particular nature.363 Referencing the more experienced students here is interesting, as
Cecco goes on to discuss astrological images. He cites Astaphon again, and his book
De mineralibus constellatis. Astaphon says: O how great is the intersection of the
circles which holds power, which is unknown for a particular nature; [dyacodius],
without the touch of a dead body in water, when it was in Sagittarius by nature, certain
spirits came to a response.364 Cecco continues, About this you should understand that
[dyacodius] is a certain stone for which the [effect] is: if it is put in water when the
Head or Tail is in Sagittarius, spirits who are out of the order of grace came naturally to
respond. And this stone has a miraculous property, for if it touches a dead human body
it veils its vital forces, as the Arab Euayrex says in the book De lapidibus.365 It is
remarkable that Cecco mentions these necromantic practices in this commentary, since
most of these references appear in the Sphaera commentary. Scholarship on Cecco has
363
Boffito, Alcabizzo, 348: Vos autem, maiores, debetis intelligere quod in ista
intersecatione circulorum multe sunt operationes occulte que ignote sunt particulari nature.
364
Boffito, Alcabizzo, 349: O quanta est virtus quam habet intersectio circulorum, que
ignota est particulari nature.
365
Boffito, Alcabizzo, 349: dyacodius enim sine tactu corporis mortui in aqua, cum fuerit in
sagitta natura, quidam spiritus veniunt ad responsa. Iuxta quod debetis intelligere quad
dyacodius est quidam lapis cuius color est: si ponitur in aqua cum capud vel cauda fuerint in
sagittario, naturaliter spiritus qui sunt extra ordinem gratie veniunt ad responsa. Et hic lapis
habet mirabilem proprietatem, nam si tangat corpus humanum mortuum amictit uires suas, ut
dicit Euayrex arabum in libro de lapidibus. It is not clear from Boffitos transcription what is
meant by dyacodius, although from the context it refers to the type of stone. The closest
alternative in spelling is diacodium or diacodion, a syrup made from poppies. In addition, it is
unlikely Cecco meant color in the phrase quidam lapis cuius color est, which Boffito also
must have incorrectly transcribed.
177
attributed his condemnation to his Sphaera commentary, but clearly his illicit views
were also present in his commentary on the Introduction.366
Lastly, Ceccos commentary is remarkable in that there are several passages
which give natural philosophical explanations for stellar influence, explicitly linking
the sublunar realm to the heavens which is only implied in the Introduction. One
explanation is followed by a citation of Moyses Rabi in explaining stellar
influence.367 There is a lengthy section following the discussion of the lunar nodes
about the physical justification for their influence, since they are points and not
planets.368 At several points, Cecco discusses the receptivity of the sublunar world to
stellar influences. As we have seen, this was the subject of Albumasars Great
Introduction. It does not appear that the Great Introduction was taught at universities,
although it remained a popular text among learned astrologers. Richard Lemay has
demonstrated the influence that the Great Introduction had on the reception of
Aristotles philosophy in this period. This further raises the question of the ties
between natural philosophy and astrology in universities.
On its own, it is difficult to judge how typical Ceccos commentary (and more
than that, his lectures) were in comparison with his contemporaries. The elementary
nature of instruction indicates that he was teaching the text to students very early in
their university careers, possibly in their first year. This is certainly different from what
366
Thorndike overlooked this instance in his analysis of the commentary, since he mentions
two other places where Cecco discusses astrological images. See Thorndike, Cecco dAscoli,
958-959.
367
Boffito, Alcabizzo, 339.
368
Boffito, Alcabizzo, 349.
178
the 1405 Bologna curriculum suggests, which lists the Introduction in the third year of
studies. Furthermore, Ceccos infusion of natural philosophy into the text blurs the
boundaries between the teaching of astronomia/astrologia and physica. Aristotle
himself looms large over the text, with Cecco referencing the four causes in the preface
of the commentary to illustrate his teaching process.369
John of Saxonys Commentary
John of Saxony was active at the University of Paris in the first half of the
fourteenth century.370 He was a student of John of Lignres, and is known for writing
canons to the Alphonsine Tables in 1327 which became quite popular. Replacing the
Toledan Tables, the Alphonsine Tables remained the principle astronomical tables used
by astrologers and astronomers from the thirteenth century onwards until the Prutentic
Tables in the sixteenth century and the Rudolphine Tables in the seventeenth
century.371 In terms of the university setting of Johns work, Burnett writes, It cannot
be by chance that John of Saxonys canons to the Alfonsine Tables and his
commentary on al-Qab were composed within four years of each other, both
immediately established themselves as the set texts in their respective subjects. This
suggests that the two works were part of the same syllabus in teaching astronomy in
369
Boffito, Alcabizzo, 337: In isto autem libro sicuti et in aliis 4 cause principaliter
requiruntur, scilicet causa materialis, causa efficiens, causa formalis et causa finalis.
370
Lynn Thorndike, John of Saxony, HMES III, 253-267; For a more thorough account, see
Emmanuelle Poulle, Les astronomes parisiens au XIVe sicle et lastronomie alphonsine, in
Histoire littraire de la France publie par lAcadmie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres,
Tome 43, Fascicule 1 (Paris, 2005): 1-51.
371
Jose Chabas and Bernard Goldstein, The Alfonsine Tables of Toledo (Dordrecht: 2003).
179
Paris.372 Burnett has also noted the scholastic nature of the syllabus, as John
emphasizes Aristotelian natural science in the study of the science of the stars.373 The
Aristelian influence is particularly obvious in Johns preface to his commentary, where
he frequently cites Aristotle and Albumasar, as well as a host of other astrological
authorities: Ptolemy, Haly and his commentary on the Tetrabiblos (Al ibn Riwn),
Haly and his commentary on the Centiloquium (Amed ibn Ysuf), Haly Abenragel
(Al ibn ab-l-Rijl), and Abraham Avenezra (Abraham ibn Ezra). To round out the
learned nature of the preface, John includes references to the theologian Alain de
Lilles poetic works.374
Johns commentary is a very thorough explanation of the astrological principles
laid out in the Introduction. It is over twice as long as the Introduction itself,
comprising 64 folio pages of a printed octavo volume, whereas the Introduction takes
up approximately 30 pages. Consider, for example, the very first two sections of the
first chapter of the Introduction. In these two paragraphs, Alcabitius defines the zodiac
as being composed of twelve equal parts, each called signs. The signs refer to the
images of the zodiac circle, and Alcabitius lists them by name. He then explains that
each sign is divided into thirty equal parts, called degrees, and that each degree is
divided into sixty minutes, and each minute is divided into sixty seconds, etc.375 The
372
Burnett, Al-Qabs Introduction, 53.
373
Burnett notes that in his introduction to the canons for the Alfonsine Tables, John explicitly
references Aristotles Physics in explaining his approach to the science of the stars. See
374
Citations to Johns commentary are to the 1521 Paris edition of the Introduction, which
begins on f. 29v, with the title given in the notes as Commentary.
375
BYY, Introduction, 1:[6]-[7].
180
concepts are very basic, but John then devotes several paragraphs to their elucidation.
He first explains two doubts (dubitationes) about the signs, concerning (1) the number
of the signs; and (2) their order and principles. In the first case, John distinguishes the
twelve signs of the zodiac from the 48 constellations listed by Ptolemy. After then
discussing the order and principles of the twelve zodiacal signs, John continues: For
the proof of the aforementioned is the understanding that in the eighth sphere there are
48 images, in which all the ancients agree just as it was said, and in these there are
1002 stars, which are called fixed stars. And they are all moved by one motion, that is
the motion of the eighth sphere, in one year about one degree.376 By framing the text
of the Introduction within the classical heritage of the science of the stars in the first
several paragraphs, John situates his reader within the context of contemporary
fourteenth-century astrological knowledge, where the Arabic authorities are an integral
part of an astrological tradition rooted in Greek thought.
He gives not only a thorough description of Alcabitiuss text, but frequently
refers to other authors views on particular points to compare and constrast them.
These authors include the ancient and Arabic authors mentioned above as well as
contemporary Latin authors. In Alcabitiuss descriptions of the twelve places, for each
place he references Alendezgoz (al-Andarzagar) on nativities. John adds several
additional sources to his commentaries on the places, including Haly Abenragel,
Abraham Avenezra (Abraham Ibn Ezra), Hispalensis (John of Seville), Hippocrates,

