Phreatophytes

By T. W. ROBINSON

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 1423

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON: 1958

 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

FRED A. SEATON, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Thomas B. Nolan, Director

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office

Washington 25, D. C. Price 40 cents (paper cover)
 CONTENTS

Page
Abstract ................................................... 1
Introduction ................................................ 2
Acknowledgments ......................................... 2
Use of ground water by phreatophytes ..................... 3
Evidence ............................................... 3
Effect .................................................. 3
Future considerations ..................................... 7
Definitions ................................................. 9
The hydrologic cycle ........................................ 10
Plants classified as phreatophytes ............................ 12
Scientific and common names .............................. 13
Factors affecting occurrence of phreatophytes ................ 13
Climate .................................................. 14
Depth to water ........................................... 14
Quality of ground water .................................. 15
Factors affecting the use of ground water by phreatophytes...... 16
Climatic conditions ....................................... 17
Depth to water ........................................... 22
Density of growth ........................................ 22
Quality of ground water .................................. 23
Salvage of ground water .................................... 24
Status of information concerning phreatophytes .............. 26
Relation of phreatophytes to floods and sedimentation .......... 28
Phreatophytes in Western United States ...................... 30
Summary of information concerning eight common phreatophytes 49
Allenrolfea occidentalis Pickleweed ...................... 49
Chrysothamnus Rabbitbrush ............................ 53
Distichlis Saltgrass .................................... 56
Medicago Alfalfa ...................................... 59
Populus Cottonwood .................................... 61
Salix Willow .......................................... 64
Sarcobatus Greasewood ................................. 66
Tamarix Saltcedar ..................................... 70
Finding index for common names ............................. 76
References ................................................. 78
Index ...................................................... 83

ILLUSTRATIONS

FRONTISPIECE. Saltcedar growth above McMillan Reservoir on the

Pecos River, N. Mex. ............................ VI
FIGURE 1. Comparison of fluctuations of the water table in an
area of saltcedar growth before, during, and near
the end of the growing season.................... 4
III
IV CONTENTS

Page
FIGURE 2. Variation and depletion of streamflow resulting from
transpiration by saltcedar........................ 5
3. Effect of transpiration on streamflow in a humid
region ......................................... 7
4. Distinction between phreatophytes and xerophytes
shown by their occurrence in relation to the water
table ........................................... 10
5. The hydrologic cycle for an undeveloped closed basin
in an arid region ................................ 11
6. Relation of water-table fluctuations due to transpira-
tion by saltcedar to fluctuations of relative humidity
and temperature ................................ 17
7. Relation of evapotranspiration of saltgrass grown in
tanks to depth to water table, and to the average
temperature during the growing season .......... 18
8. Effect of rainfall on water-table fluctuations due to
transpiration by saltcedar ....................... 20
9. Camelthorn and saltcedar in the flood plain of the
Little Colorado River ............................ 31
10. A typical dense growth of batamote (Baccharis gluti-
nosa) .......................................... 31
11. Vanadium bush and sweet vetch, which are guides in
the search for uranium-vanadium ore deposits of
the Colorado Plateau ............................ 41
12. Smoketrees (Dalea spinosa) in a gravel-filled wash
north of Needles, Calif. .......................... 42
13. Giant wildrye (Elymus condensatus) near Rye Patch
Reservoir on the Humboldt River, Nev. ........... 43
14. Blue palo verde (Cercidium floridum) growing in Cen-
tennial Wash, Ariz. ............................. 43
15. Giant reedgrass (Phragmites communis), or carrizo,
growing in association with arrowweed, and closeup
of the leaves and stem. .......................... 44
16. A luxuriant stand of arrowweed (Pluchea sericea) near
Blythe, Calif. ................................... 45
17. A grove of aspen (Populus tremuloides) marks a spring
and seep area near Carson City, Nev. ............ 46
18. The "devil's corn field" near Stovepipe Wells in Death
Valley National Monument, Calif. Clumps of arrow-
weed in a sanddune area. ........................ 46
19. A mesquite tree growing along the Gila River. ...... 47
20. Desertrush (Juncus cooperi) in association with salt-
grass (Distichlis stricta) ........................ 48
21. Fourwing saltbush (Atriplex canescens) growing in
clumps along the channel of Salt Creek ............ 48
22. Pickleweed (Allenrolfea occidentalis) associated with
saltgrass on the margin of Great Salt Lake ...... 50
23. Rabbitbrush forming the predominant growth in a
large area of low-lying land near Carson City, Nev. 54
24. Saltgrass associated with greasewood growing near
Battle Mountain, Nev. ........................... 54
 CONTENTS Y

Page
FIGURE 25. Cottonwood trees planted long ago meet overhead to
provide shade along a road east of Carson City,
Nev. .......................................... 63
26. An unusually luxuriant and tall growth of willows
in Death Valley National Monument, Calif. ...... 65
27. A clump of greasewood growing along Highway 50
west of Grand Junction, Colo. .................. 67
28. Willows and cottonwood in Carson Valley, Nev. .... 67
29. This handsome specimen of the athel tree (Tamarix
aphylla) is about 40 feet high .................. 71
30. A dense growth of saltcedar (Tamarix gallica) along
the dry (April 1954) bed of the Gila River ...... 72
31. An illustration of saltcedar encroachment along a
stream channel ................................ 73
32. Saltcedar along the banks of the Little Colorado River
near Holbrook, Ariz. ........................... 73

TABLES

TABLE 1. Phreatophytes in Western United States ............ 32

2. Annual or seasonal evapotranspiration of water by
saltgrass grown in tanks ........................ 58
FRONTISPIECE. Saltcedar growth on the delta above McMillan Reservoir on the Pecos River, N. Mex. Downstream view of part
of a 10,000-acre infestation. Photograph courtesy Peeos River Commission
 PHREATOPHYTES

By T. W. ROBINSON

ABSTRACT

Phreatophytes are plants that depend for their water supply upon ground
water that lies within reach of their roots. Although not confined to the
arid regions of the Western United States, their occurrence there is more
common, more spectacular, and, because of their effect on water supply,
more important than it is in humid and subhumid regions. Most phreato-
phytes have low economic value, and consequently, the water they use and
return to the atmosphere without substantial benefit to man is defined as
consumptive waste.
Some phreatophytes are widespread throughout the entire West, and
others, such as saltcedar, are confined to the river valleys of the Southwest.
In all, they waste tremendous quantities of ground water each year. It is
estimated that phreatophytes (excluding beneficial species such as alfalfa)
cover about 16 million acres in the 17 Western States and discharge as much
as 25 million acre-feet of water into the atmosphere annually. Although
little has been done so far to prevent this waste, much of the water undoubt-
edly can be salvaged by converting consumptive waste to consumptive use.
There are two basic methods: reducing of consumptive waste by diverting
water from the plants to other uses, and increasing the efficiency of water
use by substituting beneficial for nonbeneficial plant species. These methods,
to be successful, require an understanding of the factors that affect the
occurrence and amount of water used by phreatophytes: climate, depth to,
and quality of ground water and soil.
More than seventy plant species have been classified as phreatophytes;
this report lists information concerning them according to their scientific
names. The available information about the phreatophytic characteristics
of most of the species is meager, but for eight, pickleweed, rabbitbrush, salt-
grass, alfalfa, cottonwood, willow, greasewood, and saltcedar, there are
sufficient data to warrant separate discussions. The annual use of water by
phreatophytes ranges from a few tenths of an acre-foot per acre to more
than 7 acre-feet per acre.
In the Southwest, saltcedar, an exotic plant that develops a junglelike
growth, has invaded and choked the normal overflow channels of streams, so
as to produce a flood hazard that must be reckoned with. In addition, the
ponding effect of the dense growth results in above-normal sediment deposi-
tion in the area of growth, and reduced deposition downstream, as was
observed at the McMillan Reservoir on the Pecos River in New Mexico.
In the interest of conserving water to meet an ever-growing demand and
to reduce flood hazards in the Southwest, more and more attention must
be given to the phreatophyte problem.
1
2 PHREATOPHYTES

INTRODUCTION
Since 1927, when 0. E. Meinzer's paper "Plants as indicators
of ground water" was published as Geological Survey Water-
Supply Paper 577, many reports and papers relating entirely or
in part to phreatophytes have been released in various forms by
the Geological Survey and other agencies. As more data on these
plants have become available, a need has developed for a supple-
ment to Meinzer's original list and description of the plants. The
need was recognized by the Phreaitophyte Subcommittee of the
Pacific Southwest Federal Inter-Agency Technical Committee,
which proposed the preparation of such a paper. This paper is
an attempt to fulfill that need by assembling and discussing the
information that is available on phreatophytes. It includes a list
of all plants in the desert areas of the Western United States that
have been identified as phreatophytes or which there is good
reason to class as phreatophytes, together with the available data
concerning their occurrence, habits, and annual consumption of
ground water. The information was obtained by a comprehensive
review of the literature, by consultation with fellow workers, and
by field study and observation.
Nearly all the available information and data on phreatophytes
are the result of studies and observations that have been made
on these plants in the arid areas of the western United States.
The reason is twofold; first, it was in the desert areas of the West
that Meinzer first observed the plants that he defined and classi-
fied as phreatophytes; second, the West by and large is a water-
poor region, and attention naturally is focused on water problems
including the role of phreatophytes as they affect the water
supply. Water-supply problems have increased particularly since
World War II, partly because of the increased demand for water,
partly because of a decrease in supply as the result of a pro-
longed drought in the Southwest, and partly because of the spread
of one species, saltcedar, a heavy water user, through the stream
valleys of the Southwest. (See frontispiece.) It has become in-
creasingly common, when referring to factors affecting water
supply, to include the "phreatophyte problem". In fact, it was
pointed out by Douglas (1954, p. 8-12) that the word "phreato-
phyte" is becoming a term that the laymen find convenient for
designating a group of destructive enemies that formerly were
regarded merely as nuisances.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author is grateful to many in the fields of hydrology and
botany, including the members of the Phreatophyte Subcommittee
 INTRODUCTION 3

of the Pacific Southwest Federal Inter-Agency Technical Com-

mittee, and its successor, the Pacific Southwest Inter-Agency Com-
mittee, for their helpful criticisms, suggestion's, and contributions.
He is particularly indebted to two former colleagues in the Geo-
logical Survey, Walter N. White and Samuel F. Turner. Mr.
White, who did pioneer work in determining the use of ground
water by phreatophytes, reviewed the manuscript and made many
valuable comments and criticisms. Mr. Turner, as the first chair-
man of the Phreatophyte Subcommittee, was instrumental in
focusing attention on the phreatophyte problem in the Southwest
and in preserving data concerning phreatophytes in the minutes
of the subcommittee. He was one of the first to study the problem
of saltcedars and to obtain data on their use of ground water.
His draft of a list of plants that occur as phreatophytes or as
hydrophytes formed the nucleus for the list of phreatophytes
given in table 1. The author takes this opportunity to express
his sincere thanks to these men and also to his associates for the
data, information, and assistance they so generously contributed.

USE OF GROUND WATER BY PHYREATOPHYTES

EVIDENCE

Evidence that phreatophytes utilize ground water is provided

by diurnal fluctuations of the water level in shallow wells that
penetrate below the water table in areas of growth. The water
level declines during the day when transpiration is greatest and
rises during the night when transpiration is least, the rise or
decline beginning at almost the same hour each day. That the
daily decline of the water table was due to the withdrawal of
ground water from the zone of saturation by phreatophytes was
demonstrated by G. E. P. Smith through a series of observations
in wells located in phreatophyte areas. Although the observations
began in 1916, Smith first described the phenomenon in 1922
(White, 1932, p. 4) in an unpublished paper given before the
Geological Society of Washington on November 22.
The depletion of the flow of streams that pass through areas
of phreatophytes is further evidence of the use of ground water
by phreatophytes.
EFFECT

The effect on the water table of transpiration by saltcedar in

the Safford Valley, Ariz., is clearly shown in figure 1. In March,
before the saltcedar begins to grow, there is little fluctuation of
the water table, but 3 months later, when the growing season is
well under way, the daily fluctuations are regular and large. The
 4 PHREATOPHYTES

lowering on June 9, 1944, for instance, was 0.19 foot. In late

October, when the growing season draws to a close, the daily
fluctuations gradually diminish in amplitude, and finally they dis-
appear altogether.

g 7.4

25

FIGURE 1. Comparison of fluctuations of the water table as shown in well T-6 in an area
of saltcedar growth before, during, and near the end of the growing season in
the Safford Valley, Ariz.

During the growing season transpiration also affects the flow

of streams that pass through areas of phreatophyte growth, for
the plants transpire large quantitues of water, a part of which,
if not thus consumed, would reach the streams (White, 1932, p.
 INTRODUCTION 5

95-96). An example is provided by the record of flow of the Gila

River near Geronimo in the Safford Valley, Ariz., as shown in
figure 2. The period selected, June 6-13, 1944, is the same as for
well T-6, shown in figure 1. Well T-6 is about one-eighth of a
mile south of the river channel, and the gaging station near Gero-
nimo, where the river was measured, is about 20 miles down-
stream from the well. The flood plain in this reach of the stream,
as well as above and below, is thickly covered with saltcedar. A
comparison of the river and well records shows that the diurnal
fluctuations in the river are quite similar to those in the well.
The transpiration discharge by the saltcedar resulted not only in
a marked variation in the daily flow of the stream, but also in a
depletion of the streamflow. This depletion was estimated by as-
suming that the maximum observed rate of discharge is the same
as the daily mean rate of discharge under conditions of no deple-
tion. That is to say, if there were no transpiration loss, then the
curve obtained by connecting the points of maximum discharge
would approximate the probable flow of the stream. Actually, as
suggested by Troxell (1936) and demonstrated by Dunford and
Fletcher (1947), this method gives results that are too low be-
cause it shows only a part of the loss. The drain on the ground-
water reservoir adjacent to the stream, lowers the ground-water
level below the stage at which it would normally stand if there
were no transpiration discharge. Because of the lower ground-
water level, the stream picks up less water (or loses more water)
in a given stretch than it would if the water table were higher;

MAXIMUM 6.0 6.1 59 5.4 5.2 4.7 4.7 4.5

MINIMUM 4.7 5.0 4,6 4.3 3.9 3.8 3.8 3.7
MEAN 5.4 5.4 5.2 4.7 4.5 4.3 4.3 4.0
RATE OF DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

TRANSPIRATION 1.2 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 0.8 0.8 1.0

LOSS THROUGH TRANSPIRATION, IN ACRE-FEET PER DAY COMPUTED AS DIFFERENCE

BETWEEN MAXIMUM AND DAILY MEAN RATES OF DISCHARGE

FIGURE 2. Variation and depletion of streamflow resulting from transpiration by saJtcedar,

as shown in stage of the Gila River near Geronimo in the Safford Valley, Ariz.
6 PHREATOPHYTES

thus, even the high points on the stream graph indicate a flow
less than would occur if transpiration had not lowered the water
table.
The Green River in its 437-mile course through Colorado and
Utah passes through several valleys where the stream is bordered
by a total of 40,000 acres of flood plain, much of which is cov-
ered with phreatophytes. The average daily depletion in flow for
a 21-day period in September 1948, resulting from evapotrans-
piration on the flood plain area (transpiration by plants and evap-
oration from the soil) was, according to Thomas (1952, p. 28), 552.4
acre-feet, or 278 cfs. In the 320-mile reach from Linwood, near
the Wyoming border, to Greenriver gaging station evapotran-
spiration losses accounted for 20 percent reduction in flow past
the Greenriver gage and a 32 percent reduction in pickup be-
tween the two stations.
At the Ouray, Utah, gaging station near the center of the Uinta
Basin, where the Green River is bordered by broad flood plains
covered with dense vegetation, diurnal fluctuation in stage was
clearly shown. Thomas (1952, p. 18-20) computed the reduction
in flow on the basis of the differences between the actual stage
and a line connecting the points of successive daily maxima, and
found it to be about 18 cfs. Similar computation at the Linwood,
Utah, gaging station upstream from Ouray, where the river is
lined with phreatophytes, indicated a reduction in flow of about
12 cfs.
Phreatophytes occur in the humid Eastern States also, but by
1956 they had not received much attention as such. In those States
the line between phreatophytic and nonphreatophytic vegetation
is not so sharp, nor is the phreatophyte problem so spectacular
or acute as it is in the arid Western States. Nevertheless, the
effect on ground water and streamflow is much the same as in
the arid States, though proportionately less serious, because of
the greater rainfall. Ferris (in Wisler and Brater, 1949) de-
scribed a record from a shallow well near Roscommon, Mich.,
which shows diurnal fluctuations that are the result of transpiration.
At the Bigwoods Experimental Forest in North Carolina, Trousdell
and Hoover (1955) found that the water level in shallow obser-
vation wells located in uncut stands of loblolly pine declined during
the growing season and rose during the nongrowing season. Even
more significant was the reversal of the downward trend of the
water level that followed cutting of the timber in the 200-foot strip
in which one well was located. The water level had declined about
9.5 feet from the beginning of the growing season in early May
 INTRODUCTION 7

until the timber was cut on July 21. After cutting, the downward
trend halted, and by the end of August, during which 5.66 inches
of rain fell, the water level had risen 8.8 feet. During this same
period the water level in a well in the uncut stand of timber nearby
rose only 0.4 foot. It was found also from a profile of the ground
water across the cleancut and uncut strips that the water level was
highest in the cleancut strip, lower at the stand edges, and lowest
within the stands.
The effect on streamflow in the humid States was demonstrated
by experiments in the Coweeta Experimental Forest in the Ap-
palachian Mountains of western North Carolina (Dunford and
Fletcher, 1947). The effect of transpiration on streamflow in
Maryland is illustrated in figure 3, by the hydrograph of the North
River near Annapolis. With the exception that the peaks and
troughs occur from 2 to 3 hours later, the diurnal fluctuations are
similar to those for the Gila River shown in figure 2. The lag is
believed due to differences in the time of the daily variations of
temperature and humidity that directly affect the rate of transpira-
tion (fig. 6).

