Gas Measurements and Measuring Devices

Introduction:

It is very important to measure some gas characteristics during gas processing in

order to manipulate the process as desired. The most important measures are as
follows:

Pressure,
Temperature,
Flow Rate,

Pressure:

Pressure is simply the force per unit area that a fluid exerts on its surroundings. If
it is a gas, then the pressure of the gas is the force per unit area that the gas
exerts on the walls of the container that holds it. If the fluid is a liquid, then the
pressure is the force per unit area that the liquid exerts on the container in which
it is contained. Obviously, the pressure of a gas will be uniform on all the walls
that must enclose the gas completely. In a liquid, the pressure will vary, being
greatest on the bottom of the vessel and zero on the top surface, which need not
be enclosed.

Static Pressure:

The statements made in the previous paragraph are explicitly true for a fluid that
is not moving in space, that is not being pumped through pipes or flowing through
a channel. The pressure in cases where no motion is occurring is referred to as
static pressure.

Dynamic Pressure:

If a fluid is in motion, the pressure that it exerts on its surroundings depends on

the motion. Thus, if we measure the pressure of water in a hose with the nozzle
closed, we may find a pressure of, say, 40 pounds per square inch (note: force
per unit area). If the nozzle is opened, the pressure in the hose will drop to a
different value, say, 30 pounds per square inch. For this reason, a thorough
description of pressure must note the circumstances under which it is measured.
Pressure can depend on flow, compressibility of the fluid, external forces, and
numerous other factors.

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Units:

Since pressure is force per unit area, we describe it in the SI system of units by
newtons per square meter. This unit has been named the pascal (Pa), so that 1
Pa = 1 N/m2. As will be seen later, this is not a very convenient unit, and it is often
used in conjunction with the SI standard prefixes, as kPa, or MPa. You will see
the combination N/cm2 used, but use of this combination should be avoided in
favor of Pa with the appropriate prefix. In the English system of units, the most
common designation is the pound per square inch, Ib/in 2. This is usually written
psi. The conversion is that 1 psi is approximately 6.895 kPa. For very low
pressures, such as may be found in vacuum systems, the unit Torr is often used.
One Torr is approximately 133.3 Pa. Again, use of the pascal with appropriate
prefix is preferred. Other units that you may encounter in the pressure description
are the atmosphere (at), which is 101.325 kPa or ==14.7 psi, and the bar, which
is 100 kPa. The use of inches or feet of water and millimeters of mercury will be
discussed later.

Gauge Pressure:

In many cases, the absolute pressure is not the quantity of major interest in
describing the pressure. The atmosphere of gas that surrounds the earth exerts a
pressure, because of its weight, at the surface of the earth of approximately 14.7
psi, which defines the "atmosphere" unit. If a closed vessel at the earth's surface
contained a gas at an absolute pressure of 14.7 psi, then it would exert no
effective pressure on the walls of the container because the atmospheric gas
exerts the same pressure from the outside. In cases like this, it is more
appropriate to describe pressure in a relative sense, that is, compared to
atmospheric pressure. This is called gauge pressure, and is given by:

Pg = Pabs - Pat

Where: Pg = Gauge Pressure

Pabs = Absolute Pressure
Pat = Atmospheric Pressure

In the English system of units, the abbreviation psig is used to represent the
gauge pressure.

Head Pressure:

For liquids, the expression head pressure or pressure head is often used to
describe the pressure of the liquid in a tank or pipe. This refers to the static
pressure produced by the weight of the liquid above the point at which the
pressure is being described. This pressure depends only on the height of the
liquid above that point and the liquid density (mass per unit volume). In terms of

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an equation, if a liquid is contained in a tank, then the pressure at the bottom of
the tank is given by:

P gh

Where: P = Pressure
= Density
9 = Acceleration due to Gravity
H = Depth

Pressure Measurement Devices:

Manometers

Bourdon Tubes

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 Types of Bellows

Diaphragm Pressure Elements

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Temperature:

Absolute temperature is defined to be the average kinetic energy of the

molecules making up a system. For example, for a sample of argon gas
containing N molecules, the absolute temperature T is defined by

3 m N 2
2
kT vi
2N i

Where: k = Boltzmanns Constant = R/NA

R = Gas Constant
NA = Avogadros Number
m = Mass of One Molecule
vi = Velocity of Molecule i

There is no way to directly measure molecular kinetic energies, and so we

always measure temperatures indirectly by measuring some macroscopic
consequence of a temperature change: an expansion or contraction of a liquid, a
change in pressure, or a change in some electrical property. In fact, any property
that changes with temperature may, in principle, serve as the basis for a
thermometer. Yet, in spite of the many possibilities, thermodynamics assures us
that there is an absolute temperature scale independent of the particular quantity
actually measured.