376
John of Saxony, Commentary, f. 35v: Ad euidentiam praedictorum est ingelligendum que
in octaua sphaera sunt quadraginta octo imagines: in quibus est concordia apud omnes antiquos
sicut dicebatur & sunt in eis .1002. stellae quae dicuntur stellae fixae & mouentur omnes vno
motu scilicet ad motum octauae sphaerae: in centum annis fere vno gradu. Ptolemy
recognized 1028 stars in the Almagest. The discrepancy of the number of the stars in Johns
commentary may have originated with Albumasars Great Introduction.
181
and Guido Bonatti. In his discussion of the first place, which signifies the bodies of
men and life (corpora hominum et vitam), for example, he gives the opinions of several
other authors. After discussing Ptolemy and Haly Abenragels opinions on whether one
would live a long or short life according to the first place, John continues by discussing
various views on the bringing up (nutritio) of children. John writes, Something to note
is regarding child-rearing, that is whether a child will stay alive or not.377 John then
cites Haly Abenragels opinion, which is that if the lord of the triplicity of the luminary
of the time (i.e. the Sun if the birth is diurnal, or the Moon if the birth is nocturnal) are
in the ascendant, tenth, eleventh, or fifth place, then the nourishment will be good and
easy. But if the luminaries are in the seventh place, it signifies bad nourishment,
distress, and hardship.378 John then compares this with Abraham Avenezra: Abraham
Avenezra says that if the lord of the ascendent is combust [under the suns rays], the
native will not live for an extent, that is for days.379 John then provides an example
from his own experience: The nativity for one boy was brought to me, for whom the
ascendent was Virgo and Mercury was in Pisces in its detriment, retrograde, and
combust, and I believed this saying. I said that the boy would not live eight days, and
377
John of Saxony, Commentary, f. 52v: Notandum est circa nutritionem scilicet vtrum puer
sit vitalis vel non.
378
John of Saxony, Commentary, f. 52v: Dicit Haly Abenragel quando domini triplicitatis
luminaris temporis vult dicere domini triplicitatis signi in quo est sol si fuerit natiuitas diurna
vel signi lunae in natiuitate nocturna fuerint in ascendente: vel in 10 domo vel 11 vel 5 est
significatio bonae ac leuis nutritionis. Et si fuerint in septima significant malam nutritionem et
anxiam atque laboriosam.
379
John of Saxony, Commentary, f. 52v: Dicit Abraham Auenezra. Si dominus ascendenti
fuerit combustus, natus non viuet spacium scilicet dierum.
182
his death was in six days.380 John then moves on to another discussion regarding
planetary conjunctions and the first place, again citing Haly Abenragel. He concludes
his commentary on the first house by citing John of Seville on elections.
John frequently gives examples from experience in discussing how to apply
astrological knowledge to specific circumstances. As in the example in the previous
paragraph, John drew on the work of Abraham ibn Ezra in recounting his prediction of
the death of a boy. In other passages of the commentary, John draws on his own
knowledge and practice, citing the Alfonsine Tables381 and adding information which
(he claims) does not appear in other books.382 He provides examples of hypothetical
circumstances to better illustrate particular points, or to illustrate how specific
calculations are made. In the same section on the first place, for example, John cites
pseudo-Ptolemys ninety-fourth proposition in the Centiloquium: The place of the
strongest indication in the ascendent is that which is in the mind of the person
interrogating.383 He goes on to explain what this means and provides a specific
example: And therefore when you want to know the intention of the querent, look at
380
John of Saxony, Commentary, f. 52v: Portata fuit mihi natiuitas unius pueri cuius ascendens
erat virgo et Mercurius fuit in piscibus in detrimento suo retrogradus et combustus et eco
credidi huic dicto. Et dixi que puer non viueret per octo dies et mortuus fuit in sexta die.
381
Dico quod Parisius secundum veritatem tabularum Alfoncii in hora coniunctionis solis et
lune precedentis introitum solis in ariete erit ascendens primus gradus Cancri Quoted in
Thorndike, HMES III, 263, n. 32 from BL Digby 97, fol. 239v.
382
Et ego dico tibi quod significator habens latitudinem potest dirigi ad locum etiam
habentem latitudinem per tabulas ascensionum, et non vidi modum expositum in aliquo libro
(from BL Digby 97, fol. 230v) and hunc modum non vidi positum nec expositum in aliquo
libro ut pateat planius quod dixi ponam in hoc exemplum. (Amplon.Q.354, fol. 15v) Quoted
in Thorndike, HMES III, 263, n. 31.
383
John of Saxony, Commentary, f. 52r: Locus fortioris significatoris in ascendente est id
quod est in animo interrogantis. See also Ptolemy, Centiloquium, verba 94, f. ?? Reference to
printed edition.
183
which of the planets has more powers in the ascendent in that hour when he comes to
you with the intention of asking a question, and then look in which of the twelve places
is that planet, and you answer according to the indications of that place in which it is.
For example, I suppose that the ascendent is Leo and the Sun has more powers in the
degree of the ascendent, and I suppose that the Sun is in the second place. I say that his
intention is to ask about property or profit, or another similar thing.384 The second
place is that of property and wealth, and so Johns example is quite obvious. The fact
that this example concerns the practice of interrogations, however, indicates that John
was offering practical training rather than merely discussing astrological theory.
Indeed, there are several practical examples involving interrogations. John discusses
favorable and unfavorable astrological circumstances for marriage in his commentary
on the seventh place.385 And John quotes Haly Abenragel, for example, in explaining
how to determine if a woman is pregnant or not.386
John completes his commentary on the first chapter with an interpretation of a
chart for an interrogation, in which a man asked whether another person was alive or
dead.387 The chart appears in the printed editions and may also have been copied in the
384
John of Saxony, Commentary, f. 52r: Ideoque cum volueris scire intentionem quaerentis,
vide quis planetarum habeat plus fortitudinis in ascendente in illa hora quando venit ad te
animo interrogandi, et vide in qua domo ex 12 domibus sit ille planeta, et dicas secundum
significationes illius domus in qua fuerit. Verbi gratia. Pono quod ascendens sit leo et sol
habeat plures fortitudines in gradu ascendente, et pono quod sol sit in 2 domo, dico que intentio
sua est petere de substantia sua vel de lucro, vel de aliquo consimili
385
John of Saxony, Commentary, f. 59r.
386
John of Saxony, Commentary, f. 56v: Dicit Haly Abenragel, si interrogatus fuerit pro
muliere si est praegnans aut non
387
John of Saxony, Commentary, f. 63v : Quidam homo interrogauit de quodam absente
utrum esset mortuus vel viuus et fuit ascendens questionis 20 gradus leonis et incidit talis
figura.
184
mansucripts, although this remains to be determined. John continues to supply
examples throughout the commentary. He explains how the great conjunctions of
Jupiter and Saturn enter into different triplicities every 240 years, by beginning with
the recent conjunction of 1325, which was in the sign of Gemini in the airy triplicity.
The next one, he mentions, will take place 20 years later in 1345, in Aquarius. And
twenty years after that, another conjunction will occur in Libra. The conjunctions will
occur in these three signs every twenty years twelve times. So, twenty years multiplied
by twelve times is 240 years. At that point, the conjunction will then occur in the signs
of the watery triplicity.388 At some points his comments draw from Johns astronomical
competence, particularly in his discussion on the conditions of the planets, for which he
provides a specific example for each condition. This competence is also displayed in
his comments on the use of instruments, where he specifies that to preserve the
accuracy of calculations instruments should be built so that they are large enough to
reflect minutes.389
388
John of Saxony, Commentary, f. 75r.
389
Thorndike points out this comment in his analysis of the chapter. See Thorndike, John of
Saxony, HMES, v. 3, 260. The quote is recorded from BL Digby 97, fol. 230v: Nota tamen
quod secundum modum dictum diriguntur significatores quando non habent latitudinem.
Quando autem significatores habent latitudinem difficilior est modus. Et propter hoc factum
fuit instrumentum ad dirigendum planetas habentes latitudines. Et illud instrumentum vocatur
directorium. Videbatur enim compositori seu inventori illius instrumenti quod significator
habens latitudinem non posset dirigi per tabulas ascensionum vel non sine magna difficultate.
Ego autem dico quod instrumentum non est sufficiens nisi sit maxime quantitatis ita quod
possit recipere minuta. Tale autem vix posset fieri. In directionibus enim ut plurimum accipitur
pro quolibet gradu unus annus. Modo si instrumentum non sit divisum nisi per gradum vix
invenitur in eo certitudo usque ad annum. Adhuc si instrumentum sit bene factum ita quod non
sit error in dividendo hoc autem non sufficit. It is possible that here John is referring to paper
instruments.
185
In the preface of the commentary he mentions the divisions of the science of
judgments, and lists nativities, revolutions of the year, interrogations, and elections.390
He then makes the following comment: Besides these there are some other parts of
[the science of] judgments, such as the great conjunctions, images, sigils, on which we
have little or nothing.391 Burnett interprets this as meaning that John did not care for
these branches of astrology, as he does not include talismanic magic in his
commentary.392 Coincidentally, Alcabitius himself did not include these topics in the
Introduction. Whereas several parts of the Introduction are relevant for nativities,
revolutions of the years (both world years and nativities), interrogations, and elections,
there is only one brief section on the great conjunctions,393 and no mention at all of
images or stones. John, however, does mention sigils at least once in his commentary,
towards the end of his discussion of the Egyptian terms. He writes, Those men from
Egypt were wise magicians who were from antiquity, for they were of great study and
practice in all the sciences and wise things which could help mankind. And we know
this from the chronicles of the ancient wise men, following what was said about them,
and through that which has remained from their works from many millions of years
until this very day. Nevertheless I say what I have seen myself from an experience
390
John of Saxony, Commentary, f. 34r: Secunda species est ars iudiciorum astrologiae et
habet quatuor partes principales, quarum prima est de interrogationibus, secunda de
nativitatibus, tertia de revolutionibus annorumet haec est duplex, scilicet de revolutionibus
annorum mundi et de revolutionibus annorum nativitatumquarta de electionibus.
391
John of Saxony, Commentary, f. 34r: Praeter istas sunt quaedam aliae partes iudiciorum,
scilicet de coniunctionibus magnis, de imaginibus, de sigillis, de quibus parum vel nihil
habemus.
392
Burnett, Al-Qabs Introduction, 57-58.
393
186
which I encountered in a place which is called the eye of the sun. Since in a short time
I have seen great miracles, these are the words of Haly, he however says nothing about
his experience. In his commentary on the Centiloquium on the proposition: the forms
of this world,394 he speaks about one experience of a sigil of Scorpio made in stone,
according to what he could see there, and what he wanted to see in that spot he would
see.395 In this passage, John appeals to the authority of the ancients and to Haly to
justify his mentioning of a sigil of Scorpio, which is originally discussed by Amed ibn
Ysuf in the commentary on the Centiloquium.
The commentary does touch on some other illicit material, but as with the
previous example it concerns a topic which is discussed by astrological authorities
other than Alcabitius. In his commentary on the sixth place, the place of sickness, John
mentions the casting of nativities for possessed persons, within the broader context of
sicknesses of the spirit (infirmitates spiritus), or what we may interpret as mental
illness.396 In discussing the views of Haly Abenragel, John writes, After that he says, I
say that possessed persons are those who do not have Mercury in any aspect with the
394
This is the ninth proposition in the Centiloquium, which reads: Vultus huius seculi sunt
subiecti vultibus celestibus. Et ideo sapientes qui imagines faciebant stellarum introitum in
celestes vultus inspiciebant et tunc operabantur quod debebat. See Ptolemy, Centiloquium,
verbum 9, f. 107v.
395
John of Saxony, Commentary, f. 45v: Illi de Aegypto fuerunt sapientes magi qui fuerunt ab
antiquo tempore, nam isti fuerunt studij & exercicij magni in scientiis & sapientiis omnibus de
quibus homo se iuuare potest. Et scimus hoc per chronica sapientium antiquorum secundum
quod loquebantur de ipsis: & per ea quae de suis operibus remanserunt a multis milibus
annorum usque ad hodienam diem. Tamen ego dico illud quod ego vidi de una experientia
quam inueni in loco qui dictus est oculus solis: quia in modico tempore miracula magna vidi,
haec sunt verba Haly, de experientia autem tacet. In centiloquio in commento illius
propositionis: vultus huius seculi, dicit unam experientiam de sigillo scorpionis facto in lapide
secundum quod potest ibi videri. & que voluerit videre ibidem videat.
396
This section follows a lengthy discussion of the interpretation of illness-related deaths and
critical days.
187
Moon in their nativities, nor aspecting their ascendent, and the power in their nativity if
it is diurnal would be Saturn, and if nocturnal, Mars, and whichever of them may be in
the cardines, and this is the nativity of a possessed person.397 It appears that John is
reporting these illicit cases in order to provide a complete discussion of the sources,
rather than endorsing these topics. Nevertheless, due to their controversial nature it is
noteworthy that he has not avoided them altogether. As John mentions demons insofar
as they are related to illness, and is not giving instructions for invoking them, as Cecco
did, this passage must have been considered licit.
Johns commentary is found in at least thirty-two of approximately 230
manuscripts of the Introduction, and it was printed in nine out of twelve editions.
While the Introduction was popular in its own right, Johns commentary further
legitimized its study within universities. In the preface to his commentary, John
mentions that there are other introductory books which lay out the principles of
astrology and which explain the terms used by masters in astrology, however among
these other introductions, the Book of Alcabitius is the most accepted among the
Moderns. Therefore by having abandoned the others, we direct attention to the present
work.398 As John was clearly familiar with several other Arabic authors, it is
noteworthy for him to mention that Alcabitiuss Introduction was, in the 1330s, already
397
John of Saxony, Commentary, f. 58r: Postea dicit: dico que daemoniaci sunt illi qui non
habent in natiuitatibus suis Mercurium cum luna in aliquo aspetu, nullo eorum aspiciente
ascendens, et fortio in natiuitate sua si diurna fuerit que sit Saturnus, et si nocturna Mars. Et
quis eorum fuerit sit in angulis et haec est natiuitas daemonum.
398
John of Saxony, Commentary, f. 5v: Aduertentes autem plurimi antiquorum et etiam
modernorum quod iste partes essent difficiles ad intelligendum debentibus primo adiscere illam
sectam fecerunt libros introductorios in quibus posuerunt principia et exposuerunt terminos
quibus utuntur magistri iudiciorum. Inter autem alios introductorios liber Alkabicii est magis
approbatur apud modernos. Ideo Dimissis aliis de ipso ad presens intendimus.
188
the most accepted by contemporary astrologers. Along with the fact that Cecco was
also teaching the Introduction at Bologna, we see that the Introduction was well-
entrenched astrological learning by the fourteenth century. That being said, from John
and Ceccos commentary we witness the very different levels of depth and
commentary that university students could have encountered in studying the
Introduction and astrology more generally. Situating both commentaries within a
scholastic model of reading, it appears that Ceccos commentary takes on more of a
paraphrase that gives a general meaning of the text with a few nuances (the sensus),
whereas Johns commentary is a much more in-depth interpretation of the text (the
sententia).399
In considering his treatment in general of Arabic authorities, it is obvious that
John regards them as astrological authorities equivalent to Ptolemy. His frequent
citations and comparisons reveal his familiarity with all of the major Arabic
astrological authors. He notes where different Arabic authors have divergences of
opinion with each other and with Ptolemy, and frequently contributes his own ideas.
The fourteenth century thus saw Arabic astrology as thoroughly integrated into
astrological teaching at the University of Paris. While we may not draw such a strong
conclusion about Arabic astrology at Italian universities from Ceccos commentary
alone, the additional manuscript evidence of the corpus astrologicum, cited by Azzolini
and discussed further in chapter five of this dissertation, points to similar conclusions
in those contexts. From the commentaries by John of Stendhal, the German translation
399
See Jacqueline Hamesse, The Scholastic Model of Reading, in A History of Reading in
the West, ed. Cavallo and Chartier, trans. Lydia Cochrane (Amherst: University of
Massachusettes Press, 1999), 103-119, esp. 112.
189
by Arnold of Freiburg, and manuscript evidence in Germany we may draw similar
conclusions, but this evidence has yet to be fully investigated. Similar questions may
be raised about fifteenth-century commentaries and readership.
Valentin Naibods Commentary
The final commentary to be considered is that of Valentin Naibod, in his
Enarratio elementorum astrologiae, published in 1560.400 Naibod (1523-1593)
matriculated at Wittenburg, and then took his Masters at Erfurt before taking up a
position as a professor of mathematics at the University of Cologne in 1550. Naibod is
best known for his 1573 astronomical textbook which he wrote for gymnasium
students, which contains diagrams of a geocentric system, Martianus Capellas geo-
heliocentric system, and the novel heliocentric system of Copernicus. His most
substantical work, however, is the commentary on Alcabitius. Naibod makes it clear in
the title of this work that his aim is to compare Alcabitiuss Introduction with the
astrology of Ptolemy. The title of the commentary reads: An exposition of the
elements of astrology, in which besides the explanation of Alcabitius, who put forth the
doctrine of the Arabs by abridgment, and a comparison with the principles of Ptolemy,
rejecting the prophecies and common absurdities and received opinions, a discussion is
made concerning the origin and use of the precepts of the true art, proposed in the most
celebrated Cologne Academy to the students of philosophy.401 Naibods commentary
400
Valentin Naibod, Enarratio elementorum astrologiae (Cologne: Arnold Birckman, 1560).
401
Enarratio elementorum astrologiae, in qua praeter alcabicii, qui arabum doctrinam
compendio prodidit, expositionem, atque cum Ptolemei principiis collationem, reiectis
sortilegiis et absurdis vulgoque receptis opinionibus, de verae artis praeceptorum origine et usu
satis disseritur in celeberrima Coloniensi Academia studiosis philosphiae proposita.
190
fits squarely within the humanist tradition, which had led many scholars to return to
classical texts in search of truths that had been obscured by centuries of medieval
scholasticism and textual corruptions. These humanist commentaries and translations
of scientific works demonstrated a return to the actual words of the Greeks, especially
Aristotle and Ptolemy.402
Humanism had its origin in letters, that is, poetry and literature. But the
sciences were not immune to its grasp. As astronomy and astrology in Europe were
heavily indebted to the Arabic intellectual tradition, humanist authors launched several
critiques against Arabic philosophy, medicine, and astrology. These critiques began
around the late fifteenth century and continued well into the sixteenth century.
However, as Dag Nikolaus Hasse has documented in his recent book, the reception of
Arabic texts in the Renaissance was characterized by both a valorization of certain
Arabic authors and texts and a denigration of others.403 Valentin Naibods commentary
on Alcabitius captures the complex atmosphere of the success and suppression of
Arabic authors in the sixteenth century. Naibods commentary is a humanist text par
excellence, complete with a preface that includes a host of classical references:
Aristotle, Ptolemy, Hippocrates, Pliny, Democritus, Virgil, Thales of Miletus, the
Stoics, Horace, and even Hesiod are all named. Indeed, Naibod does not mention a
single Arabic author by name until he has almost completed the preface, when he
402
Craig Martin highlights these trends in an excellent analysis of the humanist commentaries
of Pietro Pompanazzi and Agostino Nifo on Aristotles Meteorologica. See Craig Martin,
Interpretation and Utility: the Renaissance Commentary Tradition on Meteorologica IV
(Harvard: PhD Diss., 2002), especially chapters one and two.
403
Dag Hasse, Success and Suppression: Arabic Sciences and Philosophy in the Renaissance
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2016).
191
mentions Alcabitius and then discusses the Arabic contributions to the science of
astrology. In referring to the text he writes, the writer is Arab, and his translator
Hispalensis, whose langauge, even if it was not so polished that it could please the
erudite, still easily surpasses the others, who formerly translated Arabic into Latin.404
This backhanded compliment to John of Seville situates Naibod within a humanist
context, and also explains why he did not produce a new edition of the text of the
Introduction. Naibod goes on to explain that instruction in astrology has included too
much of the Arabic doctrineshe mentions ninths, twelfths, and firdaria explicitly
and not enough from Ptolemy.405
The commentary follows the same style as the preface. Naibod explains the text
and frequently references Ptolemy (in Greek), draws examples from the Tetrabiblos,
and provides Greek vocabulary for astrological terminology. He cites the Greek text of
the Centiloquium, but does not attribute authorship to Ptolemy (referring instead to the
autor Centiloquii).406 Naibod also cites Pliny and Galen, and makes several references
to his contemporaries. In his commentary on the first few sections of the first chapter,
Naibod lists the constellations by name, and then quotes from a poem about the stars
404
Naibod, Enarratio, f. d1v: Arabs est hic scriptor, et interpres eius Hispalensis, cuius oratio,
etiam si non sit tam nitida, ut delectare eruditos possit, cum tamen reliquos, qui Arabum scripta
olim in latinum conuerterunt, facile superet, ferendum bonique consulendum studium ipsius
putavi.
405
Naibod, Enarratio, f. d1v: Adhaec cum hac instructione non tantum ad Ptolemaei, verum
etiam et praecipue ad omnium Arabum doctrinam intelligendam lectorem instituere voluerit,
sortes inanes, decurias, nouenarias, duodenarias, ferdarias, et talia a physica doctrina
dissentientia, et ne ab ipso quidem probata, simul cum veris introducere necessum habuit.
406
Cardano also rejected Ptolemys authorship of the Centiloquium.
192
written by Joachim Camerarius.407 He also discusses the nativity of the Italian painter
Titian.408 There are several references to Girolamo Cardano.409 Naibods expertise in
astrology is evident from his lengthy discussion of the calculation of the house cusps,
where he cites a host of contemporary, ancient, and Arabic authors in considering
methods of calculation of the cusps, ultimately preferring the method of
Regiomontanus.410 In this section, in addition to Regiomontanus and Ptolemy, he cites
Campanus, Gazalus, Firmicus, Albumasar, Albuhali, Albubatere, and Guido Bonatti.
He also references Johannes Schner, Johannes Stfflers Ephemerides, the Prutenic
Tables, and Copernicus.411 Naibods contemporary references illustrate the tension
between humanism and scientific practice, where despite his allegiance to Ptolemy,
there is a clear acknowledgement of the importance and validity of the most recent
astronomical and astrological sources. Naibod demontrates, for example, the
superiority of the Prutenic Tables to the Alphonsine Tables.412 This standpoint is
further illustrated by Naibods instructions for the calculation of the house cusps prior
to constructing a chart (erigendi figuram coeli). Naibod writes, The parts of the
ecliptic are never changed, but in all the methods, that is Regiomontanus, Arabic
407
Naibod, Enarratio, 15: Nomina vero omnium coelestium siderum Ioachimus Camerarius
complexus est versibus, quos propter hic adscipsi.
408
Naibod, Enarratio, 22: Exemplum: Nascente Titio ascendat libra, quod est signum
rectum.
409
Naibod, Enarratio, 89: Rationi autem consentaneum est, atque obseruatum esse dicit
Cardanus See also p. 91, where Naibod provides a comparison of Ptolemy and Cardanos
significations for planetary indications on the body.
410
Naibod, Enarratio, 115-122.
411
The reference to Copernicus appears on p. 152.
412
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authors, and Campanus they are always found out and they remain the same. As for the
method for constructing a chart from the writings of Campanus and Gazulus, I omit
because it is erroneous. I could have omitted the method of the author because of
similar causes, if not a text had to be added for the sake of explanation. For only the
opinion of Regiomontanus we approve here, which is Ptolemaic, or certainly comes
closest to his opinion.413
Naibod rarely distinguishes between Arabic authors, usually referring solely to
the Arabs (Arabes) when discussing doctrine. This is a stark contrast to Johns work,
where the individual views of several Arabic authors were considered. There are also a
few cases where he is condescending towards Arabic terminology, referring to, for
example, what the foreigners [barbari] call Hayz.414 In other cases, Naibod defines
an Arabic transliterated term in Greek, Latin, or both. For azamena, he writes, The
word azemena from the Arabic means the Greek to sinos, that is, an imperfection or
injuring and not an illness.415 In the list of the conditions of the planets, Naibod uses
the Latin terms for all of the conditions except one, for which he uses the Greek
term.416 He retains almugea and hayz.417 In the case of hyleg, he replaces the term with
413
Naibod, Enarratio, 138: Partes eclipticae culminantes et horoscopantes numquam
mutantur, sed in omnibus modis, hoc est, Monteregii, Arabum, autoris, et Campani semper
reperiuntur et manent eaedem. Modum constituendi figuras coeli ex sententia Campani et
Gazuli propterea quod sit erroneus, hic omitto. Potuissem simili ex causa omittere modum
autoris, nisi ob expositionem textus adijciendus fuisset. Solam enim opinionem Monteregii hic
probamus, quae et Ptolemaei est, aut certe ad ipsius sententiam quam proxime accedit.
414
Naibod, Enarratio, 44: Nam dominium triangularitatis nihil aliud est, quam potestas
quaedam ex dignitate domus, exaltationis et secte, quam barbari Hayz vocant, proueniens.
415
Naibod, Enarratio, 96: Vox azemena Arabibus idem significat quod graecis [to sinos], id
est, vitium seu laesio et non morbus.
416
Naibod, Enarratio, 278.
194
the Greek apheticis, and then uses the term in Latin transliteration.418 While it was
typical for humanist translators to purge transliterated terms from texts, it is noteworthy
that Naibod pursues this strategy in his commentary as well. Naibod does not mention
interrogations or elections in his commentary on the twelve places, which are
frequently found in Johns commentary. Instead, he points out disagreements between
Ptolemy and the Arabs.419 Naibod explicitly states that he will not comment on the fifth
chapter of the Introduction since it deals with the lots. As Ptolemy only recognizes one
lot, the Lot of Fortune, Naibod ignores the rest of that chapter. Even with these
omissions, the text of Naibods commentary is quite substantial. One wonders,
however, why Naibod chose to write a commentary on Alcabitius rather than on the
Tetrabiblos, as Cardano did in 1554. Perhaps he was required to lecture on the text at
Cologne, although his commentary is much more substantial than Johns commentary,
which may also have been used in lectures.
Naibods selection of Alcabitiuss Introduction comes as something of a
surprise given the criticism to which he subjects the Arabic astrological tradition in the
commentary. It was certainly not Naibods intention to flatter Alcabitius by writing the
commentary. Rather, Naibod sought to destroy the edifice of Arabic astrology which
had become the core of astrological teaching and thought. While his writings were not
417
418
419
195
as vitriolic as Cardanos towards the Arabs,420 his commentary undermines the Arabic
tradition by showing how all astrological doctrine stems from Ptolemy, and thus
Ptolemy should be restored to a central role in astrological teaching and practice.
Furthermore, his selection of Alcabitius indicates that the Introduction had come to
represent the medieval Arabic astrological tradition, and that this tradition was still
very influential despite the fact that the popularity of the Introduction was waning over
the course of the sixteenth century. The last printed edition, for example, was in 1521,
almost forty years prior to the publication of Naibods commentary. Nevertheless,
Naibod persisted in his efforts to dethrone Arabic astrology.
Conclusion
The commentaries of Cecco dAscoli, John of Saxony, and Valentin Naibod
reveal the differences that premodern students would have encountered in their
instruction in astrology and particularly in their exposure to Alcabitiuss Introduction
and Arabic learning. It is obvious from the fourteenth century commentaries that
Arabic learning was highly valued and treated as equivalent to the Greek tradition or
even surpassing it by some Latin scholars. Ceccos and Johns commentaries are
indicative of the different emphases and levels of expertise that lecturers provided to
university students. Whereas Ceccos commentary is more simplistic and gives a
strong natural philosophical orientation, Johns commentary is technically
sophisticated and represents a thorough compilation and explanation of the sources
available to John. In both cases, Arabic astrology was considered an authoritative