MAXIMUM 3.28 3.28 3.35 3.28

MINIMUM 2.65 2.81 2.74 2.74

MEAN 3.01 3.01 3.05 2.99

RATE OF DISCHARGE, IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND

TRANSPIRATION 0.53 0.53 0.60 0(58

LOSS THROUGH TRANSPIRATION, IN ACRE-FEET PER DAY COMPUTED AS DIFFERENCE

BETWEEN MAXIMUM AND DAILY MEAN RATES OF DISCHARGE

FIGURE 3. Effect of transpiration on streamflow in a humid region as shown in stage of

the North River near Annapolis, Md.

FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS

With the increasing demand for water, it seems certain that

more and more attention will be given to a study of transpira-
8 PHREATOPHYTES

tion by both phreatophytic and nonphreatophytic plants in the

Eastern States, and its effect on water supply. In the humid and
subhumid regions, the distinction between these two groups of
plants is not so sharp as in the arid regions, and under certain
conditions it is difficult to determine whether a plant obtains its
water supply from soil moisture or from ground water. The
nonphreatophytic plants indirectly affect the water supply of a,
region by utilizing water in the soil column that might otherwise
reach the water table as recharge. Phreatophytic plants, on the
other hand, directly affect the available water supply by drawing
from the ground-water reservoir as described earlier, thus reducing
ground-water storage and related streamflow.
In the Pontiac area of Michigan, for example, planners are
considering the practicability of salvaging a part of the evapo-
transpirative discharge. The annual precipitation in this 9-town-
ship area is about 30 inches a year, or 450,000,000 gallons per
day (gpd). Of this amount, about one-third leaves the area as
streamflow. The remaining 300,000,000 gpd, including 50,000,000
gpd used by man, is discharged by evapotranspiration. An inde-
terminate but probably substantial part of this is discharged
from ground-water reservoirs; the rest is discharged from the
soil before it has a chance to descend to the water table (Robinson,
1954).
As explained by Meinzer (1927, p. 82-88), information on the
occurrence and habits of phreatophytes and their annnal con-
sumption of ground water is a basic requisite in dealing with
water-supply problems in any area where these plants grow on
a substantial scale, particularly in the arid regions of the Western
United States. In many parts of the regions where phreatophytes
are important, man's increasing demand for water already has
exceeded, or soon will exceed, the available supply. The supply
can be made more nearly adequate by reducing consumptive waste
by phreatophytes, insofar as to do so is practical.
The water consumed by phreatophytes is largely wasted, for
most of the plants have a low or negligible economic value. As
some of the plants have a high annual water consumption and
occupy extensive areas, the amount of water they consume in a
given locality may be large. Although the water consumed by
phreatophytes is available for salvage, it may not be economically
feasible to salvage all the water. In any program involving sal-
vage, however, it is essential to have as much information as
possible concerning the occurrence and water requirements of the
plants in the area under consideration.
 DEFINITIONS 9

DEFINITIONS
In desert regions in general the flora are sharply divided into
two classes depending upon their relationship to the water tables.
Such a distinction, although it exists, is less noticeable in regions
of greater precipitation, and it may be lost sight of entirely in
humid regons. The close association of certain species of desert
plants with the water table and the lack of such association in
others have been known for many years. The distinction was
early recognized by 0. E. Meinzer in his work in desert areas,
beginning about 1910. Later he gave the name " phreatophytes"
to the plants using ground water. The term appeared first in a
preliminary mimeographed release of his report entitled "Out-
line of ground-water hydrology, with definitions," which was
issued in revised form as U. S. Geological Survey Water-Supply
Paper 494 in 1923. He defined a phreatophyte as "a plant that
habitually obtains its water supply from the zone of saturation,
either directly or through the capillary fringe." The word is de-
rived from two Greek roots, "phreatos" (a well) and "phyte"
(a combining form denoting a plant having a particular charac-
teristic or habitat), and thus means "well plant." The name is
apt, for the plants grow where they can send their roots down
to the water table, or to the capillary fringe immediately over-
lying the water table, from which the plant pumps its supply of
water, as illustrated in figure 4. In his introduction to Water-
Supply Paper 577, Meinzer (p. 1) compares the phreatophytes,
with their perennial and secure supply of ground water, with the
xerophytes, which occur in desert areas where the water table is
out of reach and the vegetation is forced to depend upon the rains
for a scanty and extremely irregular water supply. The occur-
rence of phreatophytes and xerophytes in relation to the water
table is shown by figure 4. The name "xerophyte," Meinzer ex-
plained, also was derived from Greek roots; it means "dry plant.''
In a footnote at the bottom of page 1 of his introduction to
Water-Supply Paper 577, Meinzer says:
The principal ecologic groups of plants that have been recognized by
botanists are hydrophytes, which grow in water or at least with their roots
in water; the halophytes, which can endure large amounts of salt or alkali
in the soil water on which they live; the xerophytes, which are able to sur-
vive on very small and irregular supplies of water; and the mesophytes,
which are not adapted to endure any of these exti ernes. In proposing the
name phreatophyte, the writer did not imply that this group should find a
separate place in the old classification, but rather believed that it would
overlap some of the other groups. The term "halophyte" has been used for
marsh plants which are more or less intermediate between hydrophytes and
10 PHREATOPHYTES

FIGURE 4. Distinction between phreatophytes (A) and xerophytes (B) shown by their
occurrence in relation to the water table.

mesophytes, but this term could not be used to designate the phreatophytes,
without violating its past usage and introducing much confusion.
By definition a phreatophyte gets its water from the water
table, and it does under natural conditions. It should be noted,
however, that phreatophytes will grow and thrive if water is sup-
plied artificially. Thus phreatophytes may be observed growing
along ditches and canals and in irrigated fields, in areas where
their roots do not reach the water table but tap irrigation or
drainage water. One phreatophyte, alfalfa, an important agri-
cultural plant, is grown extensively by irrigation without regard
to the depth to the water table, and there is little doubt that
other phreatophytes could be grown in a similar way if it were
desirable.
THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
The roles that the two principal classes of plants, phreatophytes
and xerophytes, play in the hydrology of arid regions can be
 THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE 11

WATER PRECIPITATED FROM ATMOSPHERIC VAPOR WATER VAPOR RETURNED TO ATMOSPHERE

L_J__l__f__t__t___r__L__1__L
1 1
Interce Dtion by
||SNOW AND ICE "X| brush a nd trees

Ove and Eva

FIGURE 6. The hydrologic cycle in an undeveloped closed basin in an arid region. (Shaded
areas represent water in storage; solid lines, movement as liquid; broken lines,
vapor.)

readily understood through consideration of the hydrologic cycle.

Figure 5 depicts a simple hydrologic cycle for an undeveloped
closed basin in an arid region. Among other things, the diagram
illustrates: (1) the distnction between the soil water for xero-
phytes and ground water for phreatophytes; (2) the relative
positions of the soil-water and ground-water reservoirs in the
cycle; and (3) the paths of the movement of water to and from
them.
The water in the soil-water reservoir is not directly available
to man, for he cannot extract it from the soil in usuable form. It
may be available to him indirectly in the products of plant life;
as such, however, it does not quench thirst or supply his other
everyday needs. Soil water that is excess to the capacity of the
soil reservoir eventually becomes available to man by downward
percolation as recharge to the ground-water reservoir. In arid
regions the excess is generally quite small. Xerophytes, by their draft
on soil water during the growing season, reduce the amount of
excess that would otherwise percolate to the water table, and so
indirectly reduce the amount available to man.
Water in the ground-water reservoir is directly available to
man through spring discharge and seepage to streams, or it may
12 PHREATOPHYTES

be withdrawn by means of wells, tunnels, or ditches. In some

localities it is the only available water. This water also is avail-
able to phreatophytes which, through their draft on ground water,
deplete the ground-water reservoir and correspondingly reduce
the amount of water available to man. The transpirative draft
by phreatophytes is represented in the diagram as part of con-
sumptive waste. The effect of phreatophytes on the hydrology of
arid regions becomes apparent when it is realized that most
phreatophytes have a low economic value, are heavy users of
water, and occur for the most part on the floors of valleys and
the flood plains of streams, where ground water is readily avail-
able and where it can be utilized most effectively. Unlike the
soil water transpired by xerophytes, the ground water consump-
tively wasted by phreatophytes is available for recovery and use
(p. 25). Man, by reducing the consumptive waste in the area of
discharge, may salvage for his use an amount of water equal
to the reduction in waste.

P:LANTS CLASSIFIED AS PHREATOPHYTES

Meinzer (1927) lists the common names of about 50 phreato-
phytes of the desert regions of the country, together with the
scientific names of the species to which most of them belong.
This paper lists, in table 1 and in the discussion that follows, the
scientific names of 74 species or subspecies and about 100 com-
mon names that are applied to plants that are known to occur
as phreatophytes or which there is good evidence to class as
phreatophytes. The list is composed of perennial plants that grow
in the arid and semiarid regions of the Western United States.
No attempt was made to include plants of the Eastern United
States or of foreign countries, except as they may occur as phreato-
phytes in the Western United States also.
The list in table 1 represents our present-day knowledge of
phreatophytes, but as the plants listed by Meinzer (1927) have
been added to in this paper, so the list here may well be expanded
by future work. Additions may come from the group of grass
and grasslike plants, for the source of water used by some of the
plants in this group is not certain. Additions may come also from
exotic plants, as was the case with saltcedar (Tamarix gallica),
which up to 1927 apparently had not been recognized as a phreato-
phyte. This plant, imported from the Mediterranean region of
western Europe, was not mentioned by Meinzer in 1927, although
today it is widespread and presents a serious problem in the
river valleys of the Southwest.
 FACTORS AFFECTING OCCURRENCE 13

The plants have been listed in table 1 as phreatophytes on the

basis of observation and field work over a period of years by the
author in the Western United States. The list was supplemented
by examination of the literature on the subject and by sugges-
tions from workers in the fields of botany and hydrology.
The phreatophytes given in table 1 are listed alphabetically
by scientific name. Phreatophytes do not belong to any one family
of plants, but consist of many species belonging to different plant
families. As a group they do not have much similarity in occur-
rence, water use, environment, or habits. Their only common
characteristic under natural conditions is their typical dependence
on ground water.
SCIENTIFIC AND COMMON NAMES
In dealing with phreatophytes, as with any other group of
plants, the problem of names is always a vexing one. Scientific
names are necessary in order to be exact, and common names are
desirable in order to be understood by the layman. For the sake
of exactness and clarity, the scientific name and the common
name, when it is known, are given in table 1. A scientific name
applies to one species of plant and to no other. Unfortunately,
this is not true of common names. However, the use of common
names is widespread, and more people are familiar with them
than with scientific names. In fact, to those who do not have a
working knowledge of botany, scientific names mean little. Gen-
erally, too, common names are descriptive of the plant to which
they apply.
The common names used in this paper are those that have been
established through use and are generally accepted, although a
common name may refer to several species, or more than one
common name may be applied to the same species. Where more
than one common name is given, the first is the most generally
accepted. Others listed are not so generally used, or perhaps are
used only locally. For the convenience of the reader, a finding
index of the common names, as used in this paper, is provided
on page 76. The index gives the scientific name to which the
common name refers.
FACTORS AFFECTING OCCURRENCE
OF PHREATOPHYTES
Some phreatophytes are widespread; others are restricted to
certain regions or may occur only in small areas. Not all the
reasons for the differences in distribution are known, but, on
the basis of field observations, there appear to be three important
14 PHREATOPHYTES

factors that exert a controlling influence on the occurrence and

growth of phreatophytes. They are: climate, depth to the water
table (or capillary fringe), and quality of the ground water. The
character of the soil may be a fourth important factor in some
localities.
CLIMATE

Climatic factors, particularly temperature, effectively control

the occurrence of some species, whereas others are relatively un-
affected by them. Some phreatophytes, such as saltcedar (Tamarix
gallica), mesquite (Prosopis), and baccharis (Baccharis) , thrive
best in a warm climate; others, such as greasewood (Sarcobatiis
vermicukitus), prefer the cold desert areas. In general, saltcedar,
mesquite, and baccharis thrive best south of the 37th parallel
and below an altitude of about 5,000 feet; greasewood is seldom
found south of the 37th parallel except at high altitudes. Willow
(Salix), cottonwood (Populus), and saltgrass (Distichlis stricta),
on the other hand, have a wide range of climatic tolerance. They
grow from Canada to Mexico and at altitudes ranging from sea
level to about 8,000 feet.
The effect of climate on saltcedar is striking when the growth
and occurrence of the plant in Arizona or New Mexico is com-
pared with that in northern Nevada. Saltcedar plants several
years old, growing on the shores of Walker and Pyramid Lakes
in the Carson Sink, and in the vicinity of Carson City and Fallon,
Nev., (latitude 39 N. and altitude a little above 4,000 feet), are
not so aggressive nor do they exhibit the vigorous junglelike
growth that is so typical of the plant in the warm river valleys
of southern Arizona and New Mexico.
DEPTH TO WATER

As the root systems of some phreatophytes are capable of pene-

trating to a depth of several tens of feet, whereas those of others
are relatvely shallow, the depth to water is a controlling factor in
their occurrence. For example, desert saltgrass (Distichlis stricta)
generally grows where the depth to the water table is less than
8 feet, although it has been observed growing where the depth
was as much as 12 feet (Blaney, Taylor, Nickle, and Young,
1933, p. 50). Alfalfa (Medicago sativa), however, is a deep-
rooted plant whose roots have been traced to a depth of 66 feet,
and observed at a depth of 129 feet below the land surface
(Meinzer, 1927, p. 55). Mesquite and saltcedar also are deep
rooted. Plants capable of developing a deep-root system may grow
also where the water table is close to the surface. Typically shal-
 FACTORS AFFECTING OCCURRENCE 15

low-rooted plants, however, occur only in areas where the water

table is close to the surface.
Extensive studies have been made of the root systems of many
cultivated plants, but relatively little is known about the root
systems of phreatophytes. A general idea as to depth of root
penetration may be inferred from the depth to the water table
in the area where the plant is growing. However, this informa-
tion may not always be reliable, for it is possible that, where
the water table lies at great depth below the land surface, plants
having a deep and extensive root system may obtain their needed
water supply from moisture present in the huge volume of soil
and subsoil enveloped by the root system. It is thought that in
some localities mesquite with its deep root system may be grow-
ing under such conditions. On the other hand, the relation be-
tween the occurrence of cottonwood, greasewood, saltgrass, and
willow, and the depth to ground water is quite sensitive, and the
boundary between areas of growth and of no growth is gener-
ally sharp and distinct. An example of this condition occurs in
Paradise Valley and Meadow Valley Wash in Nevada (Loeltz,
Phoenix, and Robinson, 1949, p. 40 and pi. I; Phoenix, Harde-
man, Fox, and Miller, 1948, pi. 2).
QUALITY OF GROUND WATER

The quality of the ground water is a third controlling factor

in the occurrence of phreatophytes. Some phreatophytes grow
only where the dissolved solids content of the water is low, others
will grow only where it is high, and still others have a wide
range of salt tolerance. These last may grow where the salt con-
tent of the ground water is very low but are more commonly
observed growing in areas where it is moderate to high. This
apparent preference may be due entirely to the degree of com-
petition offered by other plants.
Willow and cottonwood are good examples of phreatophytes
that have a low salt tolerance. Generally, these plants occur in
headwater areas, along stream banks, and on the flood plains of
rivers (see fig. 28). Greasewood and saltcedar are examples of
plants having a wide range of salt tolerance. These plants may
be found associated with plants having a low salt tolerance but
more frequently they occur where the ground water has a mod-
erate to high salt content. They are also examples of plants that
have a high tolerance for certain mineral constituents in the
ground water. Greasewood, for example, grows well in areas
where the ground water is high in sodium carbonate, which forms
the so-called black alkali. In such areas, other phreatophytes gen-
16 PHREATOPHYTES

erally are not present or occur only sparsely. Saltcedar and salt-
grass grow well where the ground water is high in common salt
(sodium chloride).
Greasewood is widespread in the Great Basin. It commonly
occupies the lower parts of desert valleys and is nearly always
present in the vegetation surrounding playas. Saltcedar grows
in profusion on the flood plains in the lower reaches of rivers in
the Southwest. Relatively few phreatophytes grow only in areas
where the ground water is highly saline. Perhaps the best ex-
ample of a phreatophyte having a high salt tolerance is pickle-
weed (Allenrolfia occidentalis). This plant (fig. 22) is common
in the Great Basin, where it fringes barren playas of very alkaline
or saline soil.
In table 1, the salt tolerance of the various phreatophytes is
indicated in a general way by a numeral, 1, 2, or 3, denoting a
qualitative classfication of the type of the ground water used by
the plant. This classification is based on the correlation of chemi-
cal analyses of water from shallow wells and test holes in areas
occupied by different types of phreatophytes with observations
of the soil and occurrence and associations of vegetation in the
field. The water classes referred to by the numerals are those
used by Magistad and Christiansen (1944, p. 9) in classification
of standards for irrigation water, namely: (1) excellent to good,
suitable for most plants under most conditions; (2) good to in-
jurious, probably harmful to the most sensitive crops; (3) in-
jurious to unsatisfactory, probably harmful to most crops, and
unsatisfactory for all but the most tolerant. The classification is
not intended to apply to water used for domestic and industrial
purposes.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE USE OF GROUND WATER