Units:

The number assigned to the temperature depends on what we pick for the
reference condition. So several different temperature scales have arisen. The
Celsius scale, designated with a C, uses the freezing point of pure water as the
zero point and the boiling point as 100 degrees with a linear scale in between
these extremes. The Fahrenheit scale, designated with an F, is a lot more
confusing. It originally used the freezing point of sea water as the zero point and
the freezing point of pure water as 30 degrees, which made the temperature of a
healthy person equal to 96 degrees. On this scale, the boiling point of pure water
was 212 degrees. So Fahrenheit adjusted the scale to make the boiling point of
pure water 212 and the freezing point of pure water 32, which gave 180 degrees
between the two reference points. 180 degrees was chosen because it is evenly
divisible by 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. On the new temperature scale, the temperature of a
healthy person is 98.6 degrees F. Because there are 100 degrees C and 180
degrees F between the same reference conditions:

1 degree C = 1 degree F *100 / 180 = 1 degree F * 5 / 9

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Since the scales start at different zero points, we can convert from the
temperature on the Fahrenheit scale (TF) to the temperature on the Celsius scale
(TC) by using this equation:

TF = 32 + (9 / 5) * TC

Of course, you can have temperatures below the freezing point of water and
these are assigned negative numbers. When scientists began to study the
coldest possible temperature, they determined an absolute zero at which
molecular kinetic energy is a minimum (but not strictly zero!). They found this
value to be at -273.16 degrees C. Using this point as the new zero point we can
define another temperature scale called the absolute temperature. If we keep the
size of a single degree to be the same as the Celsius scale, we get a
temperature scale which has been named after Lord Kelvin and designated with
a K. Then:

K = C + 273.16

There is a similar absolute temperature corresponding to the Fahrenheit degree.

It is named after the scientist Rankine and designated with an R.

R = F + 459.69

Temperature Measuring Devices:

Gas Thermometers:

These devices use a gas as the thermometric fluid and operation is based on the
ideal-gas law, PV = NRT. Thus if either the pressure or the volume is held
constant, then measuring the other allows us to determine the temperature.
The constant-volume gas thermometer consists of a rigid vessel connected by
capillary tubing to a pressure measuring instrument. The vessel is loaded with an
amount of gas, typically hydrogen, nitrogen, or argon. If very low temperatures
are to be determined, helium may be used. In principle, neither the amount of
gas loaded nor the volume of the vessel need to be known.
First, the vessel and gas are brought to a reference temperature T o and the gas
pressure Po is measured. This reference condition is often some easily
reproduced physical situation whose temperature is known independently of any
measuring device. The triple point of water is usually used because the triple
point is fixed at 273.16 K on the absolute Kelvin scale.
After Po has been measured, the vessel and gas are brought to the neighborhood
of the desired temperature T and the corresponding pressure P is measured.
Now, if the gas is ideal and if neither the amount of gas nor the volume of the
system (vessel plus tubing) have changed between the two pressure
measurements, then the ideal-gas law requires:
V RTo RT

N Po P

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 P
T To
Po

Thus the principles of constant-volume gas thermometry are straightforward.

However, in practice the above three premises are not valid and corrections must
be made to achieve accurate results. The corrections include the following:
The gas will not be exactly ideal, and the degree of non-ideality must be
taken into account (often by using the virial equation of state).
Corrections must be made for thermal expansion or contraction of the
vessel when the temperature is changed from To to T.
The amount of gas in the system can change because some gas may
absorb onto the walls of the vessel. It is difficult to accurately account for
absorption effects and these probably cause the largest uncertainty.
Nevertheless, gas thermometry is a highly accurate means for measuring
temperatures: with care, uncertainties can be reduced to 0.002 K at 300 K.
Their useful range is from about 10 K to about 1200 K. However, gas
thermometry is tedious and is used mainly as a primary standard: other
thermometers are often calibrated relative to gas thermometers.