420
Cardano wrote that astrologers must free themselves from all the ballast of the various
Albumasars, Abenragels, Alchabitiuses, Abubatres, Zaheles, Messahalas, and Bethenes. See
Girolamo Cardano, In Quadripartitum (Basel, 1554), f. a2v.
196
source of knowledge. In Johns commentary in particular, the extent to which Arabic
sources were read at universities is highly evident. This underscores the idea that the
corpus astrologicum was mostly populated with texts of Arabic origin, a point for
which more evidence is provided in the following chapter.
By the sixteenth century, opinions had changed significantly. Alcabitiuss
Introduction was likely still being taught at universities in the first half of the sixteenth
century as evidenced by its printing history. And Johns commentary was printed in
nine of the twelve editions, which illustrates its continued relevance to the teaching of
the science of the stars. However, the lack of additional printings of the Introduction
after 1521 suggests that its influence as a teaching text was waning. While astrology in
general had been subjected to general criticisms for centuries, Arabic astrology in
particularly became the subject of ridicule with Picos critiques at the end of the
fifteenth century, and Cardanos critiques in the sixteenth century. As some humanist
authors also criticized Arabic medicine and philosophy, one wonders whether the
decline in popularity of the Introduction came as a result of these criticisms. In this
context, Naibods commentary sets up Alcabitius as a foil for the return to Ptolemy.
However, as Dag Hasse has argued, it is very difficult to characterize a general trends
in attitudes towards Arabic learning, particularly when looking across the disciplines of
medicine, philosophy, and astrology. Arabic texts that had been ignored in the
medieval period gained new currency as printed books, whereas texts that had been
extremely popular in manuscript form faded in popularity with the advent of
197
printing.421 The printing of the Introduction and its ultimate fate are discussed in the
final chapter, on the forms and materialities of the book.
421
Hasse, Success and Suppression, especially the Introduction.
198
Chapter 5: Forms and Materialities
Introduction
With over two hundred and thirty manuscripts and thirteen printed editions, the
Introduction was subjected to hundreds of changes throughout centuries of readership.
In previous chapters, we have seen how translation, marginal annotations, and
commentaries transformed the reading of the text and reveal attitudes towards the text
from a text-based perspective. Focusing on textual features has enabled us to trace and
identify particular aspects of the Introductions medieval readership, including the
transliteration of terms, the treatment of religious names and references, citation and
annotation practices, etc. Several of these themes may be further reinforced by looking
beyond the text to the forms and materialities of physical copies of the Introduction, in
manuscripts and printed books. The different forms of the Introduction are illustrated
by the various ways in which the form of the text was changed or enhanced in different
copies: the title, structure, page layout, script, etc. The term materialities is more
specific to the physical features of the book: bindings, paper quality, ownership,
compilations, paratexts, etc. This chapter examines the various forms and materialities
of manuscripts of the Introduction, and then treats similar considerations in the printed
versions of the text, with the aim of understanding how manuscripts and the printed
text shaped reading practices and the place of Arabic astrology in learned cultures.
Manuscripts
Each individual manuscript containing the text of the Introduction supplies a
wealth of information about how the text was read and used. As unique copies of the
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Introduction, the experience of individual readers could have varied significantly
according to the features of individual manuscripts, including the appearance of the
text on the page, the binding, paper, and paratexts, and especially what other texts the
Introduction was bound with. In examining these features, we may take an in-depth
look at individual manuscripts, as well as identify trends across several manuscripts. In
the following section, I pursue both strategies in order to provide a picture of the kinds
of information about readership one may gain from such an approach. We may also
keep in mind the information about readers of the Introduction considered in previous
chapters, particularly the skilled scholars, university students, and astrological
practitioners and enthusiasts we encountered in chapter three. Taken together, the
manuscripts of the Introduction demonstrate the extent to which Arabic astrology was
embedded in the Latin astrological tradition.
Title and Author
Certain features of the Introduction were shared across many manuscripts,
including the form of the title and author of the text. The Latin title of the Introduction
to Astrology remained somewhat stable over centuries of readership. The BYY edition
reports that a literal translation of the Arabic title, Introductorius ad magisterium
iudiciorum astrorum, appears in at least seventy manuscripts. Many others (at least 27)
have Liber introductorius, which BYY explain is likely derivative.422 Several
manuscripts have the Greek ysagoge or ysagogarum in place of Introductorius, but
these substitutions occur only in the opening title (on the first page) and not in the
422
BYY, Introduction, 199. BYY note that the word liber is often inserted when the title is
brought from the colophon at the end of the text to the first line at the beginning of the text.
200
colophon.423 The substitution of the Greek term ysagoge is notable because it indicates
that the Introduction was at least superficially associated with the structural genre of
elementary treatises defined by the Isagoge, or Porphyrys introduction to Aristotles
Categories, which was translated by Boethius in the early sixth century and was the
standard medieval introduction to Aristotles logic. With the newly blossoming science
of the stars of the twelfth century, introductory texts were certainly in demand.
Knowledge of certain aspects of astrology was pieced together from various sources,
and until the translations there were no treatises which presented astrological doctrines
in a coherent and systematic manner. The title of Alcabitiuss Introduction primed the
text for success by fitting it within a structural genre already familiar to Latin readers
through the Isagoge. Retaining Introductorius or Liber introductorius also
distinguished it from Albumasars Abbreviation to the Introduction, which was likely
translated prior to Alcabitiuss text and also given the title Ysagoga minor.424 In
addition, the comprehensive treatment of the principles of astrology, written following
the manner of an introduction, as Alcabitius himself puts it,425 quickly established the
Introduction as the principal source of astrological knowledge for early Latin readers.
The name of the author, Abd alAzz alQab, was frequently transliterated
and sometimes translated. As with some transliterated technical terms, there were
extensive variations of the nisba, or last name, found in both opening titles and
423
BYY, Introduction, 199. BYY provide a list of manuscripts containing these Greek
substitutions.
424
This title was also used in the late eleventh century for Constantinus Africanuss translation
of unayn ibn Isqs introduction to Galens Ars medica.
425
BYY, Introduction, 1:[3], 225: secundum modum introductorium.
201
colophons: Alcabizi, Alkabizi, Alchabizi, Alcabii, Alkabii, Alchabii, Alcabicii,
Alcabizci, Alkabiczi, Alkabachizi, Alcabisi, Alchabiti, Alcabicii, Alkabyzii, Alcobizi,
Alcobici, Alcobii, Alcabizin, Alcabisin, Alkabizis, Alchabizini, Alcabit, Alkabit,
Alchabiz, Alcapiz, Alkabiz, Alkobiz, and Alcabz.426 The ism or first part of the name,
Abd alAzz, was also often transliterated, or rendered into a literal Latin translation,
servus gloriosi, or servant of God. There are also many variants: Abdilaziz,
Abdilaiz, Adbilai, Abdilazis, Abdileziz, Abdilazizi, Abdilazir, Abdylariz.427 Despite
the large number of spelling variations, the authors name was retained throughout
Introductions textual history. Indeed, the name of Alcabitius is often listed twice on
the first page of text, once to attribute the title to him (Incipit introductorius
Alcabici) and then to introduce the prologue (Incipit prologus Alcabici). The
presence of the authors name immediately enabled readers to identify the Arabic
origins of the text. As Alcabitius was known exclusively for his authorship of the
Introduction, his name eventually became synonymous with it.
Textual Companionship
The Introduction was frequently bound in volumes together with astrological,
astronomical, and other kinds of texts; in other words, with its textual companions.
Textual companions are individual texts, such as Alcabitiuss Introduction and
426
This list is not exhaustive. For the manuscripts which contain these variants, see BYY,
427
202
Ptolemys Tetrabiblos, which were bound together.428 Binding was the process through
which individual texts were physically and intellectually brought together into a single
volume, whose coherence was defined by an individuals perception of the relationship
between the texts. For example, bindings sometimes united a thirteenth-century
manuscript of the Introduction with a fourteenth-century set of planetary tables. Or, an
early fourteenth-century copy of Alcabitius may have been bound with a mid-fifteenth
century manuscript of Ptolemys Tetrabiblos. Textual companionship thus illustrates
the material circumstances in which readers encountered texts, whether as distinct
individuals or bound with others. With over two hundred extant manuscripts, a
thorough study of Alcabitiuss Introduction offers both enormous potential and the
daunting task of enumerating all of Alcabitiuss textual companions. Rather than
attempting to reconstruct a precise history of the Introductions companionship, it is
easier to identify some general trends based on a subset of the manuscripts.429 There
are several sets of texts which are frequently bound together, which coalesce into stable
groupings over time. The most obvious of set of textual companions is the corpus
astrologicum, or set of astrological texts which formed the core of university study.
428
For a study of the effects on readers of binding diverse printed texts into a single volume,
see Jeffrey Knight, Bound to Read: Compilations, Collections, and the Making of Renaissance
Literature (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013).
429
I have relied on manuscripts consulted in situ at the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, the
Biblioteca Marciana, and the Biblioteca Laurenziana. The study is biased towards the kinds of
manuscripts which were acquired by these libraries, which may not be representative of the
whole. For example, a collection of manuscripts of the Introduction at the Bodleian Library
would likely yield more information about a university-centered readership. While many of the
manuscripts in this study reflect readership at universities, for a full study of textual
companionship it is necessary to consult a broader range of manuscripts.
203
The corpus astrologicum, in contrast to its better-known sibling the corpus
astronomicum,430 has only been articulated as such in recent years by Monica
Azzolini.431 Relying primarily on a set of texts compiled in a fifteenth-century student
notebook from the University of Pavia, Azzolini noted the influence of Arabic authors
on the corpus astrologicum. Unusually, Alcabitiuss Introduction was not included in
the Pavian notebook, but it did contain some of the textual companions of the
Introduction. The notebook belonged to the physician-astrologer Giovanni Battista
Boerio and is contained in British Library MS Arundel 88. It contains Johannes de
Linieriss Canons to the Alfonsine Tables, William of Englands De urina non visa,
Sacroboscos Compotus, pseudo-Aristotles Chiromantia, Messehallahs De
revolutionibus annorum mundi, Zaels Quinquaginta praecepta and selections of
pseudo-Ptolemys Centiloquium.432 Azzolini also emphasized the fluidity of the corpus
astrologicum, with each individual manuscript containing a subset of a much broader
range of astrological texts, a point which will become more clear in the following
analysis.
In his study of the corpus astronomicum, Olaf Pedersen identified a consistent
set of astronomical texts which date to the second half of the thirteenth century and do
not include companion astrological texts. These texts include the Algorismus, De
sphaera, and Compotus of Sacrobosco, a calendar with canons of Robert Grosseteste,
Peter of Dacias lunar tables, Robert Anglicuss Quadrans vetus, an anonymous
430
Olaf Pedersen, The Corpus astronomicum and the Traditions of Medieval Latin
Astronomy, Studia Copernicana, xiii (Warsaw, 1975), 5796.
431
Monica Azzolini, The Duke and the Stars, 29-50.
432
See Azzolini, The Duke and the Stars, 29-40.
204
Theorica planetarum, the Toledan tables with canons, Messehallas treatise on the
astrolabe, and Thbit ibn Qurras De motu octave sphaere, among others. However,
Pedersen also notes a late fourteenth-century manuscript which includes Alcabitiuss
Introduction.433 This manuscript lead him to conclude that astrology [was] now so
important a discipline that it [began] to intrude into the corpus which so far had been
devoted to pure astronomy.434 This claim would be roughly consistent with the idea
that the Introduction (and astrology) began being taught at universities at some point in
the fourteenth century, if we look primarily at the dates of the Introductions
commentaries. While the evidence Pedersen presents to support this claim is
compelling, an examination of the companionship of the Introduction warrants a
revision.
The evidence compiled in this study of manuscripts gives a corpus
astrologicum composed of a selection of the following texts: Alcabitiuss Introduction,
Albumasars Flores and De revolutionibus annorum mundi, Messehallas De rebus
eclipsium, selections from Zaels Liber iudiciis (usually on topics such as elections and
interrogations), selections from Haly Abenragels De iudiciis astrorum, and a
Centiloquium, from Pseudo-Ptolemy, Hermes, or Bethen.435 Four manuscripts from the
433
Pedersen, Corpus astronomicum, 80-81. The manuscript is Oxford, Bodleian Library MS
Bodl. 491. The Introduction appears with Sacroboscos Algorismus and De sphaera, a
Theorica planetarum, the Alphonsine canons and tables, Thbit ibn Qurras De recta
imaginatione spere and De motu octave spere and commentaries by Peter of Dacia and
Johannes Anglicus.
434
Pederson, Corpus astronomicum, 81.
435
BAV Pal. lat. 1372, for example, dated to the fourteenth century, contains Alcabitiuss
Introductorius, Zaels Liber iudiciorum, Zaels De electionibus, Albumasars Flores,
Messehallas De receptionibus, and Messehallas De revolutionibus annorum mundi.
205
thirteenth century and very early fourteenth century indicate that a proto-corpus
astrologicum was in the works.436 Several other early manuscripts have a combined
astronomical-astrological companionship. In addition to Alcabitiuss Introduction,
BAV Pal. lat. 1414 contains late thirteenth- and early fourteenth-century texts,
including a treatise on the astrolabe, a Theorica planetarum, Thebits De motu octove
sphaere, and Azarchels canons. The fourteenth-century MS BAV Borgh. 312 contains
Alfraganuss De scientia astrorum, two texts on the astrolabe, Ptolemys Centiloquium
with Halys commentary, Messehallas Epistola in coniunctionibus planetarum, and
Azarchels canons. BAV Vat. lat. 5714 contains the Tractatum de spera, Alfraganuss
De scientia astrorum, canons to astronomical tables, and a text with the incipit
Aspectus sextili trinus. This set of manuscripts, to which we could also add BAV
Barb. 236, portrays a textual companionship devoted to the new science of the stars
which resulted from the translations of the twelfth century. None of these manuscripts
contain corroborating evidence that they were read at universities. A more probable
conclusion is to link them to the skilled scholars we encountered in chapter three,
which does not preclude an association with universities.
436
Their contents (in addition to the Introduction) are listed here. The earliest of these is BAV
Barb. 236: Hermanns De astrolabio, Alfraganuss 30 chapters. BAV Vat. Lat. 4079: Aomars
De nativitatibus, Albumasars Flores, Albumasars De judiciis, Zael (selections from Liber
iudiciorum). BAV Reg. lat. 1285: Several texts on the astrolabe, canons to the Toledan Tables,
Albumasars De magnis coniunctionibus, Liber erarum, Ptolemys Tetrabiblos, a Hermetic text
and Zaels Liber iudiciorum are now missing. BAV Reg. lat. 1452 contains tables from 1309-
1312 and has several texts: Martianus Capellas De nuptiis Mercurii et Philologiae,
Alfraganuss De scientia astrorum, Jafars Liber imbrium, Pseudo-Ptolemys Centiloquium
with Halys commentary, Halys De electionibus horarum, Johannis Hispalensiss Epitome
totius astrologie, Thebits De imaginibus, Pseudo-Ptolemys De imaginibus, De mirabilibus
effectibus, selections from Haly Abenragels De iudiciis astrorum, Raymond of Marseilless
Liber iudiciorum, attributed to Algafalax, Zaels De electionibus, Zaels Liber temporum,
Messehallas Epistola de rebus eclipsium, Albumasars Flores and De revolutionibus annorum
mundi, tables of Peter of Dacia.
206
Indeed, contra Pedersen, it seems likely that astrology was taught at universities
as early as astronomy in the late thirteenth century if we are able to tie the set of
manuscripts in the previous paragraph to universities. We can at least affirm that the
earliest date where Alcabitiuss Introduction appears alongside a Sphaera is 1319.437
This astronomical-astrological companionship trend is certainly evident in later