BY PHREATOPHYTES
As described earlier, an individual phreatophytic plant may
be considered a pumping plant that obtains its supply of water
from the zone of saturation. Depending on the species and den-
sity of growth, there may be literally thousands of such pump-
ing plants on an acre of land. Throughout the growing season
these plants transpire ground water into the atmosphere. The
amount transpired varies with the species. Some species use large
amounts of ground water, whereas others use relatively small
amounts. The annual use for any given species varies with cli-
matic conditions, depth to water, density of growth, quality of the
ground water, and other factors dictated by local conditions.
 USE OF GROUND WATER BY PHREATOPHYTES 17
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS
Most of the elements of climate affect the use of ground water
by phreatophytes. Sunlight is, of course, necessary in the process
of photosynthesis, essential for plant growth. In addition to sun-
light, the elements of temperature, humidity, wind movement,
rainfall, length of growing season, daytime hours (which are a
measure of sunlight), and altitude influence the use of ground
water.
The element that exerts the greatest effect is temperature.
It not only controls the length of the growing season, but also
the rate of water use during the growing season. For example,
it was found in the lower Safford Valley, Ariz. (Gatewood and
others, 1950, p. 115) that transpiration by saltcedar practically
ceased in the fall when the monthly mean of daily maximum air
temperature became less than 73 F and began again in the spring
when the mean rose above 73. Use of water by the saltcedar
paralleled closely the seasonal changes in temperature, increas-
ing as the maximum air temperature increased, and decreasing
as the maximum air temperature decreased. As shown in figure

WATER LEVEL IN WELL T-6

r\ r\

TEMPERATURE AT GLENBAR EXPERIMENT STATION

FIGURE 6. Relation of water-table fluctuations due to transpiration by saltcedar to fluctuation

of relative humidity and temperature, in the Safford Valley, Ariz. The ground-
water level falls as transpiration increases and rises as it decreases. (After
Gatewood and others, 1950, fig. 41.)
 EXPLANATION 00

Evapotranspiration at Evaporation from

water-table depths Weather Bureau
of 3 ft, 2 ft, and 1 ft pan
/^
DURISEASON,
TAVERAGE
GROWI
THE
EMPERANTUGRE * - Owens Valley
*7
/ *7 ! J - Mesilla Dam
(Tl
2!
>4
OI
o01

DEGREES
FIN
AHRENHEIT ff:
A A A - Los Griegos
h - Santa Ana

/ /
// /
/ s - San Luis Valley

123
S 32468
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION DURING GROWING PERIOD, IN FEET EVAPOTRANSPI RATION AND EVAPORATION
DURING GROWING PERIOD, IN FEET
LOCATION AND PERIOD
Owens Valley, Calif........April to October 1911
Santa Ana, Calif........... May to April 1929-30, 1931-32
Escalante Valley, Utah... .May to October 1926-27
Los Griegos, N. Me*..... . .March to October 1926-27, 1927-28
San Luis Valley, Colo..... .April to October 1928, 1931
Carlsbad, N. Mex. ........ March to October 1940
Mesilla Dam, N. Mex...... March to October 1936-37
Isleta, N. Mex............ .March to October 1936-37

FIGURE 7. Relation of evapotranspiration of saltgrass grown in tanks to depth to water table and to the average temperature during the growing season.
 USE OF GROUND WATER BY PHREATOPHYTES 19

6, it also paralleled the daily changes in temperature in much the

same manner.
The effect of temperature on the seasonal use of water by
saltgrass is shown on the right-hand side of figure 7. This illustration,
based on experimental data at five locations in the western United
States where the average temperature during the growing season
ranged from 54 F in the San Luis Valley, Colo. to 70 F at Carlsbad,
N. Mex., shows a rapid increase in use with temperature.
The three curves show that for this 16 F rise in temperature
there was about a 100 percent increase in use. In other words, the
water requirement for saltgrass at 70 F is about twice that at 54 F.
It seems logical to assume that this general relation of increased
use of water to increase in temperature holds true for all phreato-
phytes. The temperature at which appreciable transpiration begins
and ceases probably varies with the species, and the ratio for the
increase in use with temperature also may not be the same for all
species.
The effect of humidity on the use of ground water is in reverse
order to that of temperature. The rate of use decreases as the relative
humidity increases, and increases as the relative humidity decreases
(fig. 6). Thus, other things being equal, the rate of use by a
species may be expected to be greater in arid regions than in semi-
arid or humid regions. A low relative humidity combined with a
high air temperature is conducive to a high rate of transpiration and,
hence, a high rate of use of ground water. As this combination is
usually found only in arid regions, it explains the higher rates of
ground-water use observed for phreatophytes growing in desert areas.
Wind movement is effective in increasing water use by keeping the
relative humidity low next to the plant leaves. This is accomplished
largely by a replacement of the air made humid by transpiration with
drier air from the adjacent desert areas. As a rule, in the Western
States, phreatophyte areas are surrounded by desert areas having
air of very low humidity.
The effect of rainfall in the growing season is to reduce the use of
ground water by phreatophytes. This effect was observed in tank
experiments with saltcedar in the Safford Valley, Ariz., and also
with alfalfa (White, 1932, p. 48-52, figs. 20-22) in the Escalante
Valley, Utah. In discussing the effect of rainfall White makes the
following statement:
It was found that rains at this [the growing] season have little or no
effect on the water table in plowed fields, in cleared lands, or in fields of
sagebrush, but usually are followed by an almost immediate rise of the water
table in saltgrass and marshgrass meadows, in willow thickets, and in fields
of alfalfa, greasewood, and rabbitbrush.
 CHARACTER OF DAY
Partly cloudy Partly cloudy

TEMPERATURE RANGE, IN DEGREES1 FAHRENHEIT

105-67 105-70 105-68

WIND MOVEMENTJN MILES PER DAY

EVAPORATION FROM STANDARD WEATHER BUREAU PAN, IN INCHES

0.304 0.442 I 0.317 0.456

RELATIVE HUMldlTY, IN PERCENT

44 I 40

n, 0.26 inch\ /--Rain, 0.66 inch

6.6
19 ' 20 24
JULY 1944

FIGURE 8. Effect of rainfall on water-table fluctuations due to transpiration by saltcedar. Meteorological data are from Glenbar Experiment Station, 1 miles
distant.
 USE OF GROUND WATER BY PHREATOPHYTES 21

In the Safford Valley experiments, it was observed that after light

to moderate rains which penetrated the soil only a few inches and
did not recharge the ground-water reservoir in the tanks, the draft
in the tanks was materially reduced for short periods. The reduction
in ground-water draft occurred also in the thickets of saltcedar, as
shown in figure 8.
It will be noted in figure 8 that before the 0.26 inch of rain on
July 17, the water level had been declining at the rate of about 0.01
to 0.02 foot per day. As a result of the rain the trend was reversed
and the water level rose slightly, as shown by the peak and the trough
for July 18. The substantial rain of 0.66 inch on July 18 and the
light shower of 0.09 inch on July 20 resulted in a rise in water level
of about 0.1 foot. That this rise was due to a reduction in draft by
the saltcedar from the ground water, rather than recharge from rain-
fall is indicated by observations of the depth of rainfall penetration
at the Glenbar, Ariz., Experiment Station, that follow. On July 18,
about 14 hours after the 0.26-inch rain, the depth of rainfall pene-
tration ranged from 0.08 to 0.20 foot and averaged 0.13 foot. On
July L9, about 16 hours after the 0.66-inch rain on July 18, the
depth of rainfall penetration ranged from 0.26 to 0.55 foot and aver-
aged 0.38 foot. It is apparent from the rainfall-penetration obser-
vations that there was no recharge to the water table, even after a
total of 0.92 inch of rain had fallen. In most places the line between
the rain-wetted soil and the dry soil beneath was sharp and distinct.
Although no observations of rainfall or rainfall penetration were
made at the site of well T-4, the indications are that they were almost
the same as at the Glenbar Experiment Station.
One explanation for the reduced draft of ground water may be
that the plant temporarily obtains part of its supply from the in-
creased soil moisture in the top few inches of soil wetted by the rain.
Another explanation may simply be a reduced rate of transpiration
resulting from the increase in humidity and decrease in temperature
that generally follow summer rains. The meteorological conditions on
July 19 tend to support this explanation. Very probably, both explan-
ations apply.
Other factors being equal, the use of ground water varies directly
with the length of the growing season and daytime hours (sunrise
to sunset). It is greatest when they are long and least when they are
short. Blaney (1952, p. 61-66) recognizes the effect of daytime hours
and adjusts for it in his formula for transferring consumptive-use
data from one area to another.
The effect of altitude on use of ground water is largely the result
of its effect on temperature and length of growing season. Both de-
22 PHREATOPHYTES

crease as the altitude increases, and hence use of water decreases with
altitude.
DEPTH TO WATER
The few data on the use of ground water by phreatophytes indicate
that at shallow depths the rate of use decreases as the depth to the
water table increases. The left side of figure 7 shows this conclusively
in the case of saltgrass for depths to 5 feet. In the case of saltcedar,
it has been demonstrated for depths to 7 feet (Gatewood, Robinson,
Colby, and others, 1950, p. 137). For depths greater than about 7
feet, the data are meager and not so conclusive. Nevertheless, this
relation is inferred to hold true at greater depths. This inference is
based largely on the field observation that as the depth to the water
increases, the plants become scattered and less vigorous, and gradu-
ally diminish in size until they cease to exist altogether. It seems
logical to attribute this decrease in vigor and size to a reduction in
the ability of the plant to obtain the water necessary for normal
growth.
In areas where the capillary fringe extends to the land surface,
ground water is discharged by evaporation from the soil and is also
transpired by phreatophytes. The two processes, evaporation and
transpiration, are closely associated, and it is difficult to determine
the quantity of water discharged by each. For this reason, the two
are commonly referred to as a single process, evapotranspiration.
According to Lee (1942, p. 290), the maximum rate of evaporation
occurs with a very shallow water table, decreases as the water table
declines, and becomes in effect zero after the water table drops to
such a depth that the capillary fringe does not reach the land surface.
As many of the data on water used by phreatophytes are actually
data on evapotranspiration, it is well to recognize that if the capillary
fringe extends to the land surface, the record of use represents both
evaporative and transpirative discharge, and if the capillary fringe
does not extend to the land surface, the data represents only trans-
pirative discharge. This explains the large difference in annual rate
of use reported for a species growing in an area where the water
table is shallow and the same species growing in an area where the
water table is deep. It illustrates also the unfeasibility of attempting
to apply water-use or evapotranspiration data for a shallow' water
table to an area having a deep water table, or vice-versa.
DENSITY OF GROWTH

The density of growth of phreatophytes, like that of other plants,

is not uniform. The number of plants per unit area may from place
to place vary from a few scattered plants to a dense junglelike forest.
 USE OF GROUND WATER BY PHREATOPHYTES 23

The height of the plant and the vertical depth of foliage also may
differ. These differences in areal and vertical density affect the quan-
tity of ground water transpired. In order to evaluate and compare
these differences of plant growth, the volume-density method was de-
veloped by the author during an investigation of the use of ground
water by phreatophytes in the Safford Valley, Ariz. (Gatewood and
others, 1950, p. 23-27). Volume-density is the product of areal den-
sity and vertical density, and the computation of it affords a method
of comparing on a standard basis one area of growth with another.
It affords also a means of applying to field conditions the data ob-
tained from tank experiments.
Density is measured against a growth so thick that any new growth
would cause an equivalent amount of old growth to become choked
out and die; this is maximum possible density, or 100 percent density.
Areal density is the number of plants in relation to the maximum
number possible, and vertical density relates the vertical depth of
foliage to the maximum possible. It was found in the Safford Valley
(Gatewood and others, 1950, p. 27) that the use of water by salt-
cedar, cottonwood, and baccharis varied directly with the volume
density. Thus, it is not sufficient to say that the annual use of water
by a certain species is a certain amount; conditions of growth must
also be specified. This may be done by describing the foliage in terms
of volume density expressed as a percentage.

QUALITY OF GROUND WATER

There is much evidence to indicate that the quality of water affects

plant growth and, hence, use of water. In general, plants grow less
and use less water as the dissolved-solids concentration of the water
increases. The explanation for this is found in the fact that a plant
in order to absorb soil water must have a tissue fluid of higher osmotic
pressure, and therefore of higher salt content, than the soil water.
Thus, plant growth is a function of the ratio of the osmotic pressure
of tissue fluid to that of soil water. This relation explains why water
of high salt concentration may be unavailable to a particular plant,
even though the soil is saturated and the plant needs moisture because
that plant is unable, without injury, to build up the salt content of its
fluid to the required density.. Also plants may be injured or their
growth retarded as a result of the toxic effect of salts in the solution
(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, U. S. Salinity Laboratory, 1954, p. 61).
According to the Salinity Laboratory,
The influence of excessive concentrations of specific salts on plant growth
is an extremely complex subject involving many fundamental principles of
plant nutrition.
24 PHREATOPHYTES

Toxicity of water to plants may be a matter of total concentration

of large concentrations of common salts, or of small concentrations
of particular substances such as boron.
Data obtained in the Safford Valley, Ariz. (Gatewood and others,
1950, p. 77) indicate that the quality of the ground water affected
the rate of transpiration of baccharis (Baccharis glutinosa). In gen-
eral it was found that plants were smaller and used less water as
the dissolved-solids concentration of the water increased. This obser-
vation is substantiated by experimental determinations on the influ-
ence of salts on cultivated crops at the U. S. Salinity Laboratory,
Riverside, Calif. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1946, p. 1-25). It was
found that some species had a greater tolerance for salt than others.
Although specific data are lacking, there is every reason to believe
that these experiments and observations apply to phreatophytes in
general.

SALVAGE OF GROUND WATER

The ground water used by most phreatophytes has a low beneficial
use so far as man is concerned. Although some phreatophytes have
ornamental value, furnish cover for game, or are useful to agri-
culture by providing erosion control, furnishing a limited amount of
browse, or serving as windbreaks, most of them have a low economic
value. Of the common phreatophytes, only alfalfa is an important
agricultural crop.
In referring to the water used by plants, the term "consumptive
use" has come into general acceptance to denote the quantity of water
evaporated or transpired from an area. It is considered synonymous
with the term "total evapotranspiration." The term "consumptive
use" makes no distinction as to the nature of the use but includes
the water used for the growing of cultivated crops as well as by the
uncultivated and native vegetation of forest and rangeland. Some
vegetation is essential for man's existence, but some other may bene-
fit him very little or not at all. In order to distinguish between these
conditions of use, the term "consumptive use" has been qualified by
the addition of the adjectives "beneficial" and "nonbeneficial." As a
result, the water used in the growing of cultivated crops and other
vegetation of high economic value is referred to as beneficial con-
sumptive use, and that used by weeds or noxious plants is designated
nonbeneficial consumptive use.
H. E. Thomas (1951, p. 217) has suggested the general term
"consumptive waste" to denote '"the water that returns to the atmos-
phere without benefiting man." When this term is restricted so that
it applies only to the water used by plant life, "consumptive waste"
 SALVAGE OF GROUND WATER 25

may then be applied to the water transpired by plants that have

very little utility for man. Used in this manner, the term becomes
the opposite of beneficial consumptive use and synonymous with non-
beneficial consumptive use. Under these conditions, consumptive
waste is that part of consumptive use that is without substantial
benefit to man, and it will be used to mean that in this paper. It is a
part of, rather than a complement to, "consumptive use" as that
term is broadly defined as synonymous with total evapotranspiration.
In describing the water used by phreatophytes, the term is very apt,
conveying a concept that is readily grasped by layman and scientist
alike.
Ground water that is consumptively wasted by phreatophytes is
available for salvage. Salvage, as applied to phreatophytes, is con-
verting consumptive waste of water to beneficial consumptive use.
The extent to which consumptively wasted ground water can be sal-
vaged will vary. In some localities it may be possible to effect 100-
percent salvage, but in others only a part of the water can be salvaged,
and under adverse conditions, none at all. The degree of salvage
undertaken or effected probably will depend largely on economics, for
in the final analysis salvage is an economic problem.
The water available for salvage in any area is equal to the total
water requirements of the nonbeneficial phreatophytes in the area.
In the arid western part of the United States, the amount of water
consumptively wasted by phreatophytes is very large. Estimates
based on incomplete data indicate that the area occupied by these
plants in the 17 Western States, the Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas,
Oklahoma, Texas, and States to their west, is nearly 16 million acres,
from which phreatophytes may discharge as much as 25 million
acre-feet of water into the atmosphere annually (Eobinson, 1952a,
p. 60). This amount of water is equivalent to about twice the average
annual flow of the Colorado Eiver at Lees Ferry, Ariz., or to about
75 percent of the total storage capacity of Lake Mead. The consump-
tive waste of this quantity of water in the arid and semiarid regions
of the West, where the demand for water is on the increase, empha-
sizes the importance of salvage.
The idea of salvage as applied to phreatophytes is relatively new,
and methods are largely in the experimental stage. The data avail-
able on methods of salvage are probably fewer than those on any
other phase of the phreatophyte problem. Much study is needed to
develop methods by which salvage can be accomplished economically.
Salvage may be effected in two ways: lowering the water table
beyond reach of phreatophytes by pumping or drainage and subse-
quently using this water economically; and by substituting plants
26 PHREATOPHYTES

of high economic value for nonbeneficial phreatophytes. Either oper-

ation requires a knowledge of the occurrence and habits of phreato-
phytes and their annual consumption of ground water.
To be effective, reducing consumptive waste by lowering the water
level should be rapid; otherwise, the roots and especially those of
the deep-rooted plants may keep pace with the declining water level
and keep the plants alive until the water table again becomes relative-
ly stable. Reduction of consumptive waste may be accomplished also
by intercepting ground water upgradient from the area of plant
discharge and diverting it to beneficial consumptive use. Conveying
the water of streams, especially the short mountain streams of the
West, through areas of riparian phreatophytes by means of pipes
or lined ditches also will reduce consumptive waste.
The method of increasing the efficiency of use through substitute
vegetation has tremendous possibilities. Developments ,in this field
have not been great, although some advances have been made. The
outstanding example is in the Escalante Valley, Utah, where alfalfa
was successfully substituted;, for an association of greasewood, rab-
bitbrush, and saltgrass (White, 1932). Before replacement vegeta-
tion can be planted, it is necessary to rid the area of existing vege-
tation. This is not always an easy task, especially where aggressive
and tenacious plants such as saltcedar grow. Two methods of clear-
ing have received considerable attention: cutting down or uprooting
the plants by mechanical means, and destroying the plants through
the use of chemical sprays. Considerably more information is needed
concerning the relative cost and effectiveness of these methods.
It may be possible to turn consumptive waste into beneficial con-
sumption by finding a use for wasteful phreatophytes. Such a meth-
od would be of particular value in areas where the dissolved-solids
content of the ground water is so high as to restrict its usefulness
for purposes other than growing the plants already present. A
possibility is the use of rabbitbrush as a source of rubber. (See
discussion, p. 55.) Also, saltcedar is known to contain tannins,
and mesquite is noted for the high quality of the charcoal that it
produces. These are some possibilities that could be studied, and
there are doubtless many others.

