UNIT V

INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS
ROBOT ANATOMY AND RELATED ATTRIBUTES
Theanatomy of industrial robots deals with the assembling of outer
components of a robot such as wrist, arm and body .
Before jumping into robot configurations, here are some of the key facts about
robot anatomy.

(a) Joints and Links

(b) Common Robot Configurations

2
JOINTS AND LINKS
The manipulator of an industrial robot consists of a series of joints and links .
Robot anatomy deals with the study of different joints and links and other
aspects of the manipulator's physical construction .
A robotic joint provides relative motion between two links of the robot.
Each joint, or axis, provides a certain degree-of-freedom (dof) of motion.
In most of the cases, only one degree-of-freedom is associated with each joint.
Robot's complexity can be classified according to the total number of degrees
-of-freedom they possess.
Each joint is connected to two links, an input link and an output link.
3
JOINTS AND LINKS

A Joint provides controlled relative movement between the input link and
output link. A robotic link is the rigid component of the robot manipulator .

Most of the robots are mounted upon a stationary base, such as the floor.
From this base, a joint-link numbering scheme may be recognized as shown in
Figure.

4
JOINTS AND LINKS
The robotic base and its connection to the
first joint are termed as link-0.
The first joint in the sequence is joint-1.
Link-0 is the input link for joint-1, while the
output link from joint-1 is link-1 which
leads to joint-2.
Link 1 is the output link for joint-1 and the
input link for joint-2.
This joint-link-numbering scheme is further
followed for all joints and links in the
robotic systems. 5
JOINTS AND LINKS
Nearly all industrial robots have mechanical joints that can be classified into
following five types as shown in Figure below.

6
JOINTS AND LINKS
a) Linear joint (type L joint)
The relative movement between the input link and the output link is a translational
sliding motion, with the axes of the two links being parallel.

b) Orthogonal joint (type U joint)

Thisalso has a translational sliding motion, but the input and output links are
perpendicular to each other during the move.

c) Rotational joint (type R joint)

This type provides rotational relative motion, with the axis of rotation perpendicular
to the axes of the input and output links. 7
JOINTS AND LINKS
d) Twisting joint (type T joint)
This joint also involves rotary motion, but the axis or rotation is parallel to the
axes of the two links.

e) Revolving joint (type V-joint, V from the v in revolving)

In this type, axis of input link is parallel to the axis of rotation of the joint. Axis
of the output link is perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

8
COMMON ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS
Basically the robot manipulator has two parts viz.

A body-and-arm assembly with three degrees-of-freedom and A wrist

assembly with two or three degrees-of-freedom.

Forbody-and-arm configurations, different combinations of joint types are

possible for a three-degree-of-freedom robot manipulator.

9
COMMON ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS
Five common body-and-arm configurations are outlined below.

10
COMMON ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS
(i) Polar configuration
It consists of a sliding arm L-joint, actuated relative to the body, which rotates
around both a vertical axis (T-joint)and horizontal axis (R-joint ).

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COMMON ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS
(ii) Cylindrical configuration
It consists of a vertical column. An arm assembly is moved up or down relative to the
vertical column.
Arm can be moved in and out relative to the axis of the column. Common
configuration is to use a T-joint to rotate the column about its axis .
An L-joint is used to move the arm assembly vertically along the column, while an O-
joint is used to achieve radial movement of the arm.

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COMMON ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS
(iii) Cartesian co-ordinate robot

It is also known as rectilinear robot and x-y-z robot. It consists of three sliding
joints, two of which are orthogonal O-joints.

13
COMMON ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS
(iv) Jointed-arm robot
It is similar to the configuration of a human arm.
It consists of a vertical column that swivels about the base using a T-joint.
Shoulder joint (R-joint) is located at the top of the column.
The output link is an elbow joint (another R joint).

14
COMMON ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS
(v) SCARA
Its full form is Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm'.
It is similar in construction to the jointer-arm robot, except the shoulder and
elbow rotational axes are vertical.
The arm is very rigid in the vertical direction, but compliant in the horizontal
direction. Robot wrist assemblies consist of either two or three degrees-of-
freedom.

15
COMMON ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS
(v) SCARA
A typical three-degree-of-freedom wrist joint is depicted in Figure.
Roll joint is accomplished by use of a T-joint.
Pitch joint is achieved by recourse to an R-joint. Yaw joint, a right-and-left
motion, is gained by deploying a second R-joint.