manuscripts of the fourteenth century. There are several other manuscripts which
contain the Introduction along with standard texts from the corpus astronomicum, such
as Sacroboscos Sphaera, the Theorica planetarum, and texts on the astrolabe.
Manuscripts from later than the fourteenth century also exhibit a combined corpus.
BAV Pal. Lat. 1354, dated to 1464 CE, contains the Introduction with John of
Saxonys commentary,438 followed by a Sphaera, Theorica planetarum, De
revolutionibus annorum, De mutatione aere, De nativitatibus, De interrogationibus,
De electionibus, and others. Despite evidence of a combined corpus, there are other
manuscripts which contain either a purely astronomical or astrological focus.
Furthermore, it remains to be determined whether the astronomical and astrological
emphases occurred in sequence, as Pedersen would have it, or are representative of
particular universities, or whether they were distributed evenly throughout the
medieval period in Europe. The several examples of astronomical texts as companions
437
This appears in the colophon to the Tractatum de spera, which immediately follows the
Introduction in the same hand. The inscription reads, Expleta spera 1319 11 diebus april in
hora mercurii. Bound to these are some of the Alchandreana, and then a set of texts from the
fifteenth century (a Zodiac man, a calendar, tables with a date of 1402, and a Liber metherorum
walthei borley). As the Introduction and Sphaera were written in the same hand it is highly
likely that they were bound together by the same scribe. See BAV Vat. lat. 4084-I.
438
The BYY edition proposes that this is John of Stendhals commentary, which also appears
in Bernkastel-Kues 212. This commentary is in fact John of Saxonys and is missing the first
several paragraphs. The text begins, Ptolomeus in prima propositione dicit and continues
sciam stellarum ex te et ex illis est: et Cf. note in chapter 4.
207
to Alcabitiuss Introduction blurs the boundaries between the two corpora, so that it is
possible to distinguish several different emphases of university study: the purely
astronomical, the purely astrological, and a combined corpus de scientia astrorum.
One potential indication of the corpus de scientia astrorum is that it represented
the core texts on the path to becoming an astrological practitioner (rather than a
physician who practices astrology). The textual companions of the Introduction often
included lengthy sets of astronomical and astrological tables, ranging from the well-
known Alfonsine tables to tables of conjunctions and tables of astrological houses.
Compilations which were comprised largely of tables also brought together both
astronomical and astrological texts and tables, and sometimes contain several worked-
out horoscope examples. In addition to the set of astronomical-astrological companions
listed above, BAV Pal. Lat. 1354 also has several astrological tables with text from the
canons interspersed between them, a calendar, and a chart for the nativity of Christ.
Another fifteenth-century manuscript, for example, BAV Pal. Lat. 1376, is a massive
volume containing over four hundred pages of text, the majority of which are tables,
the earliest date of which is 1447. This manuscript also contains canons to the tables,
several horoscopes, Alcabitiuss Introduction, Alfraganuss De scientia stellarum, two
zodiac men, mathematical treatises, Messahalas De compositione astrolabii, and more
tables. The presence of elaborate astrological tables in these books, especially, suggests
that they were used as workbooks rather than merely textbooks or reference manuals,
as some of the marginalia have indicated. It is possible that the introductory texts first
came into the possession of students of astrology at universities, and as the students
208
progressed into practitioners they added more complicated treatises and tables to their
compilations, and perhaps also had them bound.
In the set of manuscripts I have seen, there is a conspicuous absence of medical
texts as textual companions to the Introduction. Given the emphasis by historians of
medicine on the training of physicians in astrology, one would expect to find more
evidence of astrological and medical texts bound together.439 While several
manuscripts contain images of the zodiac man, which link zodiacal signs with different
parts of the body, the textual companions which contain medical information are
usually astro-medical rather than strictly medical. These are, for example, William of
Englands De urina non visa, which was included with the Introduction in the 1405
curriculum at Bologna, and the Astronomia Ypocratis of Pseudo-Hippocrates. One very
large (over 400 pages) fifteenth-century compilation appears to include a few astro-
medical works alongside the Introduction, Sacroboscos Sphaera, and Gerards
Theorica.440 Another compilation of texts dated to the fifteenth- and sixteenth-centuries
contains several pages which include medical prescriptions, and at least two texts
which appear purely medical, the Tractatus in medicinalibus by Marsilius of Santa
Sophia and another treatise with the incipit Febris est calor extraneus. Other texts in
this volume are clearly astro-medical, such as the pseduo-Hippocratic De
prognosticatione mortis et vite secundum motu lune. There are additional texts in the
corpus astrologicum and others by contemporary authors, such as Prosdocimo de
439
This point was considered in chapter four. Cf. pp. 167-168.
440
Bibl. Laur. Ash. 208.
209
Beldomandis.441 While it would be helpful to examine more manuscripts associated
with university contexts to identify whether medical texts proper were companions to
the Introduction, from the evidence we may tentatively claim that texts concerning the
medical applications of astrology were occasionally bound with the corpus
astrologicum.442
A final example of textual companions of the Introduction are lapidaries and
texts on divination. Some texts on lapidaries and astrology, such as the thirteenth-
century lapidary of Alfonso X, assigned relationships between precious gems and
stones and degrees in the signs of the zodiac, planets, and other parts of the celestial
realm. The late thirteenth-century manuscript BAV Pal. Lat. 1382 is composed almost
entirely of lapidary texts, some of which contain elaborate lists of correspondences
between gems and stones and astrological elements, and bound with Alcabitiuss
Introduction. Besides Alcabitiuss Introduction, a few manuscripts also include
Thebits De imaginibus, which deals with the practice of carving zodiacal images.443
As this text was bound with texts that appear to be part of the corpus astrologicum, it is
possible that Thebits De imaginibus was also read at universities. This question will
be explored further in the section on paratexts. The linkage of astrology with the
magical practice of inscribing images on stones was well-known, and the De
imaginibus was included in the set of licit texts compiled in the Speculum astronomiae.
441
Bibl. Laur. Ash. 206.
442
This evidence concurs with the view of Hilary Carey, who has written that Latin medical
astrology forms something of an independent genre and practice somewhat separate from that
of learned scientific astrology, and from academic medicine. See Hilary Carey, Medieval
Latin Astrology and the Cycles of Life, 37.
443
BAV Pal. lat. 1414 and Reg. lat. 1452.
210
As astrology was often linked with other forms of divination, it is not surprising to find
the Introduction in consort with divinatory texts. BNM Lat. VIII 44, for example,
contains texts from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, including one on
chiromancy, and two texts on geomancy, one attributed to Gerard of Cremona and the
other to Johannes de Muris.
Binding, Paper, Script, Rubrication
Taken in conjunction with a study of textual companionship, other
codicological features highlight the contexts of readership and the readers encountered
in previous chapters. For example, bindings and parchment quality indicate that the
Introduction maintained its status as an important and valuable text throughout the
fifteenth century, despite the fact that it was read at universities and many copies were
in circulation. There are a few examples of manuscripts of the Introduction on
expensively-prepared parchment, with elaborate red and blue rubrication and beautiful
humanistic script. BAV Vat. Lat. 3104 dates to the late fourteenth or early fifteenth
centuries, and contains Alcabitiuss Introduction and a Compotus of Campanus of
Novara, both written beautifully in two narrow columns in humanistic bookhand.444 A
fifteenth-century volume at the Biblioteca Laurenziana (MS Plut. 29.3) has metal
triangles with designs on them at each of the four corners of the front and back covers,
with a title, Alcabitii Opera, set off by four metal strips nailed into the leather binding
in the center of the front cover. The owner of BL MS Plut. 29.3 was the canon
Laurentius Silvestris at the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence, an astrological
444
Another manuscript described by BYY is similar, although despite its beauty it is full of
errors. The manuscript is British Library, MS Egerton 822. See BYY, Introduction, 178.
211
enthusiast.445 As indicated by an analysis of Valentin Naibods commentary on the
Introduction in the previous chapter, Arabic science played an interesting role in the
advancement of humanist ideals during the sixteenth century. That the Introduction
was still valued in humanistic circles, as indicated by these beautifully prepared
humanist manuscripts, demonstrates that despite criticisms of scholastic texts and the
barbarous Latin of literal translations from the Arabic, core texts of the Arabic
astrological tradition maintained their high status in learned communities. And this was
true for both sophisticated practitioners of astrology and its enthusiasts.446
Some manuscripts exhibit codicological evidence of university study, such as
inexpensively prepared parchment, which often contained holes or was darkened by the
traces of hair follicles. These texts often lacked rubrication and sometimes contain
blank pages full of mathematical calculations or other doodles. One messy manuscript
includes several practice horoscopes for a Magister Petrus Nigri in 1515.447 Another
well-used manuscript with many of the hallmarks of university study, including cheap
parchment pages and several different hands, contains a fairly typical corpus
astrologicum.448 Towards the end of Messehallas De receptionibus, the text (which is
in gothic cursive) ends abruptly in the middle of the page, which is the last page of the
quire. The first page of the next quire picks up where the text left off, but on paper and
445
Cf. p. 145.
446
These categories are explained in chapter 3.
447
BAV Vat. lat. 1451 contains some fourteenth century tables and a zodiac man with parts
labeled in German. This appears to be a well-used university text, which also contains a
calendar, a Sphaera, and hand-drawn copies of the woodcuts in Ratdolts 1485 printed edition.
448
BAV Pal. lat. 1372. The contents of this manuscript are: Alcabitiuss Introductorius, Zaels
Liber judiciorum, Zaels De electionibus, Albumasars Flores, Messehallas De receptionibus,
Messehallas De revolutionibus annorum mundi.
212
in a different, more immature cursive script. This suggests a student may have taken it
upon himself to supply the missing text for his course of study, by copying from
another manuscript of Messehalla. In one manuscript, the reader has cut strips of
parchment to serve as bookmarks on the title pages of three texts: Alcabitiuss
Introduction, Albumasars Flores, and Haly Embranis De electionibus.449 Other
manuscripts exhibit features we would expect from the skilled scholars encountered on
the chapter on marginalia. The reviser of the Introduction in BAV Reg. Lat. 1285, for
example, took great care in copying his texts in a very neat protogothic script, written
on beautifully prepared parchment in a large quarto volume. BAV Vat. Lat. 4084
contains a section of texts from the Alchandreana, followed by a transliteration or
pronunciation guide of both the Hebrew and Arabic alphabet. The Arabic alphabet
itself appears in transliteration on the next page,450 along with the Hebrew names of the
planets which were also transliterated into Latin. The owner of this manuscript was
interested in recovering astrology and potentially learning Hebrew and Arabic in order
to do so. Astrological practitioners were the likely owners of the astrologers
workbooks described above, full of examples and notes.
Individual manuscripts also reveal a wealth of information when subjected to a
comprehensive analysis of textual companionship, binding, parchment analysis, and
ownership inscriptions. For example, BAV Ottob.lat. 1552 has a binding of beautiful
leather-covered wooden boards, with the leather bearing a decorative imprint. Upon
first inspection, the expensive binding would not lead one to believe the book was
449
The bookmarks are in BAV Pal. lat. 1408.
450
BAV Vat. lat. 4084: alif, be, te, the, gim, aha, hka, da,
213
owned by a student. However, the textual companionship shows the set of texts
normally associated with an astrological-astronomical program of university study: a
treatise on the sphere and a Theorica, Alcabitiuss Introduction, and several other
astrological texts, including Pseudo-Ptolemys treatise on the projection of stellar rays,
a flores of Hermes, and Bethems Centiloquium.451 A final text, Thebits On images,
which describes the illicit practice of inscribing astrological images, has the first page
entirely crossed out, and the rest of its pages cut out of the quire. The parchment of
these texts is typical of the cheaply prepared pages found in other sets of university
texts. The expensive binding, however, suggests that this book was bound by an
individual of means, seeking to preserve the texts. There is only one ownership
inscription: Ex codicibus Joannis Angeli452 Ducis ab Altaemps, or from the books of
Jean Ange, Duc dAltemps. Not much is known of this figure, who died in 1620,
except that he had a large collection of philosophical, scientific, and religious works,
which were dispersed after he died. The wooden boards of the binding, however, are
likely from earlier in the sixteenth century, since later on in the century pasteboards
began to replace wooden boards.
Ownership Inscriptions
451
The complete list is: Tractatum de spera, Theorica planetarum, Introductorius, Incipit cum
proiectio radiorum stellarum, Incipit flores Hermetis extratur de libro de speculis et de luce,
Incipit centiloquium bethem, Incipit aphorismi almansoris, Incipit summum hermetis de
accidentibus rescriptus ab haly, Incipit cum ego Johannes Plinus essem in alexandria civitate
egiptiorum, Incipit liber de ymaginibus thebit (crossed out and cut out.)
452
This individual should not be confused with another Johannes Angelus, who edited the De
magnis coniunctionibus of Albumasar for the printer Erhard Ratdolt in 1489.
214
Ownership inscriptions also yield insight into the identities of the readers of the
Introduction, as well as booklists. I have mentioned a few of these individuals in
previous chapters, such as Laurentius Silvestris, the canon of San Lorenzo in Florence,
and Johannes Marchanova, the professor from Padua. Cases where individuals used
their texts as students and retained them as practicing astrologers are particularly
interesting, such as that of Johannes Borotin. A similar example involves Prosdocimo
de Beldomandis. While a student at Bologna, he signed his name to his copy of the
canons of John of Saxony (bound with the Introduction along with several of his own
works) in Bibl. Laur. Ash. 206.453 Another ownership inscription dates to the early
sixteenth century. On the back of the last page in the volume, the inscription reads:
This is my book, Federico Delfino, which was given to me by master Bartholomeus
Cherubinus, a doctor [and] my friend.454 Federico Delfino held the chair of
mathematics at Padua beginning in 1520. It is difficult to determine when, precisely,
master Bartholomeus gave the book to Delfino, but its possible that this was a gift
while Delfino himself was studying at university. Presumably this book was for
university study, since it contains Sacroboscos Sphaera, the Theorica planetarum of
Gerard of Cremona, Albumasars Flores, several works by Prosdocimo de
Beldomandi, and several other astronomical and astrological texts. In total the bound
manuscript contains over 400 folio pages of astronomical and astrological works.
Unfortunately Delfino did not make many annotations in Alcabitiuss text, but he did
453
Bibl. Laur. Ash. 206, f. 19r: Expliciunt canones magistri Johanis de saxsonia super tabulas
regis alphonsi scripti per me prosdocimum de beldemandis de padua in artibus Bononie
studentem.
454
Bib. Lauren. Ash. 208: Hic liber est mei federici delfini quem donavit mihi dominus
bartolameus cherubinus phisicus socius meus.
215
label hyleg and alchocoden, as well as animodar in the margin.455 Pico della Mirandola
owned a copy of the Introduction.456 The French astrologer Simon de Phares owned the
copy with Louis de Langles commentary.457 The physician of the Sforza court
Alessandro Pellanti owned several manuscripts and printed editions of the
Introduction.458
While it is not unusual to find astrologers and physicians as owners of the
Introduction, it is perhaps more interesting to find evidence of owners who pursued
other interests. Maximilianus Transylvanus, who served as the personal secretary to
Emperor Charles V and published the reports of the survivors from Magellans first
navigation of the globe, inscribed his name in a copy of the Introduction.459 A brother
of the order of Saint John and Peter in Venice, Nicolai Augusta, took his doctorate
from the University of Bologna in 1425, and then returned to the monastery of Saint
John and Peter in Venice.460 Petrus Albinianus Trecius, a jurist who edited the Decreta
of Gregory IX, inscribed his name in one copy of the Introduction in 1509. Booklists