STATUS OF INFORMATION ON PHREATOPHYTES

The considerable amount of information concerning phreato-
phytes that has become available since Meinzer first introduced
the subject in 1927 is still not adequate for intelligent handling
of the problem. Little attention was focused on the effect of phreato-
phytes on the water supply in the Southwestern United States until
 STATUS OF INFORMATION ON PHREATOPHYTES 27

the early 1940's when increased supplies of water were needed to

meet the demands of World War II. Half of the references listed
on pages 78-82 were published after 1945.
The greatest advance has been made in determining the annual
use of water by different species. Information about common
phreatophytes such as saltcedar, greasewood, cottonwood, baccharis,
and willow are available for one or two areas, and about saltgrass
for several areas in the West. There are few data on the phreato-
phytes of the Eastern United States. Much more information is
needed even for the common phreatophytes, to say nothing of three
score others for which there are virtually no data on use of water.
Information on the relation of phreatophyte species to the depth
to the water table is scanty, and the available information fre-
quently is conflicting. It is known that some phreatophytes such as
saltcedar, mesquite, and alfalfa are deep rooted and that saltgrass
is shallow rooted, but there are few data on the limit to which
the roots will go in search of water. It has been inferred from
observation that the use of ground water by most species decreases
substantially beyond a depth of 7 feet, but there is little informa-
tion to sustain the inference.
Very little is known about the quality of water preferred by
most species of phreatophytes or the amount of dissolved solids they
can tolerate. It is known that certain plants, such as pickleweed,
have a high salt tolerance; others, like greasewood and saltgrass,
are less tolerant; and some, such as willow, grow only where the
ground water is low in dissolved solids. Also, very little is known
of the effect of mineralized ground water on plant growth or the
tolerance of any species for any particular mineral in the water.
With the exception of that of alfalfa, the known economic or
cultural value of most phreatophytes is low. In fact, many of them
aie considered harmful and so may be classified as weeds. It
should be pointed out, however, that little has. been done to deter-
mine whether phreatophytes have an economic value. Additional
information is needed regarding the value of the plants for food,
forage,1 browse,2 lumber, erosion control, windbreaks, and other
uses.
1 Vegetable food of any kind consumed by animals.
2 The tender shoots, twigs, and leaves of trees and shrubs often used and regarded as food
for cattle and other animals.
28 PHREATOPHYTES

RELATION OF PHREATOPHYTES TO FLOODS

AND SEDIMENTATION
Not all the problems concerning phreatophytes relate to water
supply; some relate to flood hazards. This is especially true of
saltcedar, and to a lesser extent of willow, baccharis, and other
densely growing riparian vegetation.
Saltcedar, an exotic plant introduced from western Europe, found
the southwestern part of the United States very much to its lik-
ing, growing prolifically and spreading rapidly throughout the
stream valleys. It is an aggressive and tenacious plant, which in
the stream valleys of the Southwest invades and chokes the nor-
mal overflow channels, greatly reducing their water-carrying capa-
city. As a result, in times of flood the water spreads over large
areas that normally would not be flooded, endangering lives and
damaging property.
The dense river-bottom growth of saltcedar, mesquite, and arrow-
weed in the 77-mile reach of the Gila and Salt Rivers between
Granite Reef and Gillespie Dam in Arizona is an example of a major
flood hazard posed by phreatophytes. The Corps of Engineers has
recommended the clearing and maintenance of a 2,000-foot-wide
channel along the entire distance. In addition to reducing the
flood hazard, this clearing would save an estimated 16,600 acre-feet
of ground water a year (Turner and Skibitske, 1952, p. 66).
Besides increasing the flood hazard, the damming or ponding
effect as a result of the dense growth reduces the velocity of the
floodwater. When, as is quite common, the sediment load of the
floodwater is high, there is deposition of sediment in the area of
phreatophyte infestation as a result of the lower velocity. Such
conditions exist along nearly all streams where there is saltcedar
infestation,^ but are particularly prevalent along the Gila and Salt
Rivers in Arizona and the Rio Grande and Pecos River in New
Mexico. In the Gila River Valley above the San Carlos reservoir,
the accentuated valley sedimentation resulting from a dense growth
of vegetation on the flood plain was noted by Eakin and Brown
(1939, p. 108). The phreatophytes responsible were largely salt-
cedar and baccharis. In 1954 the writer observed a deposit of silt 4
to 5 feet thick on the flood plain of the Gila River in an area
of dense saltcedar growth. This deposit, so far as could be deter-
mined, was formed by a single flood a few years earlier.
In the delta above Lake McMillan on the Pecos River, several
feet of silt may have been deposited as the result of saltcedar
growth. Eakin and Brown (1939, p. 17-18) have attributed the
marked decrease in the rate of silting of the reservoir since 1915
 RELATION TO FLOODS AND SEDIMENTATION 29

to the dense growth of saltcedar in this area. Before 1912, the

vegetation in the valley of the Pecos River above Lake McMillan
was largely low-growing saltgrass. In the fall of 1912, a few seed-
lings of saltcedar were observed on the mud flats at the head of
the reservoir. By 1915, these seedlings had grown to heights of 3
to 5 feet and, according to the National Resources Planning Board
(1942, p. 57), covered an area of 600 acres. The plants continued
to spread; by 1939 they were growing on 9,800 acres and by 1950
on 10,160 acres in the delta at the head of Lake McMillan (Pecos
River Commission, 1955, p. 10).
The general effect of this saltcedar growth on sediment deposi-
tion in the reservoir is shown by the following tabulation prepared
by Eakin and Brown (1939, p. 17).
Length of Total sediment Deposits per
Period period deposited year
(years) (acre-feet) (acre-feet)
1894-1904... ......... 10.42 18,000 1,730
1904-1910. ........... 6.42 10,000 1,560
1910-1915............ 4.58 13,400 2,920
1915-1925............ 10.00 3,500 350
1925-1932............ 7.00 1,500 215

The average rate of silting in the 21.42 years of record before

1915 was 1,933 acre-feet per year, as contrasted with 294 acre-
feet per year in the 17-year period after 1915. The increasing
effectiveness of the saltcedar in desilting the flood water is shown
by a decrease in the average yearly rate of silting from 350 acre-
feet in the 10-year period 1915-25 to 215 acre-feet in the 7-year
period 1925-32.
The desilting effect produced by the screen of saltcedar growth
suggests the possibility of using such a method of desilting to pro-
long the effective life of reservoirs. It must be pointed out, how-
ever, that such a method would have a high water cost. The
average streamflow depletion by saltcedar above Lake McMillan
in the 6-year period May 1934 to July 1940 has been computed
as 54,300 acre-feet per year (National Resources Planning Board,
1942, p. 56). This is nearly three times the average annual rate
of evaporation (19,100 acre-feet) from Lake McMillan and its
auxiliary diversion reservoir, Lake Avalon. The use of saltcedar
for desilting, then, evolves into a question of economics, that of
balancing the additional effective life of the reservoir against the
annual water use by the plants. A further consideration is the
question of whether the higher flood levels caused by the phreato-
phyte growth and the sedimentation can be tolerated.
30 PHREATOPHYTES

In order to reduce water losses resulting from inundation and

ponding caused by the sedimentation in the area of phreatophyte
growth, it has been found necessary to construct conveyance chan-
nels at the head of McMillan reservoir on the Pecos and Elephant
Butte reservoir on the Rio Grande.

PHREATOPHYTES IN WESTERN UNITED STATES

Those plants of the Western United States that are known to
occur as phreatophytes, or which, from available information, can
with good reason be classified as phreatophytes, are listed in
table 1. Some of the plants may not occur everywhere and at
all times as phreatophytes. For example, wirerush (Junius balticus)
may be found in some areas growing as a hydrophyte, with its
roots in water. Juniperus scopulorum, or Rocky Mountain juniper,
generally occurs in the mountains, where, if there is a water table,
it lies at great depth. However, the plant grows as a phreatophyte
in two areas of shallow water table in Nevada. The line between hy-
drophytes and phreatophytes, and phreatophytes and xerophytes, is
not sharp but appears rather to be a gradual transition. Thus, there
are some plants that may occur as both hydrophytes and phreato-
phytes, a large group that occur as true phreatophytes, and then a
group that may occur as both phreatophytes and xerophytes. The
fact that a phreatophyte may occur also as a hydrophyte or as a xero-
phyte is noted in the table, when this information is known.
The list of plants, including the available data on them as phreato-
phytes, is given alphabetically, by scientific name, in table 1. For
eight common phreatophytes, alfalfa, cottonwood, greasewood, pick-
leweed, rabbitbrush, saltcedar, saltgrass, and willows, there is
considerably more information than could be included in the table.
Discussions of these plants are given under separate headings, ac-
cording to genus, after table 1.
PHREATOPHYTES IN WESTERN UNITED STATES 31

S g o .S
< Pk
u a) a) .
o S5-S

^a

s -2
a e'
S be
co A!
 TABLE 1. Phreatophytes in Western United States CO
[The quality of the ground water with respect to its suitability for crop growth is indicated by numerals as follows: 1, excellent to good; 2, good to
to poor; 3, poor to unsatisfactory. The use of ground water, including precipitation, unless otherwise stated is presumed to be for a plant growth
of 100-percent volume density (Gatewood and others, 1950, p. 23-27)]

Relation to ground water

Depth to
water below
land Use (acre
Occurrence as a surface feet per
Scientific name Common name phreatophyte (feet) Quality acre) Remarks

Acacia greggii ................................. Catclaw, devilsclaw, Southern California to ................... Uses more water than mesquite (McGin-
A. Gray. una de gato. western Texas. nies and Arnold, 1939, p. 236). Forms
thickets along streams and washes.
Acer negundo .................................... Boxelder ..... Canada to Oklahoma and .................... Occurs in moist places and along streams,
Linnaeus. Arizona. chiefly in mountains. Observed in the
flood plain of the North Canadian River
near Oklahoma City, Okla. Widely used
as a shade tree.
Alhagi camelorum ....................... Camelthorn ........................ Arizona .................... Introduced into Southwestern United States
Fischer. from Asia Minor. Poor browse plant.
Observed growing as a phreatophyte
along Little Colorado River between Hoi-
brook and Winslow, Ariz., in localities
where the depth to water ranged from
4 to 6 ft. Aggressive and thicket form-
ing, root system deep and extensive
(Van Dersal, 1938, p. 45). (Fig. 9.)
Allenrolfea occidentalis ............ Pickleweed, iodine- California to western Texas. 1-20 ................... For additional information see page 49 and
(S. Watson) Kuntze. bush. figure 22.
Alnus ............................................................ AJder ......................................... 5.3 Occurs along streams, river bottom land,
and other wet sites. The use of 5.3 ft.
(Blaney and others 1933, p. 112) was
for the period May to October 1932 in
Coldwater Canyon, altitude 2,400 ft., San
Bernardino Mountains, Calif., where
alder constituted 82 percent of the vege-
tation.
Anemopsis californica ....... Yerba mansa ..... Southern California, south- Shallow Used by Pima Indians as a herbal remedy.
(Nuttall) Hooker and ern Nevada to Utah and Common in saline and wet lowlands.
Arnott. Texas.
Aster spinosus Spiny aster ............ Arizona ..................................................... Identified as phreatophyte in bottom land
Bentham. of lower Safford Valley, Ariz. (Gatewood
and others, 1950, p. 24).
Atriplex canescens Fourwing saltbush, South Dakota to Oregon, '8-62 1-2 Tolerates alkali. Valuable browse plant.
(Pursh) Nuttall. chamiso, chamiza. south to Mexico Useful in erosion control. Taproots 30-40 W
ft deep (Van Dersal, 1938, p. 65). May
not always occur as a phreatophyte.
(Fig. 21.) I
hastata .... Oregon and California to Occurs in saline soils, especially around
Linnaeus. Kansas and New Mexico. alkaline lakes, in salt marshes, and in a
H<
other water-soaked soils (Bidwell, and
Wooten, 1925, p. 9). a
Quailbrush, len- Southern Utah and Nevada 6-15 High tolerance for alkali and saline soil CQ
lentiformis ................. scale, Nevada to California and Sonora, (Benson and Darrow 1954, p. 121; ii
(Torrey) Watson. saltbush. Mexico. Magistad and Christiansen, 1944, p. 10). 2
Fair browse plant. Reaches height of 10
ft where water table is shallow (Kear-
ney and Peebles, 1951, p. 259).
Baccharis emoryi Emory baccharis ... Texas to southern Califor-
A. Gray. nia and southern Utah.
glutinosa ...... Batamote, seepwil- Colorado and Texas to 2-15 H.I Evapotranspiration for plants grown in
Persoon. low, watermotie, California and Mexico. tanks ranged from 10.3 ft with water d
waterwillow. level at 2 ft, to 4.6 ft with water level 2
of 6 ft. Safford Valley, Ariz. (Gatewood
ii
H
and others, 1950). (Fig. 10.)
sarothroides Broom baccharis, Southern California, Ari- Occurs along streams in draws, in canyon
A. Gray. desertbroom, zona, southwestern New bottoms and wet alkaline sites (Dayton,
rosinbrush. Mexico. 1931, p. 160).
sergiloides . Squaw baccharis, Arizona, southern Califor- Occurs as a phreatophyte in lower Safford
A. Gray. waterweed. nia, southern Nevada, Valley, Ariz. (Gatewood and others,
southwestern Utah. 1950).
viminea - Mulefat ............. . .. Southwestern Utah, south- Useful in erosion control.
Crandolle. ern California, Nevada,
Arizona.
CO
CO
 TABLE 1. Phreatophytes in Western United States Continued CO

Relation to ground water

Depth to
water below
land Use (acre
Occurrence as a surface feet per
Scientific name Common name phreatophyte (feet) Quality acre) Remarks

Bigelovia harttvegii, .............. Will grow in dry places but thrives where
probably Aplopappus ground water is within reach (Meinzer,
heterophyllus ......................... ........................ 1927, p. 31).
A. Gray.
Celtis reticulata ... ....................
Torrey. kom. ameter and 50 ft in height (Bryan,
1925). Usually occurs along streams.
Cercidium floridum ................ PHREATOPHYTES
Bentham. southeastern California. alluvial plains, grassland at sites where
ground water is plentiful (Judd, 1954, p.
3-9). (Fig. 14.)
To 50
Sweet. Nevada, Arizona, south- (Bryan, 1925).
ern California.
Chrysothamnus pumilus .... .... Rabbitbrush .................... Mud Lake. Idaho ..... .... .. ..... . ...................... ....................... For additional information see page 53.
(Nuttall).
nauseosus consimilis ... Rubber rabbitbrush. Nevada, Utah, Idaho, Wy- 2-3 .......................... For additional information see page 53.
( Greene). oming.
nauseosus graveolens . .......................... do ........................ Montana, Idaho, Utah, Ne- 2.5-15 2-3 .......................... Do.
(Nuttall). vada, New Mexico.
nauseosus mohavensis . .......................... do ....................... Northern California, 2-3 Do.
( Greene). Nevada.
nauseosus oreophilus .......................... do ....................... Wyoming, Colorado, Utah..... Do.
(A. Nelson).
nauseosus viridulus ..... . do ....................... Colorado to Oregon; Ne- Do.
vada, New Mexico.
Cowanin stansburiana Vanadium bush Arizona, Idaho, Utah ... .Used as an indicator of vanadium-uranium
(Torrey). deposits by prospectors in the Colorado
Plateau. Able to grow in highly mineral-
ized ground and to absorb large amounts
of uranium (Cannon, 1952). (See fig.
UA.)
42.85-2.35 Not everywhere a phreatophyte, but uses
(Linnaeus) Persoon. nia. ground water where it is available. Valu- W
able in erosion control and as forage. A
subtropical plant introduced from the
Old World, probably India.
Dalea spinosa ..................................... Smoketree, smoke- Southeastern California, ............. Its persistent occurrence in gravelly and
................................... ............................... ..........................
Gray. thorn. southwestern Arizona. sandy washes suggests it depends upon w
ground-water underflow and occurs as a 3
phreatophyte. (Fig. 12.) H
W
... Occurs as a phreatophyte in Pahsimeroi
Linnaeus. cinquefoil. spread in Oregon, Wash- Valley, Idaho (Meinzer, 1927, p. 60).
ington, Utah, Nevada Grows on subalpine meadows, along
and Arizona. streams, about cold springs in peaty,
sandy, or clayey loams. H
See pages 56-59.
(Linnaeus) Greene.
All Western States 2-14 1-3 ....................... Do. (Fig. 24.)
(Torrey) Rydberg. saltgrass. (Hitchcock, 1951 p. 178).
Fair forage. Killed by overgrazing. Ex-
Presl. New Mexico (Dayton, tensive root system. (Fig. 13.)
1940, p. G52).
triticoides ................. ... Western United States ............ .................................... 1-2 ........................ Good forage. Frequently cut for hay. Asso-
Buckley. ciated with giant wildrye along Humboldt
River, Nev. (Dayton, 1940, p. G50).
Eragrostis obtusiflora . .. Mexican saltgrass, Common locally in saline soil near Wilcox, H
(Fournier) Scribner. alkali lovegrass. southwestern New Mex- Ariz. (Kearney and Peebles, 1951, p.
87). Observed growing in Sulphur
Springs Valley, Ariz., where depth to
water table was from 4-15 ft (Meinzer,
1927, p. 23).
03
Or
 TABLE 1. Phreatophytes in Western United States Continued 03