Resistance Thermometers:

These devices exploit the fact that the electrical resistances of metals change, in
reproducible ways, with temperature. The metal of choice is platinum because it
can be made very pure, it is stable and does not oxidize easily, and its resistance
varies smoothly over a wide range of temperatures. Consequently, after
calibration, the platinum resistance thermometer can achieve highly reproducible
readings.
The sensor is formed from fine platinum wire, typically about 0.1 mm diameter
and 2 m long. This yields a resistance of about 25 ohms at 0oC. The wire is
wound into a helical coil and the coil is wrapped onto a mica support that is about
4 mm (0.2 in) diameter and about 25 mm (1 in) long. The sensor is housed in a
glass or quartz tube. Resistance is measured by passing an approximately 1
milliamp current through the wire.
This design can be used from about 100 K to about 1000 K, with accuracies of
0.001 K, but the instrument is fragile. Suitable modifications can extend the
range to either lower or higher temperatures, but those more rugged instruments
typically achieve less accurate measurements.

Thermocouples:

A thermocouple works because there is voltage drop across dissimilar metals

which are placed in contact. This voltage is a function of temperature. In
principle, a thermocouple can be made from almost any two metals. In practice,
several thermocouple types have become standard because of desirable
qualities such as linearity of the voltage drop as a function of temperature and
large voltage to temperature ratio. Some common thermocouple types are

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designated. The thermocouple leads are joined by welding or soldering.
(Thermocouple wires are commonly twisted together, but this is not
recommended and can lead to inaccuracies.)

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Flow Measurement:

Flow Measurement Elements:

Orifice-Meters:

The most commonly used differential measurement device, the orifice meter, is
widely accepted for use in measuring volumes of liquids or vapors. A correctly
installed and maintained orifice may provide an overall accuracy within plus or
minus 2%.
The procedures presented in this chapter for calculating flow by use of an orifice
meter are designed to provide approximate solutions using a hand calculator or
equivalent, and do not include the rigorous, iterative solution procedures required
when using the Reader-Harris/Gallagher flow equation recommended for
accurate, custody transfer calculations with computing equipment.
The orifice meter consists of static pressure and differential pressure recording
gauges connected to an orifice flange or orifice fitting. The orifice meter tube
(meter run) consists of upstream and downstream sections of pipe for which size
and tolerance have been determined through calculation. The orifice plate is held
perpendicular to flow by flanges or a fitting. Bore, circumference, edge
sharpness, and other tolerances must meet specifications as set forth in
ANSI/API 2530 (GPA 8185).

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 The flow of gases through orifice plates is governed by the following general
equation:

Q C' hw Pf

C' Fb Fpb Ftf Fpv Fg Fr Y Ftb Fa

Fpb
14.73 1 460 Tb
Fpv Ftb
Pb Z 520

1.000 520 b
Fg Ftf Fb 1
G 460 Tf h wPf

Fa 1 0.0000185 Tf Tmeas For 304/316 Stainless Steel

Where: Q = Volumetric flow rate (SCF)

hw = Pressure Drop (inch water)
Pf = Flowing Pressure (inch water)
C = Orifice correction factor
Fb = Basic orifice factor (Obtained from tables)
Fpb = Pressure base factor
Ftf = Flowing temperature factor
Fpv = Super-compressibility factor
Fg = Specific gravity factor
Fr = Reynolds number factor
Y = Expansion factor
Ftb = Temperature base factor (Dimensionless)
Fa = Orifice temperature expansion factor (Ignored between
0~120 oF)
Pb = Base pressure (psia)
Z = Compressibility factor
Tb = Base Temperature (oF)
G = Specific gravity at 60 oF
Tf = Flowing Temperature (oF)
b = Equation factor in Reynolds number calculation (Tables)
Tmeas = Reference temperature of the orifice plate bore ( oF)

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The flow of liquids through orifice plates is governed by the following general
equation:

V h w Fb Fgt Fr Fa

1.0057 Gf
Fgt
G1 G1

Where: V = Volumetric flow rate (gph)

Fgt = Gravity temperature factor
G1 = Specific gravity at 60 oF
Gf = Specific gravity at flowing temperature

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Venturi Meters:

A fluid passing through smoothly varying constrictions experience changes in

velocity and pressure. These changes can be used to measure the flowrate of
the fluid.