455
Bib. Laur. Ash. 208.
456
Pearl Kibre, The Library of Pico della Mirandola (New York: Columbia University Press,
1936).
457
Jean-Patrice Boudet, Lire dans le ciel: la bibliothque de Simon de Phares, astrologue de
XVe sicle (Bruxelles : Centre d'tude des manuscrits, 1994), 57-61.
458
Azzolini, The Duke and the Stars, 45.
459
Bib. Laur. Ash. 206. The report of the circumnavigation was published in Maximiliani
Transyluani Caesaris a secretis epistola, de admirabili & novissima hispanorum in orientem
navigatione, que auriae, & nulli prius accessae regiones sunt, cum ipsis etia moluccis insulis
(Cologne, 1523). The ownership inscription is from October 8, 1522, which would have been
shortly after the return of the ship Victoria in September 1522.
460
BNM Lat. VIII 44, Folio extremo occurrit narratio vitae fratris Nicolai Augusta, quae ab
Echardo prolatae emendandae egregie confert. Ille die iunii 1391 Venetiis natus, ordinem
Praedicatorum ingressus est in domo ss. Ioannis et Pauli, die 2 febr. a 1405; insignia doctoratus
die 8 ianuarii 1425 suscepit
216
also give clues towards ownership and potential readership. The Introduction was
known to be in the library of a monk of St. Augustines in England, Michael of
Northgate,461 for example, as well as the library of Edmund Lacy, a fourteenth-century
bishop of Exeter.462 This diverse group of owners provides a sense of how widespread
knowledge of Alcabitiuss Introduction actually was, a step well beyond the anonymity
associated with gauging influence or popularity by the number of manuscripts alone.
This shows that Arabic astrology was by no means an obscure specialty of scholars, but
rather that most students who had studied at least some of the quadrivium would have
been familiar with the authority of Arabic learning.
Paratexts
Descriptions of the codicological features of manuscripts, coupled with a study
of their textual companionship, underscores several points already made about the
contexts in which texts were read, and how they were read. There was also textual
material added to the Introduction, such as prefaces or introductions, which served to
frame the Introduction of Astrology within particular contexts. These paratexts, more
formal than marginalia yet less robust than commentaries, also illustrate different
contexts of the texts readership. One preface has been added to a manuscript held in
Lucca, Italy, and has been edited and translated by Charles Burnett.463 An introduction
to the Introduction, also edited and translated by Burnett, was added to a manuscript by
461
The manuscript is Oxford, Bod. Lib. Bodley 464 (2458).
462
The manuscript is Oxford, Bod. Lib. Bodley 463 (2456).
463
Burnett, Al-Qabs Introduction, 61-69. The manuscript is Lucca, Biblioteca Statale,
2114. Another manuscript also contains the preface: Oxford, Bodleian Library, Bodley 472.
217
an individual who appears to have used the text both as a student and as a professor
giving lectures on astrology at the University of Prague in the fifteenth century.464
These introductory texts have a few features in common, but the most obvious aspect is
that they both provide justifications for the study of astrology, which is not uncommon
for prefaces of this sort. However, in their justifications they situate Alcabitiuss
Introduction within a history of astrology that encompasses the learned tradition of
Ptolemy, and the wisdom of the Ancients. That they serve as introductory material to
Alcabitiuss Introduction demonstrates that the Introduction came to represent the
study of astrology, as broadly conceived in the Middle Ages.
The Prague manuscript465 is attributed to a single author, Johannes Borotin,
who appears to have compiled a set of astronomical and astrological texts together
when he was a student, and then later added other texts and his own writings to the
compilation as a lecturer. The texts in this compilation are representative of a
combined astonomical-astrological program of study,466 but Borotin has added an
untitled introduction and commentary on Alcabitiuss Introduction. Borotins
introduction to the Introduction framed the reading of the Introduction at the
University of Prague in the middle of the fifteenth century. In his introduction, Borotin
provides a historical account of astrology, a lengthy discussion of its definition and
relationship to astronomy, and justification for its study (typical for introductions),
ultimately referring to the power of talismans. Alcabitius and Arabic astrology are cast
464
Fifteenth Century: Master Johannes Borotin Aither 2 (Prague, 2014): 9-50.
465
University of Prague, MS Metropolitan Chapter Library, MS O 1
466
Burnett describes the contents of the manuscript in detail in The Teaching, 13-15.
218
in a very positive light. Referring to him first as the wise Alcabitius, Borotin later
praises Alcabitius for being the guide and greatest helper to astrologers. He makes
several references to other authors, and holds Albumasar, Haly, and Alcabitius as
equals to Ptolemy and Aristotle. Finally, Borotin argues for the importance of astrology
for the construction of talismans, which he justifies with reference to a text attributed to
Thomas Aquinas which described the construction of talismans.467 Borotins
justification indicates that talismans continued to be discussed at universities despite
the fact that some considered them to be illicit.
The Luccan preface frames the Introduction in a similar manner. The author of
the preface explicitly situates Alcabitius as writing within the tradition (via) of
Ptolemy.468 He cites several authorities on the value of astrology, including Ptolemy,
Jbir ibn Aflah, Thbit ibn Qurra, Haly, Ab Mashar, and Hippocrates, and like
Borotin makes no difference between Greek and Arabic authors in assigning authority.
The author does question what makes many people denigrate the science of the stars,
which indicates that the preface is a response to criticisms of astrology.469 About
Alcabitius, the author writes, Therefore, with the aim of completely understanding the
science of the books of the judgments of astrology, let us descend to explaining the
difficult Eisagoges of al-Qab, which are a compendious introduction to the
judgments of astrology, in which you will without fail find a great effect.470
467
Burnett analyzes Borotins discussion of talismans in The Teaching, 17-18. For Borotins
comments, see p. 45-6.
468
469
470
219
According to the author, although the Introduction is difficult, it is very worthwhile.
The author also acknowledges that the Introduction is not original, but rather a
compendium of ideas (compendiosum). This statement also supports the idea that
Alcabitius represented astrology more generally. Also noteworthy about the preface is
the mentioning of the science of talismans, which the author claims is part of the
astrological practice of elections. The author also cites Thebits De imaginibus.
It is noteworthy that both the Luccan preface and Borotins introduction discuss
the use of talismans, with Borotin providing a justification for their use. This recalls
John of Sevilles preface to De imaginibus, in which talismans were considered to be
the ultimate aim of astrology. As Alcabitius does not mention talismans, it appears that
the Introduction had come to represent the study of astrology more generally, and thus
became linked to talismans by scholars who sought to unleash the powers of
astrological images. Furthermore, the Luccan preface and Borotins introduction
conferred further legitimation on the Introduction by framing Arabic astrology within
the tradition of the ancients. Alcabitius was thus seen as the heir to the ancient
Printed Books
Printed books may be subjected to the same sort of codicological investigations
as manuscripts. Ownership inscriptions,471 binding, paper quality, and textual
471
There are also several examples of ownership inscriptions in printed copies. The title page
of a 1521 edition of Simon de Colines is inscribed with the name of Leonardus Saracenus, who
according to a seventeenth century historical work became a theologian in Paris. The edition is
CFMAGL 1.6.194 at the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze. For Saracenus see Joannis
Launoii Constantiensis, Pariensis Theologi, Regii Navarrae Gymnasii Pariensis Historia Pars
Prima (Paris: Edmund Martin, 1677), 148.
220
companionship472 are all aspects of individual books which provide clues about the
books readership.473 However, the printed book is much more than another copy of the
same text. Through printing, the text undergoes editorial processes which serve to
augment, stabilize, or distort the textual manuscript tradition. The presentation of the
text in printed formats varies across editions: in the preservation (or not) of
abbreviations, page layout, structure, typeface, and paratexts (prefaces, introductions,
indices, etc.) which accompany a full print run of hundreds of books rather than
individual manuscripts. This gives the text a sense of permanence in contrast to the
variability of the text across individual manuscripts. The physical make-up of a book is
the end-result of a complicated selection process involving scores of possibilities, and
the choices made by editors and printers impact the ways in which the book is read.474
We have seen how interventions made by readers on manuscripts of the Introduction
served as a means for conferring further legitimacy on the text and its contents, and
that this legitimacy carried over onto Arabic learning more generally. In the same way,
printing itself was a means for legimating the knowledge contained within texts. A
comparison of the printed editions of Alcabitiuss Introduction shows how printing
472
There are at least a few instances of Alcabitiuss Introduction bound with Sacroboscos
Sphaera, especially the Ratdolot 1485 editions of both, but this should be investigated further.
One copy is Bodleian Library, Auct. N 5.7(2), which includes the Ratdolt 1485 editions of the
Sphaera and the Introduction, along with Ratdolts 1485 edition of Hyginuss Poetica
astronomica.
473
All of these features are important in understanding the readership of the printed word.
However, these questions demand further investigation of a greater number of copies of the
printed Introduction. I intend to focus primarily on the variations in the printed editions.
474
An excellent overview of these processes is in Brian Richardson, Printing, Writers and
Readers in Renaissance Italy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
221
transformed the text of the Introduction and permanently impressed the Arabic
astrological tradition into hundreds of readers in the Latin West.
Printing History
The Introduction to Astrology was printed a total of 12 times from 1473 to
1521, indicating a sustained interest in the text into the sixteenth century. The first
printing was in 1473-4, when the enterprising printer Johann Wurster in Modena
produced an edition in Roman typeface in single columns per page. It is likely that the
printer aimed to capitalize on the popularity of the text in manuscript and its
widespread use at universitites. For example, the most popular astronomical text at
universities, Sacroboscos Sphaera, was first printed in 1472. The other editions of the
Introduction appeared over the next several years: 1482 (Ratdolt, Augsburg), 1485
(Ratdolt, Venice) which included John of Saxonys commentary, 1491 (de Gregoriis,
Venice), 1502 (de Gregoriis, Venice), 1503 (de Gregoriis, Venice), 1508 (Baumgarten,
Frankfurt), 1512 (Sessa, Venice), 1520 (Huyon, Lyon), 1521 (de Colines, Paris), 1521
(Liechtenstein, Venice), 1521 (Sessa and de Ravanis, Venice).475 The last two editions
in this list are almost exact copies, although with different printers. After 1485, all
subsequent editions of the Introduction were printed with John of Saxonys
commentary. The complete text of the Introduction was also printed with Valentin
Naibods commentary in 1560. As with the many manuscript copies of the
Introduction, the printed editions and their copies were subjected to changes based on
475
There is a record of a 1510 edition printed at Lugdunum (Lyon) at the Bayerische
Staatsbibiothek, Shelfmark 4 P.o.lat. 392, with the title Astronomiae iudiciariae principia
tractans. Unfortunately, the online catalog marks it as lost. It is possible that the date was
mistakenly recorded, and it is the 1520 edition, since the titles are the same.
222
the interventions of editors and printers. Regarding each intervention as significant, the
printing of the Introduction was another transformative step on its path to assimilation
in Europe.
Titles, Structures, Woodcuts
The printed titles of the text, for example, indicate how printers targeted the
Introduction to potential readers, and how readers initially encountered the printed text.
The title of the first edition is set off in all capital letters: INTRODVCTORIVM
ALCHABITII ARABICI AD SCIENTIAM IVDICIALEM ASTRONOMIAE.476 This
title contains the much less frequent neuter form of Introduction, which in most
manuscripts appeared as Introductorius. The title explicitly mentions that the text is
from an Arabic source, that is Alcabitius, the Arab. As Arab does not appear in
any of the manuscript titles, the printer clearly wanted to advertise this fact to his
readers, which indicates the desirability of Arabic science. Lastly, this title uses
scientiam rather than the much more common literal translation from the Arabic
magisterium. The titles of Ratdolts editions of 1482 and 1485 diverge from this
model, selecting instead the term ysagogicus, with the lengthy title: Libellus
ysagogicus abdilazi .i. servi gloriosi Dei qui dicitur alchabitius ad magisterium
iudiciorum astrorum: interpretatus a johanne hispalensi incipit. This title, which
appears in all capital letters in the 1485 version, closely models a version of the title
found in a few manuscripts. As with manuscripts, the use of ysagogicus is signficant in
identifying the text with the genre of elementary treatises associated with university
476
The Introduction to the Judicial Science of Astrology of the Arabic Alcabitius.
223
study. However, although Alcabitius was known primarily by his last name, the title
first mentions his first name, Abdilazi (Abd alAzz).
This title was preserved in many subsequent editions on the first full page of
text. The de Gregoriis brothers introduced a title page in their 1502 edition with the
much simplified Alcabitius cum comento, cum gratia et privilegio, with a woodcut of
the celestial sphere encircled by the zodiac. This simplified version was preserved in an
additional print run of the same text in 1503, and then Melchior Sessa adopted it in his
new printing of 1512: Alcabitius cum commento, Noviter impresso. The back-to-back
printings of 1502-3 indicate that Alcabitius cum comento was quite a popular text. With
the famous astrologers name prominently displayed on the title page, printers
capitalized on the demand for Arabic astrology. Other editions followed suit, including
the 1508 Frankfurt edition (Introductorium in astrologiam Alchabicii), the 1520 Lyon
edition,477 and the 1521 edition of Simon de Colines (ALCABITII AD
MAGISTERVM iudiciorum astrorum Isagoge: Commentario Ioannis Saxonij
declarata). The 1521 Liechtenstein edition diverged from this tradition by adding a
separate title page with a lengthy title where the name of Alcabitius is slightly less
prominent.478
477
There is a separate title page with the title: Alkabitius Astronomie iudiciarie principia
tractans (in red ink) followed by cum Ioannis Saxonii commentario ordine textus
nupperrime distincto. Additis annotationibus et in margine et in textu atque glossa per
magistrum Petrum Turrellum Astrophilum divionensis gymnasii rectorem: cum tractatulo de
cognoscendis infirmitatibus apprime Medicis necssario e multis authoribus per eundem
extracto, sine quo revera sepius quam nauta sine remo medicus hebet omnis: quo habito
urinam videre non opus est.
478
The title is: Preclarum summi in astrorum scientia principis Alchabitii Opus ad scrutanda
stellarum Magisteria isagogicum pristino candori nuperrime restitutum ab Excellentissimo
Doctore Antonio de Fantis Tarvisino, qui notabilem eiusdem Auctoris libellum de Planetarum
224
The printed text transformed the layout of the text on the page, reflecting
several contemporary conventions that were common to other printed books. Whereas
manuscripts often included an indication of a new section of text through a single
capital letter, printing provided a variety of options for organizing the text into
different sections. The very first edition (1473) separated sections with headings in
majuscule set out from the text above and below. Initials at the beginnings of sections
were left blank for rubrication by hand. New paragraphs began on the following line
with an indentation. The text is laid out on the page in a single column, a practice
preserved in all subsequent editions. The printers of the other editions also appear to
have put some effort into the texts organization, introducing divisions of chapters into
sections labeled with headings and subheadings, the latter of which are delineated in
some editions by a majuscule half-uncial initial. As a result of these changes, printed
pages had less space on the page for writing annotations. While printed books still
received marginal annotations from readers, as noted in chapter 3, for the most part
these annotations were limited to labeling and short explanations and definitions, rather
than the longer discussions of doctrine which appeared more frequently in the fifteenth
century.
The printed version of the Introduction solidified the information contained in
astrological tables through the use of woodcuts. There are several tables of values in
the Introduction, including a table on the houses, exaltations, joys, triplicities, and
tables of the Egyptian terms, the decans, masculine and feminine signs, the
Coniunctionibus nusquam antea impressum addidit et pleraque scitu dignissima cum