Relation to ground water

Depth to
water below
land Use (acre
Occurrence as a surface feet per
Scientific name Common name phreatophyte (feet) Quality acre) Re-marks

Fraxinus velutina ... ..... . Velvet ash, Arizona Southwestern Utah, south- nyon tree ;
Torrey. ash, ern Nevada, California, restricted to areas with a permanent
Arizona, New Mexico, ground-water supply (Benson and Dar-
and western Texas. row, 1954, p. 273, 274). Pojmlar as a
shade tree in Arizona and California..
Hedysarum boreale ................. . Sweet vetch .................. Colorado, Utah ...................... .... Deep tap root (Dayton, 1940, p. W87).
Nuttall. Identified as a phreatophyte in Colorado
(Cannon, 1953). (Fig. 11B.)
0
o
Heliotropium curassavicum. Heliotrope, Chinese Southwestern Utah to Shallow 2 ..... High tolerance for alkali (Mendenhall, 1909,
Linnaeus. pusley. southern California. p. 20). Occurs on moist saline soil
(Kearney and Peebles, 1951, p. 710).
Hymenoclea monogyra Burrobush ........................ Western Texas to south- Shallow 1-2 .... Occurs largely along streams, washes, and
Torrey and Gray. ern California. in bottom lands; aggressive, often form-
ing thickets (Dayton, 1931, p. 154). Un-
palatable to livestock.
aalsola ................................... White burrobush .......... Utah to Arizona and ... Occurs in sandy desert.
Torrey and Gray. California.
Juglans microcarpa ........... Walnut, nogal, Arizona, New Mexico ... 2-20 Occurs along watercourses and washes;
Berlandier. butternut. intolerant of shade (Sudworth, 1934, p.
104). Deep tap root (Van Dersal, 1938,
p. 146).
Juncus balticus ................................. Wirerush, wiregrass... Western United States 57.8 Grows in wet sites where ground water is
Willdenow shallow, also in shallow ponds. Appears to
occur both as phreatophyte and hydro-
phyte. Deep root system. Fair to good
forage.
Juncus cooperi Desertrush ....................... Southern Utah to Califor- 2-3 Occurs on the margins of salt marshes
Engelmann. nia. and alkaline meadows, common in Death
Valley, Calif., along the edge of the
playa often associated with saltgrass.
(Fig. 20.)
Juniperus scopulorum? Rocky Mountain ju- Nevada .............................. 10 1-2 Occurs locally as a phreatophyte in White
niper; locally River and Spring Valleys, Nev. May be
"swampcedar." a hybrid between J. scopulorum and J. W
utahensis (Maxey and Eakin, 1949, p.
26).
Leptochloa fascicularis Sprangletop Western United States ............... .................................. 1-3 Occurs along ditches and in moist waste
(Lamarck) A. Gray. places, often in brackish marshes (Kear-
ney and Peebles, 1951, p. 123); most w
places in alkali plains (Tidestrom, 1925,
p. 83). Often invades rice fields (Davis,
1950, p. 31).
Medicago sativa .......... Alfalfa Western United States 4+ 1-2 See pages 59-61.
Linnaeus.
Phragmites communis Reed, giant reed- Western United States ........... 1-2 Occurs also as a hydrophyte in the shal- M
Trinius. grass, carrizo. low water of streams, lakes, ponds and CO
marshes. (Fig. 15.)
l-i
H
Picea engelmanni .......... Engelmann spruce ... Mountain areas of west- Requires a good water supply and depends
Parry. ern United States. upon ground water in many localities
(Meinzer, 1927, p. 63). Shallow root
system (Van Dersal, 1938, p. 185).
Platanus wrightii Arizona sycamore ...... Southern Arizona, south- Common along stream and rocky canyons,
Watson. eastern and southwestern in foothills and mountains, upper desert,
California, New Mexico. desert grassland, and oak woodland zones
(Little, 1950, p. 54). Valuable in ero-
sion control.
Pluchea sericea Arrowweed ........................ Texas to southern Utah '0-10 1-2 Occurs along streams and flood plains.
SM
Coville. and southern California. Abundant along lower reaches of Col- CO
orado River and tributaries. Meinzer
(1927, p. 77) suggests arrowweed may
grow where depth to water is 25 ft.
(Figs. 16 and 18.)
 TABLE 1. Phreatophytes in Western United States Continued CO
00

Relation to ground water

Depth to
water below
land Use (acre
Occurrence as a surface feet per
Scientific name Common name phreatophyte (feet) Quality acre) Remarks

Populus .................................... Cottonwood ....................... Western United States ....... 1-2 ....... ................ See pages 61-64 and figure 25.
tremuloides aurea Quaking aspen ............. Motintainous areas of 1 ........ ........... Considered a phreatophyte when it grows
Tidestrom. Western United States. along streams, around springs, and in
other wet areas. Shallow root system
(Van Dersal, 1938, p. 197). (Fig. 17.)
Prosopis juliflora Mesquite, honey Southern Kansas to south- 1-2 ........................ Extensive root development. Reported to
(Swartz.) mesquite. eastern California and penetrate 60 feet below surface (Kearney
w
Mexico. and Peebles, 1951, p. 402).
velutina ........ Velvet mesquite ....... Southern Arizona .................... 10+ 1-2 G3.3 Occurs in bottom lands. Extensive root S
Wooton. development. (Fig. 19.) o
T)
pubescens ... Screwbean Western Texas to southern Characteristic of bottom lands along des- W
Bentham. mesquite, tornillo. Nevada and southern ert streams and water holes of Mojave
California. and Colorado Deserts (Benson and Dar-
row, 1954, p. 178).
Quercus agrifoUa ..... California live oak . California 35 Occurrence related to depth to water table
Nee. (Meinzer, 1927, p. 63).
lobata . ................... Roble oak ................ ...... California 10-20 Do.
Nee.
Salicornia europaea Glasswort Frequently occurs in salt flats with salts
Linnaeus approximating 1.0 pertent of weight
of soil (Magistad and Christiansen, 1944,
P. 10).
rubra ......... .......... do Colorado, New Mexico, Some value as waterfowl feed. In Nevada
Linnaeus. Nevada, Utah. occurs along edges of channels draining
into playas.
utahensis .... do Utah Occurs on borders of salt lakes and alka-
Tidestrom. line places.
 PHREATOPHYTES IN WESTERN UNITED STATES 39

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02

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rSO
 TABLE 1. Phreatophytes in Western United States Continued
Relation to ground water
Depth to
water below
land Use (acre
Occurrence as a surface feet per Remarks
Scientific name Common name phreatophyte (feet) Quality acre)

Suaeda suffrutescens ..... when other forage is scarce,

Wntson. ico. Arizona ................................. Occurs on saline or saline-alkiili soils
with salt content in first foot as much as
3.2 percent (U. S. Dept. Agriculture,
1954, p. 58).
torreyana . Torrey seepweed, Eastern Oregon to New i4-15 Do.
Watson. iodineweed, ink- Mexico and California.
weed.
Tamarix aphytta .......... Athel tree ........................ Southwest 1-3 ....................... See pages 70-75 and figure 29.
Linnaeus.
gallica ................... Saltcedar, French ..do.. 1-3 ......................... See pages 70-75 and figs. 30, 31, and 32.
Linnaeus. tamarisk .......................
Washingtonia filifera Fan palm, Califor- Southern Arizona, Califor- 1-3 ......................... Highly tolerant to alkali. Generally grows
Wendland. nia palm .......... .. ..... nia, southeastern New where ground water is at shallow depth
Mexico. (Brown, 1923, p. 112).
1 Meinzer, 1927.
2 Average in Safford Valley, Ariz. (Gatewood and others, 1950).
8 Considerable for full development.
4 2.85 with 2-ft water level and 2.35 with 3-ft water level in tanks at San Bernardino, Calif. (Young and Blaney, 1942, p. 50).
5 7.8 with water level at 2 ft, Santa Ana, Calif. (Idem, p. 43-45).
6 Average in the Safford Valley, Ariz. (Gatewood and others, 1950, p. 195).
T 4.01 with 2.0 ft water level; 3.45 with 4.0 ft water level, Carlsbad, N. Mex. (Blaney and others, 1942).
 PHREATOPHYTES IN WESTERN UNITED STATES 41

FIGURE 11. "Vanadium bush" (A) and sweet vetch (B), which have a high toler-
ance for mineralized ground, are valuable as guides in the search for uranium-
vanadium ore deposits on the Colorado Plateau. The "vanadium bush" is able
to absorb large amounts of uranium. Photographs by Helen L. Cannon.
42 PHREATOPHYTES

FIGURE 12. Smoketrees (Dalea spinosa) in a gravel-filled wash north of Needles, Calif.
A typical occurrence of this ashy gray leafless shrub, whose branches all end in spines.
 PHREATOPHYTES IN WESTERN UNITED STATES 43

FIGURE 13. Giant wildrye (Elymus condensatus) near Rye Patch

Reservoir on the Humboldt River, Nev. The plant had reached
a height of 2.5 feet when the photograph was taken in mid-June.

FIGURE 14. Blue palo verde growing in Centennial Wash, Ariz. Two different species of
palo verde are native to Arizona: blue palo verde (Cercidium floridum) which is a
phreatophyte, and the foothill palo verde, (C. microphyllum) which is not. Photograph
by D. G. Metzger.
44 PHREATOPHYTES

FIGURE 15. Giant reedgrass (Phragmites communis), or carrizo as it is known in the

Southwest, growing in association with arrow-weed (left) along a ditch bank on the
flood plain of the Colorado River near Yuma, Ariz. Below, detail of giant reedgrass.
PHREATOPHYTES IN WESTERN UNITED STATES 45
46 PHREATOPHYTES

FIGURE 17. A grove of aspen (Populus tremvloides) marks

a spring and seep area in Clear Creek canyon, near Carson
City, Nev.

FIGURE 18. The "devil's corn field" near Stovepipe Wells in Death Valley National Monu-
ment, Calif., shows clumps of arrowweed in a sand dune area, the roots having been
partially exposed by wind erosion. The capillary fringe is at the land surface here.
PHREATOPHYTES IN WESTERN UNITED STATES 47

J
1 6?
~ ^SwUS^^;?1

s
.58 *
^

v .^

as g

"I O
48 PHREATOPHYTES

FIGURE 20. Desertrush (Juncus cooperi) in association with saltgrass (Distichlis stricta)
on edge of the playa about 5 miles north of Furnace Creek ranch, Death Valley, Calif.

21. Fourwing salt-bush (Atriplex canescens) growing in clumps along the channel
of Salt Creek about 3 miles west of Beatty Junction, Death Valley, Calif.
 EIGHT COMMON PHREATOPHYTES 49

SUMMARY OF INFORMATION CONCERNING

EIGHT COMMON PHREATOPHYTES
The information available for eight of the phreatophytes listed
in table 1 is more than could be included in the table. This informa-
tion is presented and discussed, by species, in the following pages.
ALLENROLFEA OCCIDENTALIS PICKLEWEED
Pickleweed, as mentioned earlier, is one of the most salt-tolerant
phreatophytes, actually appearing to thrive on soil of high salt
content. It is a succulent, almost leafless shrub (fig. 22) that occurs
along the fringes of salt lakes, flats, and playas and in moist
saline and alkaline areas. It occurs closely associated with salt-
grass and to a lesser extent with greasewood. However, at the inner
edge of saline areas, where the salt content of the soil may be too
great for saltgrass, pickleweed may be the only plant growing.
A typical occurrence of pickleweed associated with saltgrass grow-
ing on strongly saline land is shown on the margin of Great Salt
Lake in Utah in figure 22. Pickleweed is unpalatable to livestock
and is eaten only when other forage is lacking. The upper 3 feet
of soil in a pickleweed area generally has a salt content of more
than 1 percent frequently as high as 2.5 percent (Shantz and
Piemeisel, 1940, p. 39). In the Tularosa Basin, N. Mex., Meinzer
(1927, p. 81) found that, in 10 samples of soil from areas of
pickleweed, taken at depths of 1 to 6 feet, the total soluble solids
expressed as a percentage of the total dry soil by weight ranged
from a minimum of 1.75 to a maximum of 4.20, the sodium chloride
or common-salt content being 0.401 to 1.55. Assuming that the soil
has a specific gravity of 1.6, a porosity of 40 percent, and is satur-
ated, and that all the salts pass into solution, the soil moisture
will range in soluble solids from 70,000 to 170,000 parts per million
(ppm) and in common salt from 16,000 to 62,000 ppm.
During April 1953 the author collected a sample of soil in the
Malad Valley, Idaho, from a saline flat in which a sparse growth
of pickleweed was the 'only plant, and numerous crystals of com-
mon salt were observed on the surface of the soil. At the same
time, a soil sample was collected from an area of greasewood growth
about a hundred feet distant on the fringe of the saline flat. A com-
parison of the chemical analyses of the two samples given below
shows that the soil from the pickleweed area had a soluble-salt
content 55 times greater than that of the greasewood area, and the
chloride content was nearly 700 times greater.
50 PHREATOPHYTES

FIGURE 22. Pickleweed (AUenrolfea occidentalis) associated with saltgrass growing

on strongly saline soil on the margin of Great Salt Lake, near Hooper Hot Springs,
Utah. Fremont Island in the distance. Photograph by E. J. Brown. Below, detail
of its much-branched, fleshy, almost leafless stems.
 EIGHT COMMON PHREATOPHYTES 51

Chemical analyses of soil samples from a pickleweed and a greasewood

area, sec. 21, T. 15 S., R. 36 E., Malad Valley, Idaho
[Analyses by the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation]
Pickleweed area Greasewood area
Depth of sample inches__________________________ 0-4 1-3
Kind of soil______________________________ ___________________ Silty loam Sandy loam
pH (1:5 dilution) ___________ 8.4 9.7
Percent salt ___ _______ ___ _ __ _ _ ____. >3.0 .04
Saturation extract, in parts per
million except as indicated:
Conductivity micromhos ______ 95,600 1,200
7.5 8.9
Total dissolved solids . 75,400 1,350
Calcium - _ _____ _ _____ 288 8.4
1,700 6.3
S odium __ _ 23,000 279
Pota ssium __ 1,340 48
Bicarbonate_ 71 685
Carbonate____ 0 0
149 62
Chloride 41,600 60
Boron .59 1.7

Samples of plant tissue also were collected at the same time and
place from the leaf, branch, and root of the pickleweed and a
greasewood plant. The analytical results for the pickleweed plant
and soil sample are given below, and those for greasewood under
the discussion of that plant on page 69.
Chemical analysis of soil from pickleweed area and plant tissue
of pickleweed, Malad Valley, Idaho
[Analyses, by U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, in milligrams
per gram of soil or plant tissue]
Plant tissue
Constituents Soil Leaf Branch Boot
Calcium .................. 0.138 12.47 6.84 3.75
Magnesium ............... .816 7.94 6.64 6.39
Sodium ................... 11.027 20.42 30.36 25.93
Potassium ................ .641 3.11 7.14 6.80
Chloride ................. 19.987 9.94 37.75 26.64
Sulfate .................. .072 11.15 5.90 5.11
Boron .0003 .055 none tr

Although pickleweed has a high alkaline and saline tolerance, it

is not necessarily confined to areas where the ground water has a
high content of these constituents. Meinzer (1927, p. 80) reports
that in the Tularosa Basin, N. Mex., the dissolved solids in four
samples of ground water from areas where pickleweed was grow-
ing ranged from 1,670 to 5,500 ppm, and the chloride from 244
52 PHREATOPHYTES

to 1,130 ppm. One sample of ground water from the Big Smoky
Valley, Nev., had 4,040 parts ppm of dissolved solids and 1,360 ppm
of chloride. A chemical analysis of a sample of ground water col-
lected in July 1953 from an uncased well 22 feet deep in an area
of pickleweed growth, on the bed of China Lake (sec. 34 T.24 S.,
R.40 E.) in the desert area of southern California, had a conduc-
tance of 3,330 micromhos and dissolved solids of about 2,000 ppm.
The water level in the well stood 5.8 feet below the land sur-
face. A pure stand of pickleweed grew abundantly around the well.
Unfortunately, no sample of ground water was collected in the area
of pickleweed growth in Malad Valley nor samples of soil from the
area of pickleweed growth in China Lake, Calif., to provide a basis
for comparison of the quality of the soil and the ground water
at the two localities.
Some idea of the concentration of ground water in which pickle-
weed can grow is furnished by the following chemical analysis of
a sample of water collected in April 1957 at Badwater in Death
Valley, Calif.

Chemical analysis of ground water from a shallow pit in a seep area

of pickleweed growth at Badwater, Death Valley, Calif.
[Tarts per million except as indicated]
Conductivity micromhos ...................................... 33,600
Dissolved solids ................................................ 25,600
Calcium ...................................................... 946
Magnesium .................................................... 93
Sodium and potassium .......................................... "8,570
Carbonate .................................................... 0
Bicarbonate ................................................... 156
Sulfate ....................................................... 3,070
Chloride ................................................... .. 12,803
Percent sodium ................................................ 87
Density gram per milliliter .................................... 1.015
1 Calculated.