As long as the fluid speed is sufficiently subsonic (V < mach 0.3), the
incompressible Bernoulli's equation describes the flow. Applying this equation to
a streamline traveling down the axis of the horizontal tube gives:

1 2 1 2
Pa Pb P Vb Va
2 2

From continuity, the throat velocity Vb can be substituted out of the above
equation to give,

1 2 A a
2

P Va 1
2 A b

Solving for the upstream velocity Va and multiplying by the cross-sectional area
Aa gives the volumetric flowrate Q,

2P Aa
Q
Aa
2

1
Ab

Ideal, inviscid fluids would obey the above equation. The small amounts of
energy converted into heat within viscous boundary layers tend to lower the

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actual velocity of real fluids somewhat. A discharge coefficient C is typically
introduced to account for the viscosity of fluids,

2P Aa
QC
Aa
2

1
Ab

C is found to depend on the Reynolds Number of the flow, and usually lies
between 0.90 and 0.98 for smoothly tapering venturis.

Pitot Tube:

A pitot tube is a cylindrical probe installed in a flowing fluid which senses the
impact pressure created by the velocity of a flowing fluid. The probe senses the
impact pressure by a hole in the upstream face of the tube, and the static
pressure on the side or downstream face of the tube. The use of a pitot tube is
severely limited by its sensitivity to velocity profile.
The multiport averaging pitot attempts to overcome the velocity profile sensitivity
by providing several ports to sense the varying impact pressures across the
diameter of the pipe. The pressures are averaged and the differential pressure
between this average and the static pressure detected on the downstream side
of the probe, or from the line itself, is used to determine flow.
The flow formula for the pitot tube is very similar to that for an orifice. F na is a
units conversion factor and C is a flow coefficient for this type installation.

Fb = (Fna) (C) D2

Installation requirements
include precise
alignment of the tube
and upstream flow
conditioning which
provides a symmetrical
velocity profile. Use of
the averaging pitot in a
pipe with a diameter or
wall thickness other than
design will cause
erroneous results.

Coriolis Meters:

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Coriolis Meters are mass flow meters that are used for custody transfer.
To some of us the Coriolis Principle is an exact science, but to most of us it is still
a black art. Well, imagine a fluid flowing (at velocity V) in a rotating elastic tube
as shown below. The fluid will deflect the tube.

Further, consider a Mass M moving from the center to the edge of a rotating
plate. This Mass M will take path B as shown below

If the mass M is guided by Wall A (i.e. the tube), a Coriolis force will be exerted
on the wall as shown below.
CORIOLIS FORCE Fc = -2 M V W

Now, consider the interior of the RotaMASS sensor as shown below

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The tube walls guide the process fluid as it flows through the U-Tube pathway.
With no fluid inside the tubes the Driver excites the tubes apart at a nominal
150Hz as shown below:

No Flow Mass Flow

Parallel Deflection Coriolis Twist

Now imagine fluid of Mass M flowing through and out of the RotaMASS tubes. As
the fluid flows down the first half of the U-Tubes it will tend to deflect the tubes in
towards each other. Conversely, when the fluid flows up the second half of the U-
Tubes it will tend to deflect the tubes out away from each other. This Coriolis
Twist action is shown above.
Now consider the diagram below. The baseline deflection of the tubes from the
Driver is shown by the blue trend and the Coriolis Twist from the Pickup Coil is
designated by the red trend.

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The Mass flow equation for the RotaMASS can be described as follows:

S Ac 1
M k
A e fv

Where: M = Mass flow rate

Ac = Amplitude of coriolis oscillation
Ae = Amplitude of excitation oscillation
Ac/Ae = Phase Angle
Sk = Sensor constant (calibration constant)
= Sk(20C) (1+Skt x (T-20C)) temperature correction
Sk(20C) = Sensor constant at 20C
fv = Excitation frequency
Skt = Temperature correction coef. (material constant)

The Density equation for the RotaMASS can be described as follows

f (20o C) 2
KD I o
1
fv (20 C)

Where: = Density
fI(20) = Exciting frequency of the empty tubes at 20C
fv(20) = Exciting frequency of the filled tubes at 20C
KD = Density calibration constant
fv(20) = fv / (1+FKT (T - 20 C)) temperature correction
of the actual frequency
FKT = Temperature correction coefficient, depending
on material and size

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