castigatissimo Ioannis de Saxonia Commentario.
225
shady/empty/light signs, and the wells, the degrees of azemena, and the degrees of
increasing fortune. Ratdolt introduced printed astrological signs and planetary symbols
in his 1482 edition, and had woodcuts created of these tables containing the signs and
symbols. The signs and symbols also appear occasionally in the text itself. It is not
initially apparent whether the signs and symbols within the text were set with the type,
or if they were individually added after printing the page. Ratdolt had the tables
constructed for the 1482 edition, and they appear in all subsequent editions. In addition
to his famous woodcut decorated initials, Ratdolt also added two other woodcuts to the
first and last pages of the edition. The first page had a horoscope chart with the houses
labeled in gothic script, and the last page had a visual representation of planetary
aspects. In the 1485 edition, Ratdolt moved these woodcuts to more appropriate places
in the text: the first, which he called Figura celi generalis to the section on houses, and
the second, the Figura aspectuum, to the section on planetary aspects. He also added a
sphere encircled by the zodiac to the page opposite the first page of text. These three
visual diagrams became standard images and copies of them appeared in almost all
subsequent editions of the text. The 1521 Liechtenstein edition, however, includes a
new woodcut on the final page of the book, which is missing from the 1521 Sessa and
de Ravanis edition.
Textual Emendations & Stability
226
The first edition of the text, printed in 1473 by Johannes Wurster, was edited by
Matheus Moretus, a doctor of the arts and medicine at Bologna.479 Ratdolt apparently
edited his own text in 1482, and in 1485 enlisted the help of Bartholomeus de Alten de
Nursia, a doctor of arts and medicine. In 1508, a professor of mathematics at the newly
founded university at Frankfurt, Ambrosius Lacher, left his mark on the title page of
the Introduction, which was printed by Konrad Baumgarten. Antonio de Fantis was a
professor at the University of Padua, where he taught philosophy in the Faculty of
Arts.480 The continued oversight of the printing of these texts by university-trained
scholars illustrates the relationship between the Introduction and its teaching at
universities.
Although it appears that the same text was used for several different editions,
editors and printers continued to evaluate and reevaluate the spelling of transliterated
terms. As with the incorporations of tables and woodcuts, it took several editions
before the spelling of terms stabilized. For example, consider the following list of
variants of transliterated terms in the printed editions:
1473: almugea, alcobol, almenez, alcorad, alfaziz, hyleg, alcocoden,
1482: almugea, alcobol, almureb, altuar, alfaut, hyles, alcochoden, alazari
1485: almugea, alcobol, almenez, alichorad, alfaziz, hylech, alcochoden, atazir
479
The colophon of this edition reads: EMENDATVM. PER. EXIMIVM. ARTIVM. ET.
MEDICINAE. DOCTOR. MATHEVM. MORETVM. DE. BRIXIA. BONONIAE.
LEGENTEM. ANNO. DOMINI. MCCCCLXXIII. FINIS.
480
According to the dedication in his edition, he was a doctor artium et doctor medicine. See
Scarabel, dition Critique, 10.
227
1491: almugea, alcobol, almenem, alichorad, alfazim, hylech, alcochoden, atazir
1520: almugea, alcobol, almenem, alchorad, alfazim, hylech, alcochoden, atazir
1521:481 almugea, alcobol, almenem, alichorad, alfazim, hylech, alcochoden, atazir
A few of the terms were immediately standardized (almugea and alcobol), whereas
it took a few more printings for the important terms from the fourth chapter hylech,
alcochoden, and atazir to achieve stability. The editor of the 1473 edition chose to use
directio for atazir, whereas the other printed books included id est directio
following the term. The transliterated terms for the conditions of the planets (almenem,
alichorad, and alfazim) which are less important and appear less frequently in the text,
illustrated the most variation. It should also be noted that the spellings were employed
consistently throughout each single edition, illustrating that editors paid attention to the
consistent spelling of technical transliterated terms. The retention of the transliterated
terms in print indicates the resistance of Arabic terminology to humanist interventions.
It was not until Naibods 1560 edition that attempts were made to replace Arabic
transliterations with either Greek terms or Latin transliterations of Greek terms.482
The text of the printed editions, apart from variations in transliterated terms,
abbreviations, and a few differences in spelling, remained mostly stable until 1521.
That year, Antonio de Fantis apparently used another Latin manuscript from a different
line than the one used by previous editors to revise the text, and the text was printed
twice in Venice: once by Peter Liechtenstein, and then by Sessa and De Ravanis.
481
This is the 1521 Paris edition.
482
This point was discussed in chapter 4.
228
Angelo Scarabel remarks that the De Fantis editions reveal differences in spelling,
word choice and phrasing, along with occasional omissions of text and different
typographical errors.483 Scarabel has attributed this revision to the context of scholarly
interest in hermeticism.484 The emendations to this edition are much more subtle than
the restructuring of the text and addition of printed marginalia in the 1520 Lyon
edition.
Paratexts
Aspects of the manuscript tradition were incorporated into the paratexts of
printed books, but in different formats. Ratdolt, for example, printed John of Saxonys
commentary immediately following his 1485 edition, and all subsequent editions
included this important companion to the Introduction. Rather than tacking John of
Saxonys commentary onto the end of the text of the Introduction, the 1520 Lyon
edition has added each section of Johns commentary to the appropriate points in the
text.485 Each section of text is labeled Textus following the heading, and each section of
commentary has a heading which begins Glossa super textu and the first part of the
section heading or phrase in the main text.486 This change may reflect contemporary
reading or lecturing practices. One reader of the 1512 edition of the Introduction, for
483
Angelo Scarabel, Une dition Critique Latine du mudal DAl-Qab Venise la
Veille de la Renaissance, in Quaderni di Studi Arabi, Vol. 14 (1996): 15-16.
484
Scarabel, dition Critique, 9.
485
Burnett has noted that the text of Johns commentary comes from a different family of
manuscripts from the text in the other printed editions. See Burnett, Al-Qabs Introduction,
58, n. 76.
486
For example, a section heading reads: De signis mobilibus fixis et communibus. Textus.
The commentary section heading then reads: Glossa super textu De signis mobilibus. See
Lyon 1520 edition, fol. 11v.
229
example, has created a labeling system, marking sections of the commentary with
numbers and letters associated with those particular sections of text.487 Furthermore,
the 1520 edition contains an additional commentary by Pierre Turrel, a principle of the
College of Dijon and practicing astrologer.488 Turrels commentary is incorporated into
the text and labeled with the phrase additio. The 1520 edition also includes printed
marginalia and manicules which highlight various passages.
The printed marginalia, manicules, and commentary by Turrel all distinguish
the 1520 edition from the others, as well as the addition of a short medical treatise on
illnesses following the Introduction.489 The printed marginalia and the printed
manicules are primarily signposts. The printed marginal notes label signs and houses,
and occasionally repeat manuscript glosses. In the margin next to Johns commentary,
for example, the printed marginal note says: Hylech is the indicator of life.490 There
are occasional examples, such as the marginal note accompanying a discussion in
Johns commentary about conjunctions in the years of the world: This year, 1520, is
in the triplicity of water.491 Interestingly, the effect of the printed manicules and
marginalia give the newly printed book the impression of a well-read manuscript. In
this case, the editor served as a surrogate former-readers who would have left his hand-
written annotations in the text.
487
Alcabitius, Introduction to Astrology (Venice: 1512), University of Oklahoma Libraries.
488
On Turrel, see Thorndike, HMES V: 307-312.
489
Tractatulus infirmitatum a multis authoribus per magistrum petrum turrellum astrophilum
gymnasij diuionensis rectorem decerptus begins on fol. 77r.
490
Alcabitius, 1520 edition, fol. 61r: Hylech significator vite.
491
Alcabitius, 1520 edition, fol. 61v: Hunc anno. 1520. est in triplicitate aquea.
230
Turrels commentary appears somewhat infrequently in both the Introduction
and John of Saxonys commentary. Labeled additio and appearing either in the margins
or the main text, the comments are only a sentence or two in length and usually appear
at the ends of the relevant sections. The comments are informative, providing
additional information or citing relevant passages from other astrological authors.
Turrel also situates astrology within the context of natural philosophy with a reference
to Aristotle.492 In differentia secunda, where Alcabitius discusses the natures of the
planets, Turrel has added for each planet a few sentences describing specific medical
conditions related to each one. For example, he wrote: Saturn also indicates black bile
in the bladder with the sharing of severe phlegm.493 For Mercury, he added: Mercury
has mental disturbances, melancholy, epilepsy, hurrying, coughing, and abundance of
spit.494 On the last page, Turrel cites Messahala on the indications of the planets for
the revolution of the year: Messahala says that if the superior planets, that is Saturn
and Jupiter, are in the fertile signs in the revolution of the year, that is the terrestrial
and aqueous, they indicate fertility. In signs that are sterile, that is the airy and igneous,
they indicate sterility. And if one is like this, the other not, they indicate mediocrity.
And this we have learned by experience.495 Sometimes his comments are prescriptive.
492
Alcabitius, Introduction (Lyons, 1520), f. 6r: confectus est numerus duodecimus. Nam ter
quattuor aut quater tria duodecim faciunt: qui numerus est duodecim signorum zodiaci que
omnium viventium esse et vitam in hec inferiora influunt, ut scribit Philosophus in libro primo
de generatione et corruptione.
493
1520 edition, fol. 37v: Item Saturnus significat vesicam melancoliam cum partcipatione
flegmatis acris.
494
1520 edition, fol. 42v: Mercurius habet mentis perturbationem, melancholiam, epilentiam,
precipitationem, tussim, et sputi habundantiam.
495
1520 edition, fol. 76v: Dicit Messahala que superiores planete scilicet Saturnus et Iupiter in
revolutione anni, si fuerint in signis fertilibus scilicet terreis vel aqueis significant fertilitatem.
231
Turrel provided advice on astrological practice in a comment on a description of the
seventh place, directly addressing the reader: you should delay your judgment on the
lord of the seventh were it a detriment or a misfortune.496 Turrel adds a table for the
degrees of the algerbughtar after the section discussing its calculation in differentia
quarta.
The 1521 Liechtenstein edition is the first copy of the Introduction to contain a
table of contents. The table appears on the first two folios and is labeled: Index eorum
que in hoc volumine continentur. The subjects are listed in order of appearance in the
text, with a column for the chapter and a column for the folio number. The section
headings and divisions follow those of the previous editions, which are for the most
part reflections of the manuscript tradition. The inclusion of this feature in 1521 to the
Introduction may imply that its use (or potential for use) as a reference manual was
exploited by printers.
There is one dedication which serves also as a brief introduction to the
Introduction, and reflects some of the themes from the Luccan preface and Borotins
introduction. Antonio de Fantis dedicated his edition of the Introduction to Giovanni
Maria da Varano, the Duke of Camerino from 1515 to 1524. In his dedication, he refers
to common Ptolemaic justification for the importance of studying astrology, which is to
avoid ill effects. Furthermore, he praises Alcabitius as most skilled of the
In signis vero sterilibus scilicet aereis vel igneis significant sterilitatem. Et si alter sit sic et alter
non significant mediocritatem. Et hec experientia cognovimus.
496
1520 edition, fol. 31r: Tu debes differre iudicium tuum in dominus septime fuerit
impeditus sive infortunatus.
232
astronomers.497 De Fantis acknowledges that there are errors in previous editions of
the text and states his desire to correct them. It is somewhat ironic that one of the final
times the text was printed was also when an editor acknowledged that the text needed
correcting. On the other hand, de Fantiss desire is to correct a corrupt and erroneous
text, rather than to correct Arabic astrology more generally as Naibod sought to do.
The two editions certainly reflect how humanist authors responded to the Arabic
translations. On the one hand, there was the mere desire to render the Latin more
pleasing to humanist style. On the other, some humanist authors sought to rid
themselves of Arabic texts altogether. However, as Dag Nikolaus Hasse has shown,
this tension persisted throughout the sixteenth century, and different Arabic authors
achieved more or less popularity at different times and in different contexts.
Printing Arabic Astrology
The printing of the Introduction occurred within a much larger phenomenon of
the printing of astrological literature in the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.498 This
literature included annual astrological prognostications, almanacs, ephemerides and
lunar tables. Despite the popularity of printed astrological predictions and almanacs,
many of them are no longer extant due to the ephemeral nature of single-sheet prints or
flimsy pamphlets and booklets printed on cheap paper and unbound. Prognostications
often dealt with political, religious, and especially meteorological phenomena, but
497
1521 Liechtenstein edition, fol. 2v: peritissimus Alchabitius astronomorum.
498
See William Eamon, Astrology and Society, in A Companion to Astrology in the
Renaissance, ed. Brendan Dooley (Leiden: Brill 2014); Robert Westman, The Copernican
Question: Prognostication, Skepticism, and the Celestial Order (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 2011).
233
often did so in an intentionally alarming manner. Almanacs included a variety of
information: a calendar with feast days, chronologies of world history, yearly
astronomical events (such as eclipses), astrological predictions for the weather, health
and diseases, agriculture, and political and religious events. Annual prognostications,
almanacs, and tables were the material by-products of astrological practice, whereas
printed texts such as the Introduction provided the theoretical background for these
practices. While the former were widely distributed at all levels of society, the latter
had a narrower and more select readership. That being said, astrological prediction had
staked out a large share of print culture. Against the backdrop of this practical
prognostic literature, it is possible there was more awareness of and demand for
textbooks like the Introduction outside of universities.
This demand was met by the enterprising printers and editors who reshaped the
manuscript trappings of the Introduction into a printed book for a broad readership.
The transformations of the text of the Introduction are indicative of some of the trends
in the printing of Arabic astrological texts. Dag Nikolaus Hasse has documented the
impact of the printing of Latin translations of Arabic philosophical, medical, and
astrological texts on Renaissance intellectual culture, and has found that Arabic
astrological texts constitute a significant portion of these editions.499 Of the forty-four
Arabic authors printed before 1700, eleven wrote astrological treatises: Albohali,
Albubater, Albumasar, Alcabitius, Alkindi, Haly filius Abenragel, Haly Rodoan,
pseudo-Almansor, Messahalah, Omar Tiberiadis, and Zahel. Hasse has tabulated 660
499
Dag Nikolaus Hasse, Success and Suppression: Arabic Sciences and Philosophy in the
Renaissance (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2016).
234
editions of Latin translations of Arabic texts printed, with philosophical and medical
texts gaining the highest numbers.500 There are eighty editions of Latin translations of
Arabic astrological texts, thirteen of which contain the Introduction.
There are several conclusions we may draw, not only about the fact that the
Introduction was printed at all, which in itself reveals much about the authority of the
Arabic astrological tradition, but also about how the text was printed.501 There were
several aspects of the manuscript tradition that carried over into the printed version:
transliterated terms (which eventually stabilized), textual structure, thematic elements
in paratexts (such as introductions and prefaces), and textual companionship. The
comments of Pierre Turrel in the 1520 Lyon edition, as well as Valentin Naibods 1560
commentary, represent both new formats of interpretation (via printing) and new
interpretations. The 1520 Lyon edition also reveals the textual interventions and
emendations of Antonio de Fantis. Ratdolt, as well, augmented the text by his addition
of woodcuts and the formatting of the text into smaller subheadings. The title of the
Introduction changed to emphasize the texts authenticity of Arabic authorship. Taken
together, the printing of the Introduction resulted in novel patterns of the dissemination
of Arabic astrology to Latin readers.
500
For reference, Averroes and Avicenna were printed most, at 114 and 78 editions,
respectively, followed by the medical writings of Mesue (72 editions) and Rhazes (67
editions). In Success and Suppression, Hasse includes a convenient table which lists authors
and the numbers of editions printed under their names (8). There is also an Appendix with lists
of all the editions of Latin translations of Arabic texts printed before 1700 (317-407).
501
This discussion overlaps somewhat with the points elaborated in Hasse, Success and
Suppression, 13: the medieval manuscript transmission is continued in print; the medieval
commentary tradition does not stop but assumes new formats in the Renaissance; well-known
editors care for the publication of the texts; scholars associated with Italian, French, and
German schools and universities contribute to the printing history; several attempts are made to
improve the text, also with methods typical of the humanist movement.
235
Conclusion
Often taken for granted in intellectual history, the physical identities of
manuscripts and books greatly enhance our understanding of reading practices and the
role of texts within learned culture. In looking at variations across manuscripts and the
clues that each individual manuscript contains, we begin to understand how deeply
Arabic astrology penetrated into Latin intellectual culture. While we did not consider
the actual practice of astrology, the manuscripts illustrate both a rich tradition of the
study of astrology at universities, and the continued practice of astrology as astrologers
or physicians. Furthermore, Arabic texts such as the Introduction dominated this
tradition into the early sixteenth century, and were considered essential parts of an
astrological tradition with classical roots. The printing of the Introduction reflects these
values, although it also signaled the beginning of the end of Alcabitiuss popularity.
While scholars of the history of the book have devoted much effort to
understanding the impact of printing in general, there are few studies which examine
the transformations in forms and materialities of individual texts, and the impact of
these changes on readership. In the case of the Introduction, we have seen that printing
introduced several signficant changes to the text, including the stabilization of
technical terms and structure and the inclusion of visual aids. The printing of the text
also had another significant effect on the text. Although there a few examples of the
printed version of the Introduction bound to Sacroboscos Sphaera, Peurbachs
Theorica, or other astronomical or astrological texts, the rich textual companionship
that it received as a manuscript virtually disappeared in printed format. Did the corpus
astrologicum cease to exist? Although several other Arabic astrological texts were
236
printed, none of them were printed as often as Alcabitiuss Introduction. Also, although
printed texts were frequently bound together, the companionship that reflects the
corpus astrologicum of the manuscript tradition is difficult to establish. There is at
least some evidence that Sphaera and Theorica were frequently bound together, and
while there are a few examples of the Introduction joining them as a companion, there
is not enough evidence to claim that this grouping of the printed versions of these texts
was widespread. This immediately raises the question of how the teaching of Arabic
astrology at univerities shifted in the sixteenth century. At first one might point to the
decline in the teaching of astrology in general at universities, which some scholars
place in the sixteenth century. And yet, astrology was still widely practiced and very
much flourishing throughout the sixteenth century. Indeed, there are hundreds of
examples of printed prognostications.502 The ultimate fate of Alcabitius and Arabic
astrology more generally warrants further study.
502
An overview of printing and prognostication can be found in Jonathan Green, Printing and
Prophecy: Prognostication and Media Change 1450-1550 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan
Press, 2012). There is also a valuable appendix which lists printed practica. Green does not
discuss astrological textbooks.
237
Conclusion
In Dag Hasses recent work Success and Suppression: Arabic Sciences and
Philosophy in the Renaissance, he argues that Renaissance scholars continued to treat
Arabic authors as authorities on various subjects, and that their printing histories and
interest in Arabic authors can be well-documented.503 This is true despite the fact that
there were many vitriolic critiques of the Arabic tradition, from such learned humanist
scholars as Leonard Fuchs and Girolamo Cardano. His title reflects this tension
Arabic learning continued its medieval successes, but also suffered from bitter
critiques. In the preceding centuriesthat is the twelfth through the mid-fifteenth
these critiques simply did not exist. Or if they did, they were directed at the religion of
Islam or Muslims in general, but not to Arabic learning. While there were some
critiques of astrology in the medieval period prior to the fifteenth century, notably from
Nicole Oresme, these were directed at its fundamental tenets, and not at its Arabic
origins. Astrology retained its Arabic character from the translations until well into the
sixteenth century.
While I do not wish to suggest in an essentialist way that astrology in the Latin
West was Arabic, implying that the text was merely appropriated by Latin readers fails
to capture the extent to which Alcabitiuss Introduction continued, over centuries of
use, to maintain its Arabic elements. This attitude in turn obfuscates the ways in which
Latin readers themselves engaged in a process of aspecting. In his important article
on the dangers of following an essentialist narrative of Arabic science, A.I. Sabra
503
Dag Nikolaus Hasse, Success and Suppression: Arabic Sciences and Philosophy in the
Renaissance (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2016).
238
introduces the concept of aspecting to describe the way in which individuals in a
given culture aspect another culture as they direct their gaze to the other from their
own location.504 He goes on to explain:
Aspecting in this sense is conditioned both by the interests, aspirations, and