The concentration of this water, which is about two-thirds that

of sea water, shows that pickleweed has an extremely high tolerance
for alkaline and saline ground water. Pickleweed's wide range of
tolerance is indicated by the conductance of the water from Bad-
water which has ten times the concentration of that from China
Lake. In general, the presence of pickleweed in an area is an indi-
cation of ground water that is at shallow depth, that contains mod-
erate to high amounts of dissolved solids, especially common salt,
and that is probably unsuited for irrigation or domestic use.
 EIGHT COMMON PHREATOPHYTES 53

CHRYSOTHAMNTJS RABBITBRUSH
According to Dayton (1940, p. B.54), there are about 70 species
of the genus Chrysothamnus in western North America, to which
the name rabbitbrush is commonly applied. The shrub is very wide-
spread, extending from Canada to Mexico and from North Dakota
and western Nebraska to California, but is most abundant in the
Great Basin. The botanical name Chrysothamnus is derived from
two Greek roots, chrysos "golden" and tkamnos "a shrub." During
the flowering season, from late July to September, the plant is
rendered very conspicuous by the profusion of small golden yellow
flowers. Because of the similarity of color and size of its flowers,
rabbitbrush is often confused with goldenrod.
The genus is both phreatophytic and xerophytic, some species
occurring in the lowlands where they draw on the ground water,
but others on dry hillsides and slopes where it is apparent that
they have no association with the water table. So far as the writer
is aware, there has been no attempt to classify the various species
with respect to their association with the water table, but a study
of this is needed. Generally, a close association with the water table
is indicated where the growth of rabbitbrush is vigorous, luxurious,
and abundant (fig. 23). In the Great Basin, the phreatophytic spe-
cies are frequently found associated with greasewood and saltgrass,
particularly around playas and on the floors of desert valleys.
Only two species have been identified as phreatophytes. These
are Chrysothamnus nauseosus and C. pumilus. C. nauseosus has more
than 40 subspecies, or varieties (Hall, 1919, p. 181), but there is
evidence to classify only 5 of them as phreatophytes. These are
C. nauseosus consimilis (Greene), C. nauseosus graveolens (Nuttall),
C. nauseosus mohavensis (Greene), C. nauseosus oreophilus (A.
Nelson), and C. nauseosus viridulus. These forms, however are very
common and widespread, covering extensive areas in the Great
Basin. C. pumilus is reported as a phreatophyte from only one local-
ity, Mud Lake, Idaho (Stearns and others, 1939, p. 68).
The phreatophytic forms of Chrysothamnus nauseosus occur in
soil that ranges from lightly to moderately alkaline. From this it
is inferred that the quality of the ground water used by the plant
ranges from good to poor.
Data on the use of ground water by rabbitbrush are meager.
White (1932, p. 84) makes the following comment, based on his
work in the Escalante Valley, Utah:
Rabbitbrush is known to consume water. Wells put down during the in-
vestigation in fields of rabbitbrush invariably developed a daily water-table
fluctuation of considerable amplitude, and although no actual determination
was made of the amount of ground water used by rabbitbrush, the assump-
 en

FIGURE 23. Kabbitbrush, forming the predominant growth in a FIGURE 24. Saltgrass associated with greasewood growing near
large area of low-lying "land near Carson City, Nev. Average Battle Mountain, Nev. The light-colored materials on the ground
height about 3 feet. and plant stems are incrustations of white alkali.
 EIGHT COMMON PHREATOPHYTES 55

tion that it ordinarily consumes at least as much ground water as grease-

wood is believed to be safe.
The known uses of rabbitbrush are rather unimportant. Accord-
ing to Dayton (1940, p. B54), "Most species of Chrysothamnus
have little or no forage value . . . but a few rank as fair to good
forage for sheep and cattle." By virtue of their deep and exten-
sive root systems, they serve as impediments to wind and water
erosion. Indians obtained a yellow dye from the flowers and a green
dye from the inner bark.
During World War I, a rubber-plant survey of western North
America (Hall and Goodspeed, 1919) revealed that certain species
of Chrysathamnus nauseosus were a potential source of rubber.
The rubber, known as chrysil, is present within the individual cells
of the plant, and it is not a latex rubber. The highest rubber con-
tent in individual plants was found in two forms occurring as
phreatophytes. One, C. nauseosus consimilis, from near Gerlach,
Nev., contained 6.57 percent rubber and the other, C. nauseosus viri-
dulus, from Benton, Calif., contained 5.56 percent rubber. On the
basis of field studies and sampling it was estimated that the total
amount of rubber in rabbitbrush in all of the Western States was not
less than 300,000,000 pounds. The description of the plants and their
occurrence given in the estimate show that most of the rubber is
present in the forms that occur as phreatophytes in the alkaline
valley bottoms of the Great Basin and in the San Luis Valley of
Colorado. It is worthy of note also that, in general, the highest
rubber content was found in plants growing in alkaline soil, too
strong for the standard agricultural crops, and that the rubber-
producing kinds of rabbitbrush all have deep taproots with but few
main laterals.
In view of the high rubber content of the forms occurring as
phreatophytes, their preference for alkaline soils, and the exten-
sive areas occupied by them, it is apparent that they present a
unique opportunity for the salvage of ground water. Should the
production of chrysil become economically feasible, then much of
the ground water now considered wasted by phreatophytic rabbit-
brush would become of beneficial consumptive use in view of the
value of these plants for their rubber content. Furthermore, for
highest rubber content the plants would be grown on wasteland
land where the ground water is too alkaline for growing agricul-
tural crops. Irrigation and the attendant leveling of land and con-
struction of ditches would not be a problem, for the plants would
draw on ground water for their supply.
56 PHREATOPHYTES

DISTICHLIS SAI/TGRASS

The two principal species of the genus Distichlis in western

United States are spicata and stricta. D. spicata, known as seashore
saltgrass, is confined to low-lying lands adjacent to the ocean. It
is quite common in the saline soils of the lowlands of the San
Francisco Bay area. D. stricta, on the other hand, is widespread,
growing in all Western States. It is the saltgrass of the desert, and
is referred to as desert saltgrass or, usually, just saltgrass. There
has been much confusion concerning the two species, for in nearly
all the early reports and many of the more recent ones on desert
saltgrass cited in this paper, the plant has been referred to as
D. spicata. However, the description of the habitat and occurrence
of desert saltgrass by Chase (Hitchcock, 1951, p. 177-78) leaves
little doubt that in most cases the plants referred to as D. spicata
were in reality D. stricta.
Desert saltgrass is quite common in the Great Basin. Shantz and
Piemeisel (1940, p. 37) describe it as forming meadows in the low-
est parts of valleys between the greasewood-shadscale belt and the
pickleweed areas. It does not push out into the salt-encrusted flats
so far as pickleweed does. It is commonly associated with rabbit-
brush or greasewood (fig. 24), and also alkali sacaton. Saltgrass
is a shallow-rooted plant that is generally found where the depth
to the water table is less than 8 feet. However, as mentioned
earlier, it has been observed growing where the water table was
about 12 feet below the land surface (Blaney and others 1933,
p. 50).
In much of the area of saltgrass growth, the capillary fringe
extends to the land surface so that ground water evaporates di-
rectly from the soil. As a result, there is a concentration of alkali
salts at and near the surface. Depending upon the quality of the
ground water, the concentration of salts in some areas may be
small, but in others it may be sufficient to form a crust or an
efflorescence as shown in figure 24. According to the U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture (1954, p. 57), the soluble-salt content of
the 4-foot soil profile in a saltgrass area is usually high (0.8 to
2.0 percent), the highest content being found in the first foot.
Although saltgrass has a high tolerance for salt, it is not confined
to saline areas. It will grow where only small amounts of salt are
present.
Saltgrass makes fair forage, particularly when the leaves and
stems are green. At other times, the leaves are harsh and not
relished by livestock.
 EIGHT COMMON PHREATOPHYTES 57

More work has been done in determining the use of water by

saltgrass than has been done for any other phreatophyte. The
pioneer experiments were by Lee (1912) in the Owens Valley, Calif.
As the result of tank experiments, he found that the evapotran-
spiration discharge from 54.59 square miles of (salt) grass and
alkali lands where the depth to water did not exceed 8 feet was
equivalent to a continuous flow of 109 cfs or 2 cfs per square mile.
Experiments to determine the evapotranspirative discharge of salt-
grass grown in tanks have been conducted by different workers
under a wide range of conditions at nine localities in the western
United States. The depth to the water table in these experiments
has ranged from about 1/3 foot to nearly 5 feet; the altitude from
near sea level at Santa Ana, Calif., to more than 7,500 feet at
Garnett in the San Luis Valley, Colo.; and the temperature (see
fig. 7) from 54F to 70F. The location, period of record, depth
to water table, and evapotranspiration discharge for these experi-
ments are given in table 2.
The results shown in the tabulation are not always comparable,
for the periods of record differed considerably. Some of the periods
are for the year, some are for a full growing season, and some
are for a part of a growing season. In order to compare the re-
sults on as nearly a common basis as possible, the approximate
growing season for each locality was determined, and the records
that most nearly fit this period were selected. Using these records,
curves were drawn to show graphically (fig. 7) the relation of
evapotranspiration to depth to the water table, and to the average
temperature during the growing season. Considering1 that the data
were obtained by different workers in widely separated areas, and
under a variety of conditions, the relations are remarkably con-
sistent. Several relations are readily apparent from figure 7. Within
the limits of the curve on the left side of the figure, it may be seen
that the evapotranspiration decreases as the depth to the water
table increases. It may be seen also that, with the exception of the
San Luis Valley, the rate of decrease for the different locations
is fairly uniform. The much smaller rate of discharge in the San
Luis Valley appears to be due largely to the lower average tem-
perature during the growing season.
The relation of evapotranspiration and of evaporation to tem-
perature is shown on the right-hand side of the figure. The increase
of evapotranspiration with an increase in the average temperature
during the growing season is evident. The apparent lack of agree-
ment of the results from Los Griegos, N. Mex., may have been
the result of a poorly operating water-supply system. Blaney and
others, (1942, p. 117) note that difficulty was experienced in main-
58 PHREATOPHYTES

TABLE 2. Annual or seasonal evapotranspiration of water

by saltgrass grown in tanks
Depth to
water Use
Locality Period of record (feet) (feet) Remarks

CALIFORNIA

Owens Valley ............................ Jan. Dec. 1911 1.50 4.07 (Young and Blaney, 1942,
p. 126.)
Do .......... .............................Do ........................ 1.83 3.74 Do.
Do ............................... Do ... ... .. .. ...... 2.92 3.35 Do.
Do ................................ ......................................... Do ....................... 3.83 2.05 Do.
Do ................................ ......................................Do ....................... 4.92 1.12 Do.
Santa Ana .......................... May 1929 Apr. 1932 1.00 3.56 (Young and Blaney, 1942,
p. 44.)
Do ........................... ............... .............................Do ........................ 2.00 2.94 Do.
Do ................................ Do 3.00 1.98 Do.
Do ................................ ..........................................Do ...................... 4.00 1.11 Do.

COLORADO
San Luis Valley . .June Oct. 1927 .50 1.42 (Blaney and others, 1938,
p. 335, 336.)
Do ............................... ...........April Oct. 1928 .38 2.26 Do.
Do ............................... ........... ..May Oct. 1930 .33 2.26 Do.
Do ............................... ........... April Nov. 16, 1931 .28 2.31 Do.
Do .. ............ June Oct. 1927 1.25 1.49 Do.
Do ............................... ........... April Oct. 1928 1.17 1.98 Do.
Do ......................... ............ May Oct. 1930 .79 1.75 Do.
Do ............................ ............. April Nov. 16, 1931 .98 2.40 Do.
Do ...... .............June Oct. 1927 2.08 1.11 Do.
Do ....................... ... ... ........... April Oct. 1928 2.00 1.69 Do.
Do . ..... ......May Oct. 1930 1.92 1.57 Do.
Do ... ............ April Nov. 16, 1931 2.12 1.83 Do.
Do April Nov. 16, 1931 3.12 1.69 Do.

NEW MEXICO

Carlsbad . .Jan. Dec. 1940 2.00 4.52 (Blaney and others, 1942,
p. 210.)
Isleta .. . ...... . ...... ... .. .. June 1936 May 1937 .65 2.63 (Young and Blaney, 1942,
p. 93.)
Los Griegos ...................... Oct. 1926 Sept. 1927 .42 4.03 (Young and Blaney, 1942,
p. 126.)
Do ............................... ........... Oct. 1927 Sept. 1928 .50 3.87 Do.
Do ............................... ............. Oct. 1926 Sept. 1927 1.17 2.77 Do.
Do ........................ ...... ........ . .. Oct. 1927 Sept. 1928 1.33 2.93 Do.
Do .............................. ......... . Oct. 1926 Sept. 1927 2.08 1.51 Do.
Do .................... ....... .......... . Oct. 1927 Sept. 1928 1.17 3.32 Do.
Do ............ ............. .........................................Do ........................ 3.08 .84 Do.
Mesilla Dam .................... . ..... July 1936 June 1937 2.17 1.89 (Young and Blaney, 1942,
p. 99.)

UTAH

Escalante Valley .....................May Oct. 1926 2.58 1.60 (White, 1932, p. 100.)
Do ................ ..................... May Oct. 1927 1.94 2.26 Do.
Do .......................................................................Do ....................... 2.17 1.86 Do.
Vernal .............. ...................................April 14 Oct. 28, 1950 2.00 1.98 (Barrett and Milligan,
1953, p. 11.) Amount
does not represent a full
year of normal growth.
 EIGHT COMMON PHREATOPHYTES 59

taining a constant water level in the tanks. The effect of tem-

perature is more fully realized when it is recognized that the evapo-
transpiration in Owens Valley, average temperature 68F, for the
7-month period April through October is about 0.6 foot greater
than at Santa Ana, average temperature 61 F, for the 12-month
period May to April. The longer growing period at Santa Ana was
not sufficient to compensate for the higher temperature in Owens
Valley.
Comparison of rate of evaporation from a Weather Bureau pan
with rate of evapotranspiration in figure 7 shows that evaporation
was always greater. For a depth of 1 foot the evapotranspiration
ranged from 68 to 75 percent of the pan evaporation, and for depths
greater than 1 foot the ratio decreased correspondingly. This fact
is of value in estimating evapotranspiration discharge in saltgrass
areas, for, if the pan evaporation is known, at least an upper limit
can then be placed on the amount of the evapotranspiration, but
this tentative ratio needs much more study.
Saltgrass appears to be a phreatophyte that is well suited for
such a study, particularly in tank experiments. Because of this
and the pioneer work that has been done, saltgrass would be an
excellent plant for research on many phases of evapotranspiration.
MEDICAGO ALFALFA

The genus Medicago comprises about 50 species of herbs and

small shrubs and is a native of the Old World, probably the Medi-
terranean, Asia Minor, and the Caucasus Mountains (McKee, 1948,
p. 714). Medicago sativa, commonly called alfalfa, is by far the
most important species. Its first recorded introduction into the
United States was in 1739 in what is now Georgia, and its estab-
lishment as a crop began about 1850 along the Pacific Coast. It
soon became one of the most important hay and forage crops of
the Southwest, and later of all the Western States. Today alfalfa
is one of the most important forage crops in the United States
and is grown in every State.
In the arid Western States alfalfa is quite commonly, though
not always, grown as an irrigated crop, but in the humid Eastern
States irrigation generally is not necessary. The yield of alfalfa,
ranging from about li/2 to 5 tons per acre, is almost directly
proportional to the available moisture. The many varieties of alfalfa
combine to give it a wide range of climatic tolerance, so that it is
successfully grown in both the northern and southern parts of
the country, and in the high valleys of the mountains as well as
in the lowlands. It grows on a wide range of soils but prefers deep
loams; as a rule it does not thrive on acid soils (McKee, 1948,
60 PHREATOPHYTES

p. 715). Experiments at the United States Salinity Laboratory at

Riverside, Calif., show that alfalfa has a good to strong tolerance
for salt (U. S. Dept. Agriculture, 1946, p. 21). Magistad and
Christiansen (1944, p. 14) report that it will grow in soil con-
taining as much as 4,000 ppm of white alkali, but will tolerate only
a little sodium carbonate (black alkali). It does not thrive on poorly
drained soils or where the water table is less than about 4 feet
below the land surface.
Alfalfa is a deep-rooted plant and will send its roots to great
depth in search of ground water. Meinzer (1927, p. 54) cites three
reports of the roots of older plants being traced or reported at
depths of 65, 66, and 129 feet. The latter was in a mine tunnel
in Nevada, beneath an alfalfa field, where the roots came through
crevices in "rotten porphyry."
The available data on the use of water by alfalfa are largely
from tank experiments. White (1932, p. 99) found that at Mil-
ford, Utah, the use in the 1927 growing season, April through
October, was 2.58 feet, the depth to water in the tanks averaging
about 3 feet. At the Los Poblanos ranch near Albuquerque, N. Mex.,
the use of water was 3.7 feet with the water level in tanks at an
average depth of 4.5 feet, for the period April 15 to October 31,
1936 (Blaney and others, 1938, p. 373).
During 1948, in the course of consumptive-use studies in the
Colorado River area of Utah, two alfalfa tanks were installed at
the Vernal, Utah, airport. The tanks were operated during the
growing periods of 1948, 1949, and 1950. The soil column, 3.67
feet in length, was held in an inner tank, whose bottom and sides
were perforated. This tank was placed in an outer tank, about
3 inches greater in depth and in diameter. The soil column was
not saturated at its lower end through contact with a water table.
Instead, the soil column was saturated on the first of each month
and irrigated on the fifteenth of each month with enough water to
simulate irrigation conditions in the area. The use under these
conditions was probably less than it would have been with a water
table at a depth of 3.67 feet, that is, at the bottom of the soil
columns, for the reason that the plants did not necessarily have a
constant and unlimited supply of water at all times. The averages
of the two tanks for the 3 years were: for the growing period May
17 to October 6, 1948, 3.6 feet, for the growing period May 31 to
November 5, 1949, 2.5 feet, and for the growing period April 14
to October 27, 1950, 3.3 feet (Barrett and Milligan, 1953, p. 11).
A review of the characteristics, habits, and tolerances of alfalfa
indicate that it has great salvage potentialities through conversion
of consumptive waste of ground water to beneficial consumptive use.
 EIGHT COMMON PHREATOPHYTES 61

Its economic importance as a forage crop, its growth under a wide

range of climatic conditions, its tolerance to salts, and its deep
root system are factors that make it an ideal plant to substitute
for uneconomic phreatophytes. The successful substitution of alfalfa
for an association of "greasewood and weeds" in the Escalante
Valley, Utah, described by W. N. White (in Meinzer, 1927, p.
89-91) is evidence of its value as a salvage plant.
POPTJLUS COTTONWOOD

The genus Populus includes aspens, poplars, and cottonwoods.

