Fundamentals of

seismic theory
 Content:
Introduction
Characteristic of seismic waves
Attenuation
Critical angle
Dynamic & static

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Introduction
Characteristic of seismic
waves
 They share the same
meaning:
seismic waves = stress wave
= mechanical waves
 V=f
V=Velocity (m/s)
f=frequency
(Hz=cycles/s)
T
=wavelength
(m)

= /T
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Wave Parameters

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 Ideal Threshold For Vertical Resolution

V(m/sec) F(Hz) / 4 (m)

2000 50 10
3000 40 19
4000 30 33
5000 20 62.5
Dominant Wavelength of Seismic Wave = Velocity/Frequency

where: V is the velocity in unit distance per second and

f is the dominant frequency in Hz

V

f
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View from
top

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 Wavefronts
surface wave

Reflection
points
Wavefronts Raypaths
How waves actually travel Rays perpendicular to wavefronts
Surface of equal travel time Simple to use
Surface of equal phase Ray trace modelling
 Various wave modes

Up-going Wave

Down-going Wave

Identify various wave types:

a) Downgoing wave c) distortion in wave shape
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b) Upgoing reflected wave d) refraction
Types of waves
Seismic Wave Propagation

An impulsive force like a blast from dynamite source or Air gun creates a
seismic wave that propagates in the earth . Waves can travel inside the earths
body or on the surface of the earth

Wave types :
There are two types of waves : Body waves like P Longitudinal waves and S:
Shear
waves .Surface waves are called Rayleigh and Love waves. In contrast to
body waves ( in seismic band ) surface waves are attenuative and dispersive.

BODY WAVE : P & S

Particle motion in P waves is in the same direction as the wave, P waves are
caused primarily by change in volume . P wave velocity depend hence on Bulk
modulus K Longitudinal P wave (Compressional & Rarefaction)

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 TRANSVERSE OR SHEAR WAVE

Shear Wave on the other hand are created due to shape change caused
by shear rigidity (). Particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of wave.

Shear Waves: Change in shape depends on the modulus rigidity

Property: Cannot travel through water, unaffected as it through gassy
media

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 Surface Waves and Body Waves
air-soil boundary

within soil

Compression Wave or Primary Wave (P Wave) Wavelength

Wavelength

Shear Wave or Secondary Wave (S Wave) Wavelength

Wavelength

Body Waves Surface Waves 16

 Seismic Waves
Surface Waves

Body Waves

In a infinite media, only 2 types of waves exists; body waves of P and S.

When a surface is added then surface waves are generalised. Note that 17
surface waves attenuated exponentially with ..
Body Wave Types

Particle Motion
wave
direction

1. P-waves
Particle motion parallel to wave propagati

2. S-waves
Particle motion perpendicular to wave propagat

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 Compressional Wave (P-Wave) Animation

Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of alternating

compression and dilation. Particle motion is parallel to the
direction of propagation (longitudinal). Material returns to its
original shape after wave passes.
 Shear Wave (S-Wave) Animation

Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of alternating transver

se motion. Particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of propagatio
n (transverse). Transverse particle motion shown here is vertical but ca
n be in any direction. However, Earths layers tend to cause mostly verti
cal (SV; in the vertical plane) or horizontal (SH) shear motions. Material
returns to its original shape after wave passes.
 Surface Waves
Retrograde elliptical particle motion

Particle motion is complex, may be elliptical

Surface waves are noise
Low velocity, less than S-waves
Ground roll in land surface seismic 21
 Rayleigh Wave (R-Wave) Animation

Deformation propagates. Particle motion consists of elliptical motions

(generally retrograde elliptical) in the vertical plane and parallel to the
direction of propagation. Amplitude decreases with depth. Material
returns to its original shape after wave passes.
 Surface Waves : Rayleigh & Love Waves

Particle Motion in Rayleigh Wave : Retrograde to the direction of

Propagation
Rayleigh waves are sources of noise in exploration. Their velocity is 0.9
times S wave and are dispersive in nature and is common in Land
exploration where they are called Ground roll & are filtered out during
Processing.
Surface waves decay exponentially with depth.
In Bore hole logging they travel in the casing of the hole and are known
as
Tube waves. They also occur as interface waves in Marine Exploration
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and are predominantly Stonely or Scholte waves.
 Each of the waves travel at different types of
velocities

P-waves travels at the highest velocities (Vp)

S-waves travels at about 0.577 of Vp for well-consolid
ated rock and about 0.45 of Vp for soils
Rayleigh waves travels at about 0.9 of Vs
 THE SEISMIC EXPERIMENT
Interaction of Geology & Geophysics

Depth GEOLOGICAL
SEISMIC SOURCE
Km STRUCTURE

Courtesy GX Technology
 Propagation of Stress Waves

Surface Waves
(Rayleigh Waves)

Wave Type Total

Energy (%)