aptitudes of the aspecting individuals and by the accessible aspects of the viewed
culture, that is to say, the aspects that happen to be disclosed to them by the
accidents of history or by their further, determined effort.505
In this way, the Latin readers (as individuals) were certainly influenced by their own
values, interests, and needs, but they were also subject to the Arabic cultural elements
accessible to them in the texts they encountered.
Medieval Latin scholars thus found a way to reconcile their appropriation of
Arabic learning with the fact that the texts came from the Islamic world. Arabic texts
retained their authority despite polemical writings and attitudes against Islam. As
demonstrated in the second chapter, this was often done through the subtle use of
language: secta saracenorum referred to the Muslim faith, arabus to Arabic authors or
ideas. Contemporary scholarship reflects this medieval divide: historical works that
consider Western perceptions of Islam often do not consider the authoritative position
of Arabic learning or its influence on the development of medieval science and
philosophy. Rather, scholarship in the past century was preoccupied with medieval
ideas about the Muslim faith and religious practices.506 These works generally treat
504
A.I. Sabra, Situating Arabic Science: Locality versus Essence, Isis 8/4 (1996): 658.
505
Sabra, Situating Arabic Science, 658.
506
The classic work is Norman Daniel, Islam and the West: the Making of an Image (Oxford:
Oneworld, 1960). See also Richard Southern, Western Views of Islam in the Middle Ages
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1962). More recent examples are Suzanne Conklin-
Akbari, Idols in the East: European Representations of Islam and the Orient, 1100-1450
239
Islam as a monolithic culture, which was subjected to the imagination of European
Christianity (equally as monolithic). In considering the image of Islam constructed by
Europeans, almost none of these scholars fully engaged with the enormous and lasting
influence that Arabic science, philosophy, and medicine had on the minds of medieval
Latin scholars.507 Seen in this light, the Arabic character of medieval astrological texts
should be part of a broader conversation about medieval Western perceptions of Islam.
To conclude, this dissertation has examined the text of Alcabitiuss
Introduction, but one could engage in a similar study for any of the other popular
Arabic authorsAb Mashar (Albumasar), Sahl ibn Bishr (Zael), Mshallh
(Messehalla), and Ali ibn Rijl (Haly Abenragel)each of whom, we are reminded,
composed texts of which over one hundred manuscripts are still extant. We have barely
scratched the surface of the deep and lasting influence of Arabic science in Europe.
(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2009) and John Tolan, Saracens: Islam in the Medieval
European Imagination (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002).
507
A cogent and nuanced account of the complex social, cultural, and intellectual relationships
between Jews, Christians, and Muslims in twelfth-century Spain is John Tolan, Petrus Alfonsi
and his Medieval Readers (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1993).
240
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UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA

ENCOUNTERS WITH ALCABITIUS: READING ARABIC ASTROLOGY IN

SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

A DISSERTATION APPROVED FOR THE

I had the very generous support of many mentors, colleagues, librarians,

supportive and understanding during the most challenging periods of my graduate

career. Conversations with Steve Livesey shaped much of my thinking about

without the extensive scaffolding constructed by Charles Burnetts decades of research

work. Kathleen Crowther and Roberta Magnussen provided thoughtful feedback in

conversations and on chapter drafts throughout the writing process.

Oklahoma. Marilyn Ogilvie provided a much-welcomed perspective over the years on

navigating the discipline and simultaneously managing a career and a household.

gorgeous backdrop and a stimulating environment to conduct research at the Vatican

Mellon/ACLS Dissertation Completion Fellowship from the American Council of

Learned Societies. Lastly, the History of Science Collections at the University of

as well as the rest of the Collections staff.

friendship of Maria Robles, Pina Pasquantonio, and Kim Bowes.

been impossible without the support of extended family. My mother-in-law Nejiba

during my pregnancy. My father Michael Gleason swooped in at precisely the right

degree. I could not have done it without him.

modern Europe of the Introduction to Astrology, written by the tenth-century Arabic

influential texts on astrology in medieval and early modern Europe, particularly at

universities. A close study of different forms of readership (translations, annotations,

commentaries, and materialities) demonstrates how attitudes and perceptions of Arabic

understood in conjunction with a contextualized study of the Arabic original, reveals

adapting Islamic ideas.

almudkhal il inat akm alnujm, or Alcabitiuss Introductorius ad magisterium

universities. In addition to the Latin manuscripts, there were additional translations

period, including Ab Mashar (Albumasar), Sahl ibn Bishr (Zael), Mshallh

European astrological knowledge and practice.

European science continues to be downplayed or underestimated. Alcabitiuss

to other Arabic writers concerning their influence on the development of medieval

word, a textbook. As an introductory text which contained unoriginal content, at first

regarded the Arabic tradition as an authoritative source of astrological knowledge, and

as active and authoritative contributors to a highly complex and sophisticated

readership practices to which Alcabitiuss Introduction to Astrology was subjected:

translation, annotation, commenting, and its treatment as a material text (printing,

Nasr al-Dn al-Ts without attribution is an interesting example of this phenomenon.

authors, whom he does cite in De revolutionibus, whether or not he independently

were astrologers, or students at university, they were primarily reading astrological

Latin readers engaged with Alcabitiuss Introduction to Astrology.

Chapter 1 of the dissertation provides background information about the

Islamic context in which the Introduction to Astrology was composed, as well as an

fundamental principles of astrology. The chapter also includes a comparison of the

Introduction with other astrological works, which demonstrates al-Qabs skills in

providing explanations of difficult concepts and his structural innovations in

introductions, became so popular in Europe. In understanding the setting at court where

and depth of astronomical and astrological inquiry in a tenth-century Islamic court.

considered authoritative and highly valued. Lastly, I consider Johns treatment of

to recovering Arabic astrological knowledge despite its Islamic origins.

Chapter 3 considers the Latin manuscript tradition of the Introduction, and

particularly the evidence of readership in the form of marginalia and annotations.

Following an overview of the kinds of annotations inscribed in the margins of

manuscripts of the Introduction, I show how these different kinds of annotations

transliterated terms throughout the centuries indicates a commitment to the Arabic

evident, prompting readers to add their own definitions.

astrological instruction experienced by university students in the fourteenth century.

Both Cecco and John considered Alcabitiuss Introduction to be an authoritative source