According to Dayton (1940, p. Bill), approximately 15 species
and several varieties of Populus are native to the Western United
States. This discussion, however, is concerned primarily with cot-
tonwoods, although one species of poplar is included.
Cottonwood trees are widespread throughout the West, being rep-
resented in every Western State by one or more of Populus species;
it is the State tree of Kansas, Nebraska, and South Dakota. The
names, both scientific and common, and descriptions of the follow-
ing list of cottonwoods, including poplars, were taken largely from
Sudworth's excellent descriptive material (1934) for these trees in
the Rocky Mountain region.
Scientific name Common name
Populus acuminata Rydberg .......... Lance-leaf or smoothbark cottonwood
angustifolia James .............. Narrowleaf cottonwood
balsamifera Linneus ..... ........ Balsam poplar
deltoides Marsh ................. Eastern cottonwood
fremontii Watson ...... ......... Fremont cottonwood
sargentii Dode .................. Plains cottonwood
texana Sargent ................. Texas cottonwood
trichocarpa Torrey and Gray ..... Black cottonwood
weslizeni S. Watson ............. Valley cottonwood, Rio Grande
poplar, alamo

Even though specific data on the relation of the above-listed

species to the water table are lacking, it is believed that all of them
may be classified as phreatophytes. This belief is substantiated by
the available literature on the occurrence and habits of the trees.
All the species listed have one characteristic in common; they grow
along streams or on river bottom lands where ground water is
generally at shallow depth and readily available. At least two of
the species, Populus fremontii and P. weslizeni, are known to be
true phreatophytes (Meinzer, 1927, p. 58). Present-day informa-
tion indicates that, as phreatophytes, cottonwoods are much alike.
However, future work may show that there are differences in their
62 PHREATOPHYTES

annual water use, range in depth to water, or chemical quality of

the ground water or soil they prefer.
Some of the species listed are widespread in their occurrence;
others are quite local. There is also overlapping of species, so that
more than one species may be present in a locality. Populus del-
toides is a large tree of the Eastern United States that extends
west into the Plains States. In those States it occupies a belt extend-
ing from eastern North Dakota south to eastern Texas. Three cot-
tonwoods, P. angustifolia, P. sargentii, and P. acumenata, occur
in the Rocky Mountain region from Canada almost to Mexico,
P. angustifolia being the most widespread. P. sargentii extends east-
ward from the mountains into the plains of western Oklahoma,
Kansas, Nebraska, and South Dakota. P. iveslizeni also occurs in the
Rocky Mountain region, from central Colorado to Mexico. The
poplar P. balsamifera prefers the colder part of the Rocky Moun-
tain region from Colorado and Wyoming north to Canada. P. tri-
chocarpa grows largely along the Pacific coast in Oregon, Wash-
ington and California. P. texana is limited to the Panhandle and
central' part of Texas. P. fremontii occurs from western Texas to
Nevada, Arizona, and California. It is intolerant of shade, as are
most cottonwoods.
Measurements of consumptive use of water by cottonwoods and
willows growing in tanks along the San Luis Rey River, Calif., were
made by Muckel and Blaney in 1939-44 (1945, p. 54). The aver-
age annual use was 5.2 feet with the water table at 4 feet, and 8.1
feet with the water table at 3 feet. Density was 100 percent.
Although the trees were dormant during most of the winter months,
grass and weeds grew vigorously throughout the year.
As part of the detailed studies of the use of water by bottom-
land vegetation in the lower Safford Valley, Ariz., cottonwood
plants (P. fremontii) were grown in tanks. The use of water by
the plants during the period October 1, 1943, to September 22,
1944 (Gatewood and others, 1950, p. 138), at 100-percent den-
sity was 7.64 feet with the water table at 7.0 feet. In applying
the tank data to the areas of cottonwoods in the valley, it was
estimated that the annual use for 100-percent volume density was
6.0 feet, including 0.57 foot of precipitation. The water table in
the valley ranged in depth from 4 to 30 feet below the land surface.
Information as to the depth that cottonwood will send its roots
to the water table is scanty. Meinzer (1927, p. 58) quotes reports
of cottonwoods growing where the depth to water was 20 feet.
The writer has observed cottonwoods growing in areas where there
was reason to believe that the depth to the water table was be-
tween 25 and 30 feet. Thirty feet is believed to be near the limit.
EIGHT COMMON PHREATOPHYTES 63
64 PHREATOPHYTES

Cottonwoods prefer a water of good quality, although they tol-

erate a water of moderate salinity.
The principal use for cotton woods has been as shade trees (see
fig. 25). They furnish browse for livestock when the leaves are
within reach. The tree supplies lumber and veneer that is used
principally for boxes and crates and as a source for excelsior and
pulpwood.
SALIX WILLOW

There are about 250 species of willows, practically all native to

the North Temperate and Arctic Zones. According to Dayton (1931,
p. 15), at least 80 (perhaps considerably more) species occur
natively in the Far Western States. Willows are familiar to nearly
everyone, for they compose one of the most prominent groups of
woody plants that line the banks and flood plains of streams (fig.
28). They grow also in dense stands over moist bottom lands and
in mountain meadows. The willow growth on the flood plain of the
Humboldt River in Nevada is particularly outstanding. Because of
the many species of Salix and the difficulty of distinguishing among
them, generic reference will be made here except in the few in-
stances when specific data are available.
Most species of willows are believed to be phreatophytes, for they
are nearly always associated with moist situations. Sometimes they
grow "with their feet in the water," but this is not a normal con-
dition. General observations indicate that most of the willow growth
occurs where the depth to the water table is less than 15 feet. Most
willows prefer water of good quality and deep fertile soils. They
have a low tolerance for alkaline or saline conditions.
Although willows are widespread, there is a dearth of data on
the use of water by these plants. In the course of his investiga-
tions in the Escalante Valley, Utah, White (1932, p. 41) demon-
strated conclusively that willows were using ground water in that
area, but he made no determinations of the annual use. Daily water-
level fluctuations averaging about 0.3 foot were observed in August
1926 in a water-table well in a thicket of willows. The willows
(species not given) were "from 8 to 12 feet high and close to-
gether and apparently were putting on an abundance of woody
growth as well as foliage." The water table was between 5 and 6
feet below the land surface.
Data on use are available for two localities, Santa Ana, Calif.,
and Isleta, N. Mex. At Santa Ana, Calif., a single plant of red
willow (Salix laevigata) consisting of about 20 stems was trans-
planted to an isolated 6-foot-diameter tank 3 feet deep. The water
level was maintained at a depth of 2.0 feet. The total use of water
 EIGHT COMMON PHREATOPHYTES 65

^^_ - ^ :; ' ~ ^t _y . , _ j

FIGURE 26. An unusually luxuriant and tall growth of willows line the banks of Grapevine
Creek at Scotty's Castle (background) in Death Valley National Monument, Calif., amidst
nearly barren hills. Below, typical willow branch and leaves.
66 PHREATOPHYTES

in 11 of the 12 months from May 1930 through April 1931 was

4.4 feet (Blaney and others, 1933, p. 65). There were no observa-
tions of use during January 1931. The amount used probably is
high, because generally the use by an isolated plant is greater
than that in a thicket. In an isolated growth the effect of sunlight,
temperature, and wind movement on water use is greater than in
thicket growth where the conditions are such as to reduce the
effect of these factors.
At Isleta, N. Mex., a clump of willows 6 to 8 feet high was
transplanted to a 6-foot-diameter tank located in a thicket of the
same growth. The water level averaged about 13 inches below the
surface. The use of water in the 12 months from June 1936 through
May 1937 was 2.54 feet in depth for the area of the tank (Young
and Blaney, 1942, p. 93).
Young and Blaney (1942, p. 144) summarize the use of water
by willows as follows: "Willows usually grow where the roots ex-
tend into the ground-water region, and they appear to use the
approximate equivalent of evaporation from a free water surface.
Investigations with willows are limited, and this relation may vary
for different localities."
Willows are important in erosion control, through stabilizing the
soil on the banks of streams and gullies. They also form an im-
portant browse plant on the western ranges. In commerce their
chief use is in the manufacture of wicker baskets and furniture.
SARCOBATTJS GREASEWOOD

Grease wood (figs. 24 and 27) is probably more widespread and

covers more area than any other phreatophyte in the Western United
States. It occurs from Canada south to northern Arizona, and it
is the dominant phreatophyte of the Great Basin. It is primarily
a plant of the cold desert, and so does not thrive in the southern
deserts, except at altitudes above 5,000 feet. On the basis of Shantz
and Zon's natural vegetation map of the United States, Dayton
(1931, p. 2) reports that greasewood covers "19,551 square miles" or
about 12.5 million acres in the West. It may occur as pure stands, or,
as is quite common where the water table is shallow, in association
with two other phreatophytes, rabbitbrush and saltgrass. On higher
lands where the water table is at depths of about 10 to 50 feet, it
may be found in association with shadscale, rabbitbrush, or sage-
brush.
Greasewood is a deep-rooted plant. According to Meinzer (1927,
p. 41), greasewood was found growing in the Big Smoky Valley,
Nev., where the depth to water was as much as 33 feet; near Grand
View, Idaho, H. T. Stearns observed roots of greasewood pene-
EIGHT COMMON PHREATOPHYTES 67
68 PHREATOPHYTEb'

trating the roof of a tunnel 57 feet below the surface. Shantz and
Piemeisel (1940, p. 32) report that near Moab, Utah, along a creek
bank where the roots were exposed
.... a greasewood 6 feet tall had roots down 18 feet, a taproot 3 inches
in diameter down 6 feet and abundant feeding roots, some 10 feet long, at a
depth of 10 to 12 feet.
Although greasewood is a very salt- and alkali-tolerant plant,
it is not confined to saline or alkali soils. The range in soil salinity
is wide, from 0.05 to 1.6 percent or 500 to 16,000 ppm (U. S. Dept.
of Agriculture, 1954, p. 57).
Greasewood also has a wide range in tolerance to alkali, and,
although alkali is not necessary for its growth (Shantz and Piemeisel,
1940, p. 33), the plant is characteristic of black-alkali sites. The
physical properties of the soil occupied by greasewood have a con-
siderable range. Although it generally grows on fine-textured soils
of low permeability, it also inhabits light, sandy soils. It may be
seen in sand-dune areas where the ground water is at shallow depth.
Evidence for the wide range of tolerance of greasewood to the
soluble solids in both soil and ground water has been shown by
Meinzer (1927, p. 81, 82). Ten samples of ground water from
areas of greasewood growth in the Big Smoky Valley, Nev., had a
range in dissolved solids of 137 to 2,400 ppm, and in chloride of
4 to 501 ppm. The total soluble salts in 11 samples of soil from
the same valley, collected at depths of 1 to 6 feet, ranged from 0.81
to 2.19 percent of the total dry soil by weight. If the specific gravity
of the soil is about 1.6 and the porosity about 40 percent, the soil
extract would range from about 30,000 to about 90,000 ppm in
dissolved salts.
A sample of soil from an area of greasewood growing on the
fringe of a saline flat in which there was a sparse growth of pickle-
weed was collected in April 1953 in the Malad Valley, Idaho. For
comparative purposes a sample of soil from the area of pickleweed
growth was collected at the same time. The chemical analyses of
these two samples of soil are given on page 51. On the basis of the
analysis, the soil of the greasewood area may be considered a
"black-alkali" soil, and that of the pickleweed area a "saline" soil.
Samples of plant tissue for chemical analysis were collected from
both the greasewood and the pickleweed (p. 51) plants at the same
time and place as the soil samples. The analytical results for the
greasewood plant tissue and for the soil sample on a comparative
basis are given below.
 EIGHT COMMON PHREATOPHYTES 69

Chemical analysis of soil from greasewood area and plant

tissue of greasewood, Malad Valley, Idaho
[Analysis, by U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, in milligrams per gram of soil or plant tissue]
Plant tissue
Constituent Soil Leaf Stem Branch Root
Calcium ___.________ 0.0034 9.21 8.06 4.74 8.81
Magnesium _._ ____ .0026 3.16 1.03 .69 .58
Sodium .___________ .1120 69.54 5.29 1.46 1.89
Potassium _ ___...__.._ .0192 29.15 8.21 2.54 3.24
Chloride _._.________ .0238 20.53 2.05 .10 1.16
Sulfate ____________ .0250 10.49 4.22 4.53 8.52
Boron _ _ ____ _______- .0007 .005 none .02 .005

Data on the use of ground water by greasewood are meager. The

only tank experiments of record were made by W. N. White (1932)
in the Escalante Valley, Utah. One tank was operated from June
to October 1926 and May to October 1927. The record for 1926 was
not considered representative, owing to the shock of transplanting
to the tank in April and to the fact that the record covered only a
part of the growing season. In the 1927 growing season, the evapo-
transpiration discharge including rainfall was 2.47 feet and ex-
cluding rainfall was 2.10 feet (White, 1932, p. 100) with a water
table between 1.25 and 2.5 feet below the surface of the tank. As
this tank was isolated (White, 1932, pi. 8B), the use likely was
higher than if the tank had been in a natural environment of grease-
wood. The seasonal use of ground water computed from the diurnal
fluctuations of water levels in greasewood and greasewood shadscale
tracts where the water table stood 5 to 10 feet below the land surface
ranged from 0.08 to 0.38 foot. It is difficult to make comparisons
between the results of the tank experiment and the results based
on diurnal fluctuations. The higher values for the tank experiment
may be due in part to the isolation of the tank and in part to the
shallower depth to the water table. A difference in the density and
vigor of the growth in the tank and around the wells also would
affect the use of water, for, as shown by Gatewood and others
(1950), the use varies directly with the growth density.
Dayton (1931, p. 39) rates greasewood as an important range
browse, although cautioning that, if stock eat too much of it, poison-
ing may result from the large concentration of oxalate in the edible
parts of the plant. Greasewood is of value in erosion control, for
in some places on the desert it is the only plant that will grow.
In sand dune areas where the water table is near the surface, grease-
wood, usually growing in clumps, has a stabilizing effect.
70 PHREATOPHYTES

TAMARIX SAI/TCEDAR
Tamarix gallica, tamarisk, or saltcedar, is a plant native to west-
ern Europe, the Mediterranean region, and western Asia, and was
introduced into this country before the turn of the century. Accord-
ing to Bowser (1957, p. 3-5) introduction of the plants into North
America is not of firm record. He reports that,
The first reliable herbarium record indicates that a collection of Tamarix
was made by J. F. Joor in 1884 on the San Jacinto River, Harris County,
Texas, and at that time the species was naturalized completely in that area.
In 1877 a specimen identified as Tamarix gallica was collected in Fairmont
Park, Philadelphia. Heller and Hapeman collected specimens of this species
along the ocean near Corpus Christi and Galveston, Texas in 1894, but other
collections of the species were made only infrequently until 1915. After that
widespread collections of tamarisk were made in the tributaries to most drain-
age channels throughout southwestern United States indicating that the
plants were then established widely in the plant communities. Complete in-
vasion of these nonende^ic plants now is evidenced along many natural water
courses.
According to Dodge (1951, p. 71), eight species of the genus were
introduced by the Department of Agriculture between 1899 and
1915. There is other evidence to indicate that other plants of the
genus, species unknown, found their way into this country at a
much earlier date. For example, in the historical novel "Death
Comes for the Archbishop," the author, Willa Gather, notes on
page 228 "old, old tamarisks, with twisted trunks," in the Bishop's
garden in Sante Fe. The time of the observations is placed about
May 1859. There are between 60 and 75 species throughout the
world, of which it is estimated that 40 may occur in the United
States. Of these, only two species, T. aphylla and T. gallica (the
latter also referred to as T. pentandra), appear to be important as
phreatophytes. Both appear to thrive best in the arid regions south
of the 37th parallel and below an altitude of 5,000 feet in the
southwestern United States.
Tamarix aphylla, commonly known as the athel tree, is the less
aggressive of the two. It is a rapid grower and makes a fine shade
tree in areas where other trees cannot exist because of saline con-
ditions, and also is much used for hedges and windbreaks in the
Southwest. It has been observed to reach heights of more than 40
feet (fig. 29). The species is not known to reproduce by seed
(Bowser, 1957, p. 4) and, consequently, the plant does not create
the problem of spreading into areas where it is not desired. It differs
from T. gallica also in that it is not deciduous but retains its leaves
and remains green throughout the year. In other respects, it is
much like T. gallica, for it appears to thrive best under arid or
semiarid conditions, has a high tolerance to saline or alkali soil
EIGHT COMMON PHREATOPHYTES 71

e" H
r
72 PHREATOPHYTES

FIGURE 30. A dense and vigorous growth of saltcedar (Tamaria gaUica) lines the banks
along the dry (April 1954) bed of the Gila River in the Safford Valley, Ariz. This
phreatophyte, which infests most stream valleys of the Southwest, is the heaviest known
user of ground water. Below, the small delicate fronds that are shed in autumn.
 EIGHT COMMON FHREATOPHYTES 73

FIGURE 31. Saltcedar encroachment along the Pecos River about 35 miles up-
stream from Koswell, N. Mex. In 1953, saltcedar was growing on about 41,000
acres along the Pecos River in New Mexico. Photograph courtesy of Pecos
River Commission, 1954.