Rayleigh 67
Shear 26 Body Waves
Cpmpression 7 (P or S Waves)
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 Propagation Velocities of Stress Waves

3.0

2.5 Constrained
Compression Wave, VP
Normalized Wave Velocity, V/VS

2.0

1.5
Shear Wave, VS

1.0

Rayleigh Wave, VR
0.5

0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Poisson's Ratio, n 28
Existence of Waves in Different Medium

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Attenuation
Physical Factors Affecting Seismic Wave Propagation

As spherical waves progress,

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 Inelastic Attenuation (Absorption
and Scattering)
As a seismic wave propagates through a
medium, the elastic energy associated with
the wave is gradually absorbed by the
medium, eventually ending up as heat energy.
This is known as absorption (or anelastic
attenuation) and will eventually cause the
total disappearance of the seismic wave.
Attenuation, a is quantified by 1/Q,

a / Q
Inelastic Attenuation (Absorption and Scattering)

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 Q Quality Factor
Attenuation is quantified by 1/Q,

Higher Q, better quality, less attenuation

Critical Angle
 Snells Laws of Reflection & Refraction
Light rays as well as sound, obey Snells law as stated below:
Sin1/V1 Sin2 /V 2
Where, i = angle of incidence
r = angle of refraction

Where i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of refraction , and V is

the P wave velocity in the media.
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 Critical Angle & Generation of Head Waves
When i is around 45 degrees then the ray grazes the boundary .

Head Waves

c Is defined as the
critical angle

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 P-S MODE CONVERSION

Also note that apart from zero incidence angle P wave is mode converted into
shear wave SV,as shown below
Sin i/V = Sin /V
Rps
Incident P Rpp

Tpp
Tps

Mode conversion as shown above from P to S waves causes

energy balance problems resulting in P wave amplitude to change
as function of incidence angle .This phenomena is known as
AVA/AVO
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Modulus
 Bulk modulus, K

V Volume changes

bulk strain b F
V Volume

Pressure

bulk mod ulus K

V/V
E Young modulus

K
3(1 - 2v) F
Poissons ratio

Typical values
K steel 2.5 x 107 psi
K rock 2.5 x 105 psi
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 Youngs modulus, E

F
vertical stress zz
A F
z
vertical strain zz dz
z
zz A
Young M odulus E Z
zz

Typical values
E steel 3 x 107 psi E = stress/strain
= / (L/L)
E rock 3 x 105 psi
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 Poisson Ratio,

F
vertical stress zz F
A
z
vertical strain zz dz
z
x
normal strain xx
X A
y
normal strain yy Z
Y
xx yy
Poisson ratio
zz zz
dx
Typical values X
v steel 0.3 Poisson ratio = [D/D] / [L/L]
= diameter change/ vertical strain change
v rock 0.3
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 Elastic Properties of P & S Waves

Hooke's Law
Stress = C * Strain
i) Compressional (P) wave Elastic Constant ii) Shear (S) wave
C = K (compressive
Particle
Motion
stress) Particle
C = m (shear Stress) Motion
F

FLUID K (GPa)
F
Brine 2.4
Volume
Oil 1.0 Shape
Change Gas 0.02 Change

F
1/2
Vp = K + 4/3m K = incompressibility (bulk modulus) Vs = m 1/2

r m rigidity (shear modulus) r

F

r density
1/K=compressibility
Seismic waves are a consequence of Hooke's law , that states
that Strain produced in rocks is proportional to the Stress applied 43
Dynamic Material Properties
Modulus relationships

G max rV s
2

M max rV 2
p
Compressional Modulus

E max 2G max 1 + n
n = Poissons ratio
 Poissons ratio
Vp = P wave velocity
Vs = S wave velocity
46
Dynamic & Static
 Poissons Ratio -
Dynamic & Static Measurements
Static
W
W/2
W W
L
L L
L/2

Initial Strained

Dynamic

0.5 VS VP 2 VP 1
12

1 VS VP 2 VS 0.5
 ROCK PHYSICS BASICS
Static and Dynamic Moduli
By definition, the dynamic moduli of rock are those calculated from the elastic-wave velocity and density. The
static moduli are those directly measured in a deformational experiment.

The static and dynamic moduli of the same rock may significantly differ from each other. The main reason is
likely to be the difference in the deformation (strain) amplitude between the dynamic and static experiments.

In the dynamic wave propagation experiment the strain is about 10-7 while static strain may reach 10-2.

Radial
Strain Stress E = / ea
er

ea n = er / ea
Axial Strain

Typical Plastic Behavior

Load
Stress

DYNAMI
C

STATIC Unload

10-2
10-7
Log Strain
Jack Dvorkin (2011) 2.49
Relation Static & Dynamic Modulus Es -ED
Dynamic (ED) method resulted higher value of
Young modulus, compared to static method (Es ).

Mockoviavkov & Pandula (2003)

Es = 0.77075ED + 5854.109