FIGURE 32. A vigorous growth of saltcedar along the bank of the Little Colorado River
near Holbrook, Ariz. Reports indicate that this growth has taken place since about 1940.
74 PHREATOPHYTES

and water, and, when growing under natural conditions, sends its
roots to the water table. No data are available on the use of ground
water by T. aphylla, although it has generally been regarded as
about the same as that by T. gallica.
Tamarix gallica (figs. 30-32), sometimes called French tamarisk
but more commonly known as saltcedar, is an aggressive, natural-
izing, and spreading shrub that is native from western Europe to
the Himalaya Mountains. Since its introduction into this country,
it has spread rapidly and has infested large areas of river bottom
and low-lying ground in Arizona, southern California, New Mexico,
and Texas. It is a prolific seeder. One small plant has been estimated
to bear over 600,000 seeds (Bowser, 1957, p. 6), and the seeds,
being light, are readily disseminated by the wind. The seeds germin-
ate rapidly, and, once established, the plant grows rapidly, usually
at the expense of other vegetation. An example of the speed and
aggressiveness with which the plant spreads is furnished by the
record of its infestation along the Pecos River between Santa Rosa,
N. Mex., and the Texas State line. Records indicate that before 1912
there were no saltcedars in the Pecos River basin. The first reports
of a few seedlings were in 1912 in the McMillan Delta (Eakin and
Brown, 1939, p. 11-18). These spread until, in 1915, they covered
about 600 acres (National Resources Planning Board, 1942, p. 57).
The plants continued to spread, not only in the delta but also up
and down stream (fig. 31), so that in 1925 they covered 12,300
acres and in 1939, 13,000 acres. In 1950, the Pecos River Commis-
sion, from an aerial survey, found that between the Alamogordo
Reservoir and the New Mexico-Texas State line saltcedar covered
a total of 31,820 acres, and by 1953, an estimated 36,270 acres
(Pecos River Commission, 1955, p. 9-10). Nearly 5,000 acres at
the head of Alamogordo Reservoir was not included in the 1953
estimate, so that the total for the Pecos River Valley in New Mexico
is about 41,000 acres. The average rate of spread, from 1912, when
the first seedlings were observed, to 1953 was about 1,000 acres
per year, but for the period 1950-53, excluding the area at the head
of Alamogordo Reservoir, the average rate was about 1,500 acres
per year. This is an increase of 50 percent in the rate of spread
over the 41-year average. Such a rate of spread cannot continue
indefinitely, for eventually a saturation point will be reached. It
does, however, serve to show the aggressive nature of the plant.
Perhaps even more significant is the increase in the area of dense
saltcedar growth. In 1939, the area of dense growth was only 490
acres, but in 1950 it amounted to more than 7,715 acres (Pecos
River Commission, 1955, p. 10), an average increase of nearly 660
acres per year.
 EIGHT COMMON PHREATOPHYTES 75

Tamarix gallica* is without doubt the outstanding problem phrea-

tophyte of the Southwest because of its aggressive nature and thirst
for water. Use of ground water by this plant, at optimum volume-
density, is among the highest, if not the highest, of any of the
phreatophytes. Data on the use of ground water are available from
studies on the Pecos River in New Mexico and the Gila River in
Arizona. At Carlsbad, N. Mex., the average use of water during the
period January to December 1940 by saltcedar grown in tanks with
a 2-foot water level was 5.48 feet, and with a 4-foot water level,
4.68 feet (Blaney and others, 1942, p. 202).
The estimate of average annual use of water by saltcedar in the
Carlsbad area of the Pecos River Valley, N. Mex., was 6.0 feet,
including an average annual precipitation of 1.0 foot (Natl. Res.
Plan. Board, 1942, p. 55).
Intensive studies on the use of water by saltcedar in the Safford
Valley of the Gila River, Ariz., during 1943 and 1944 gave the
following results:
From tank experiments at 100-percent volume-density, not in-
cluding precipitation (Gatewood and others, 1950, p. 137) :
Average depth
Use, to water level,
in feet in feet
9.17 __________________ 4.0
8.42 _____________ 5.0
7.75 _._________-__- 6.0
7.33 ___________ 7.0
7(?) ..__.__._...........__.._.._ 8.0

Calculated from the diurnal fluctuations of water levels in wells

located in thickets of saltcedar, the use of water was 6.03 feet at
100 percent volume density, not including precipitation, based on the
average of 8 wells whose water level ranged from 3.8 feet to 8.5
feet below the land surface and averaged about 6.3 feet (Gatewood
and others, 1950, p. 152-53).
Saltcedar is capable of sending its roots to considerable depth in
search of water. Tamarisk roots (species unknown) penetrating to
a depth of 30 meters (nearly 100 feet) were observed in excavations
for the Suez Canal (Renner, 1915).
The uses of Tamarix gallica appear to be few. The wood is re-
ported to make good fenceposts and the flowers are a source of
honey. The plant is also high in tannins.
3 Early references to the widespread deciduous species of saltcedar list it as Tamarix
gallica. Recently a question has arisen as to whether it is T. gallica or T. pentandra. Except
for minute floral differences the two plants are similar. The original name T. gallica, is
retained here.
76 PHREATOPHYTES

FINDING INDEX FOR COMMON NAMES

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME
Alder _..........__.....-..._......................_... ................................... Alnus
Alfalfa ............................................................................................ Medicago sativa Linnaeus
Arrowweed ....._...._..............._............................................... Pluchea sericea Coville
Ash, Arizona .................................................._....._........ Fraxinus velutina Torrey
Ash, velvet ................................................................................. Fraxinus velutina Torrey
Aspen, quaking ......................_._....................._....... Populus tremuloides aurea Tidestrom
Aster, spiny ........................................................................... Aster spinosus Bentham
Athel tree .................................................................................. Tamarix aphylla Linnaeus
Baccharis, broom ................._........................................ Baccharis sarothroides A. Gray
Baccharis, emory .............................. ............................. Baccharis emoryi A. Gray
Baccharis, squaw ....................................................._........ Baccharis sergiloides A. Gray
Batamote .......................................................... .................... Baccharis glwtinosa Persoon
Bermuda grass _................................_................_....... Cynodon dactylon (Linnaeus) Persoon
Boxelder .............................. ..................................... .......... Acer negundo Linnaeus
Buffaloberry ........................................................................ Shepherdia
Burrobush .................................................................... . HymenocJea monogyra Torrey and Gray
Burrobush, white .............._..._...._..........._.__..._.._.... Hymenoclea salsola Torrey and Gray
Butternut ....................... ......................................... .......... Juglans micorcarpa Berlandier
Carrizo ... ............. .......... ......................................... Phragmites communis Trinius
Catclaw ........................................................................................ Acacia greggii A. Gray
Camelthorn . .... ............ ............... ...... ..................... Alhagi camelorum Fischer
Chamiso ....._................................................................................ Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nuttall
Chamiza ................................................................................... Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nuttall
Cinquefoil, bush or shrubby ................................... Dasiphora fruticosa Linnaeus
Cottonwood ....__............................_...................................... Populus
Cumaru ...................................................................................... Celtis reticulata Torrey
Desertbroom ................. ................._._._._.___........... Baccharis sarothroides A. Gray
Desertrush ................................................................................. Juncus cooperi Engelmann
Desertwillow ............................................................................. Chilopsis linearis Sweet
Devilsclaw ...................._._...._...._......................................... Acacia greggii A. Gray
Elder .................................................................................................. Sambucus
Elderberry ........................................._..................................... Sambucus
Glasswort ................................................................................... Salicornia europaea Linnaeus
Do. ............................................. ........................................ rubra Linnaeus
Do. ............................................................................................ utahensis Tidestrom
Goldenrod, rayless ................... .................................. Aplopappus heterophyllus A. Gray
Greasewood, big ................................... ........................ Sarcobatus vermiculatus (Hook) Torrey
Hackberry ........................................................................... Celtis reticulata Torrey
Heliotrope ............................................................................... Heliotropium curassavicum Linnaeus
Inkweed __.._.........._......................................................... Suaeda torreyuna Watson
lodinebush .................... .............. ................................. Allenrolfea occide-ntalis (Watson) Kuntze
lodineweed ........................................................................... Suaeda torreyana Watson
Juniper, Rocky Mountain ....................................... Juniperus scopulorum
(locally "swampcedar")
Kom ................................................................................................ Celtis reticulata Torrey
Lenscale ..... ..............................................................._.............. Atriplex lentiformis (Torrey) Watson
Lovegrass, alkali ............................................................... Eragrostis obtusiflora (Fournier) Scribner
Mesquite _..._...._..._..........._................................................ Prosopis juliflora (Swartz)
Mesquite, honey ............... ........ .................................. Prosopis juliflora (Swartz)
Mesquite, screwbean ..._........_...._................................ Prosopis pubescens Bentham
Mesquite, velvet ............... .............................................._ Prosopis velutina Wooton
Mulefat ................................... .................................................... Baccharis viminea Crandolle
Nogal ................................................................................................ Juglans microcarpa Berlandier
Oak, California live ............................................_........ Quercus agrifolia Nee
Oak, Roble ................................................................................. Quercus lobata Nee
Palo verde, blue ___................_..........____ Cercidium floridum Bentham
Palm, California .........................................._......__ Washingtonia filifera Wendland
Palm, fan _...___________________ Wttshingtonia fUifera Wendland
 FINDING INDEX FOR COMMON NAMES 77

COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME

Pickleweed ................................................................................ Allenrolfea occidentalis (S. Watson) Kuntze
Purslane, lowland ........ ................................................... Sesuvium portulocostrum
Pusley, Chinese .............................................._.................... Heliotropium curvassavicum Linnaeus
Quailbrush ....................................................................... Atriplex lentiformis (Torrey) Watson
Rabbitbrush .................. . . .................................................. Chrysothamnus pumilus (Nuttall)
Rabbitbrush, rubber ...._........................____.. Chrysothamnus nauseosus
Do. .......................................................................................... nauseosua var. consimilis (G'reene)
Do. ........................................................... .......................... var. graveolens (Nuttall)
Do. ............................................................................................. var. mohavensis (Greene)
Do. .............................................................. ......................... var. oreophttus (A. Nelson)
Do. ............................................................................................ var. viridulus
Reed .................................................................................................. Phragmites communis Trinius
Reedgrass, giant ....._.......................................................... Phragmites communis Trinius
Rosinbrush ................................................................................ Baccharis sarothroides A. Gray
Sacaton .......................................................................__....... Sporobolus wrightii Munro
Sacaton, alkali ....................................................................... Sporobolus airoides Torrey
Saltbush, four-wing ................... ............................ Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nuttall
Saltbush, Nevada .................................................................. Atriplex lentiformis (Torrey) Watson
Saltcedar ................... ..................................................... Tamarix gallica Linnaeus
Saltgrass ..................................................................................... Distichlis stricta (Torrey) Rydberg
Saltgrass, Mexican ......................................................... Eragrostis obtusiflora (Fournier) Scribner
Saltgrass, desert .............. ....................................... Distichlis stricta (Torrey) Rydberg
Saltgrass, seashore .......................................................... Distichlis spicata (Linnaeus) Greene
Saltwort ......................................................................................... Suaeda depressa Watson
Sea-purslane .............................................................................. Sesuvium verrucosum Rafinesque
Seepweed ....................................................................................... Suaeda depressa Watson
Seepweed, desert ..._.... ......_...._...__..... .....___..... Suaeda suffrutescens Watson
Seepweed, torrey ............................................................ Swaeda torreyana Watson
Seep willow ............................................................................. Baccharis glutinosa Persoon
Sequoia, giant or big tree .................................... Sequoia gigantea (Lindley)
Sesuvium, warty ................................................................. Sesuvium verrucosum Rafinesque
Smoketree ......_____..._................_.................................. Dalea spinosa A. Gray
Smokethorn ....__............................................................... Dalea spinosa A. Gray
Sprangletop ...................................................................... Leptochloa fascicularis (Lamarck) A. Gray
Spruce, Engelmann ..................................................... Picea engelmanni Parry
Swampcedar ....................................... .................................. See Juniper, Rocky Mountain
Sycamore, Arizona ..................................._....._._...... Platanus wrightii Watson
Tamarisk, French ............................................................... Tamarix gallica Linnaeus
Tornillo ___............................................................................. Prosopis pubescens Bentham
Una de gato ........................._.............................................. Acacia greggii A. Gray
Vanadium bush .......................................................... Cowania stansburiana Torrey
Vetch, sweet .......................................................................... Hedysarum boreale Nuttall
Walnut ...................................................................................... Juglans microcarpa Berlandier
Watermotie .............................. ........... .................. Baccharis glutinosa Persoon
Waterwillow ......................._.................................................. Baccharis glutinosa Persoon
Waterweed .................................................................. ... Baccharis sergiloides A. Gray
Wildrye, creeping ............................................................. Elymus triticoides Buckley
Wildrye, giant ..................... . ....................... .. ......... Elymus condensatus Presl
Willow ......____.................................................... ....... .... Salix
Wiregrass ..................................... .................................... Juncus balticus Willdenow
Wirerush ............................................................ . .................. Juncus balticus Willdenow
Yerba mansa ...................... .......................... Anemopsis californica (Nuttall) Hooker and Arnott
78 PHREATOPHYTES

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 REFERENCES 79

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80 PHREATOPHYTES

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 REFERENCES 81

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82 PHREATOPHYTES

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 INDEX

Page
Acknowledgments ........................................ 2 Ground water Continued
Alfalfa, summary of information ............ 59-61 fluctuations in level, Safford
Allenrolfea occidentalis pickleweed ........ 49-52 Valley, Ariz .................... 4
quality, as factor affecting
Bigwoods Experimental Forest, N. C. .... 6 phreatophytes ................ 15-16
Bowser, C. W., quoted ....................... ...... 70 23-24, 32-40
salvage ................ .... . . 24-26
Carlsbad, N. Mex. ................................ 18, 19, 58 use by phreatophytes ..........3-7, 12, 32-40,
Chrysothamnus rabbitbrush .................... 53-55 57-59, 60, 62, 64, 66, 69, 75
Climate, as factor affecting
phreatophytes .................... 14, 17-22 Humidity, effect on use of ground water 17, 19
Common names, phreatophytes, Hydrologic cycle ............................................ 10-12
finding index ........................ 76-77
Cottonwood, scientific names .................... 61 Information on phreatophytes, status .... 26-27
summary of information .................... 61-64 Isleta, N. Mex.....-.-....--....-.--.---- 18, 58, 64
Coweeta Experimental Forest, N. C. .... 7
Lake McMillan, N. Mex. ..................... 28, 29
Death Valley, Calif........................................ 52 Linwood, Utah, gaging station.. 6
Los Griegos, N. Mex............................ 18, 57, 58
Density of growth, as factor affecting
use of ground water.............. 22-23 Malad Valley, Idaho ....................... 49, 51, 68
Distichlis saltgrass .................................... 56-59 Medicago alfalfa ........................................ 59-61
Meinzer, O. E. quoted ................................ 9
Economic use, alfalfa ................................ 59 Mesilla Dam, N. Mex ................................ 18, 58
cottonwood ..........................................;. 64
greasewood .............................................. 69 North River, Md., effect of transpiration 7
rabbitbrush ............................................ 55
saltcedar .................................................. 75 Ouray, Utah, gaging station ...................... 6
saltgrass .................................................. 56 Owens Valley, Calif ............................ 18, 57-59
willow ...................................................... 66
Escalante Valley, Utah ................ 18, 19, 26, 53, Phreatophytes, common names,
58, 61, 64, 69 finding index 76-77
Evapotranspiration, relation to definition . 9
temperature ............................ 18, 19 economic value .............. 8, 27, 55, 56, 64,
relation to water table ........................ 18 66, 69, 75
effect on stream flow . .... 4-7
Floods, relation of phreatophytes ............ 28-30 factors affecting occurrence ............ 13-16
factor affecting use of
Gila River, flow, Safford Valley, Ariz.... 5 ground water ................ 16-24
Gila River Valley ................................ 28, 72, 75 in Western United States ................ 30-40
Glenbar, Ariz., Experiment Station ........ 20-21 occurrence 32-40
Greasewood, analysis of plant tissue.... 69 plants classified ............................. . 12-13
area, analysis of soil ........................ 69 relation to ground water ........ 14-15, 32-40,
in Great Basin . .............. 66 56, 62, 68
summary of information .................... 66-69 root system 14-15, 55, 56, 60, 66, 68
Great Basin ...................................... 16, 53, 55, 56 salt tolerance .................... 15-16, 32-40
Green River, evapotranspiration losses.... 6 49, 56, 60, 68, 70
Ground water, chemical analysis in use of ground water ............ 3-7, 12, 18, 19,
area of pickleweed growth 52 22, 32-40, 57-59,
consumptive use ................................... 24 60, 62, 64, 66, 69, 75
consumptive waste .............................. 24-25 Pickleweed, analysis of plant tissue ........ 51
depth, as factor affecting area, analysis of ground water ........ 52
phyreatophytes .............. 14-15, analyses of soil samples ............ 51
22, 32-40 summary of information .................... 49-52
83
84 INDEX

Page Page
Piemeisel, R. L., quoted .... ~~ ............. 68 Salt tolerance, alfalfa ................................ 60
Pontiac area, Michigan ............................ 8 greasewood .............................................. 68
Populus cottonwood ............. .................. 61-64 pickleweed .............................................. 49
saltgrass ................................ . . .... 56
Rabbitbrush, summary of information.... 53-55 San Luis Valley, Colo .................... 18, 19, 55, 5f
Rainfall, effect on use of ground Santa Ana, Calif ............................18, 58, 59, 64
water by phreatophytes ....... 19- 21 Sarcobatus greasewood .............................. 66-69
References ...................................................... 78-82 Sedimentation, relation of phreatophytea 28-30
Shantz, H. L., quoted ................................ 6?
Safford Valley, Ariz., fluctuations of
water table ............................ 4, 17
variation of streamflow .................... 5 Tamarix saltcedar .................................... 70-75
Salix willow ................................................ 64-66 Temperature, effect on use of
Saltcedar, rapid spread ............................ 74 ground water ........................ 17-lf
relation to floods .................................. 28 Tularosa Basin, N. Mex ............................ 49, 51
relation to sedimentation .................. 28, 29
summary of information .................... 70-75 Vernal, Utah ................................................ 58, 6C
transpiration ........................................ 5
Saltgrass, grown in tanks, White, W. N., quoted ................................ 19, 58-
evapotranspiration .......... 18, 57, 58 Willow, summary of information ............ 64-66
summary of information .................... 56-59 Xerophyte, definition .................................. S

&U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1958 428383