16
COMMON ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS
(v) SCARA
SCARA body and arm configuration does not use a separate wrist assembly .
Its usual operative environment is for insertion-type assembly operations
where wrist joints are unnecessary.
The other four body and arm configurations more or less follow the wrist-joint
configuration by deploying various combinations of rotary joints.

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CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS

The three types of drive systems that are generally used for industrial robots
are:

(i)Hydraulic drive
(ii)Electric drive
(iii)Pneumatic drive

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CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS
i) Hydraulic drive
It gives a robot great speed and strength. They provide high speed and strength,
hence they are adopted for large industrial robots .
This type of drives are preferred in environments in which the use of electric drive
robots may cause fire hazards
Example: In spray painting.

Disadvantages of a hydraulic robot:

Occupy more floor space for ancillary equipment in addition to that required by the
robot.
There are housekeeping problems such as leaks. 19
CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS
ii) Electric drive

This provides a robot with less speed and strength. Electric drive systems are
adopted for smaller robots.

Robots supported by electric drive systems are more accurate, exhibit better
repeatability and are cleaner to use.

Electrically driven robots are the most commonly available .

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CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS
ii) Electric drive
Electrically driven robots can be classified into two broad categories .

(i)Stepper motor driven.

(ii)Direct Current (DC) servo-motor driven.

Most stepper motor-driven robots are of the open loop type .

Feedback loops can be incorporated in stepper-driven robots .
Servo-driven robots have feedback loops from the driven components back to the
driver. 21
CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS
iii) Pneumatic drive
Generally used for smaller robots.
Have fewer axes of movement.
Carry out simple pick-and-place material-handling operations, such as picking
up an object at one location and placing it at another location .
These operations are generally simple and have short cycle times.
Here pneumatic power can be used for sliding or rotational joints.
Pneumatic robots are less expensive than electric or hydraulic robots.
22
ROBOT CONTROL SYSTEMS
The Joint movements must be controlled if the robot is to perform as desired.
Micro-processor-based controllers are regularly used to perform this control
action.
Controller is organised in a hierarchical fashion, as illustrated in Figure.
Each joint can feed back control data individually, with an overarching
supervisory controller co-ordinating the combined actuations of the joints
according to the sequence of the robot programme.

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ROBOT CONTROL SYSTEMS
Controller is organised in a hierarchical fashion, as illustrated in Figure.

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ROBOT CONTROL SYSTEMS
Hierarchical control structure
(a) Limited Sequence Control
Elementary control type, it is used for simple motion cycles, such as pick and
place operations.
Itis implemented by fixing limits or mechanical stops for each joint and
sequencing the movement of joints to accomplish operation.
Feedback loops may be used to inform the controller that the action has been
performed, so that the programme can move to the next step .
No servo-control exists for precise positioning of joint. Many pneumatically
driven robots are this type. 25
ROBOT CONTROL SYSTEMS
Hierarchical control structure
(b) Playback with Point to Point Control
Playback control uses a controller with memory to record motion sequences in
a work cycle, as well as associated locations and other parameters and then
plays back the work cycle during programme execution .
Point
to point control means individual robot positions are recorded in the
memory.
These positions include both mechanical stops for each joint and the set of
values that represent locations in the range of each joint .
Feedback control is used to confirm that the individual joints achieve the
26
specified locations in the programme.
ROBOT CONTROL SYSTEMS
Hierarchical control structure
(c) Playback with Continuous Path Control

Playback is as described above.

Continuous path control refers to a control system capable of continuous
simultaneous control of two or more axes.
Greater storage capacitythe number of locations that can be stored is
greater than in point to point and interpolation calculations may be used,
especially linear and circular interpolations. 27
ROBOT CONTROL SYSTEMS
Hierarchical control structure
(d) Intelligent Control
An intelligent robot is one that exhibits behaviour that makes it seem intelligent .
For example, capacities to interact with its ambient surroundings, decision-making
capabilities, communication with humans; computational analysis during the work
cycle and responsiveness to advanced sensor inputs .
They may also possess the playback facilities of the above two instances.
Requires a high level of computer control and an advanced programming language
to input the decision-making logic and other intelligence into the memory.
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END EFFECTORS
It is commonly known as robot hand.
It is mounted on the wrist, enables the robot to perform specified tasks.
Various types of end-effectors are designed for the same robot to make it
more flexible and versatile.
End-effectors are categorised into two major types:

1. Grippers
2. Tools
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END EFFECTORS - GRIPPERS
Grippers grasp and manipulate objects during the work cycle.

Typically the objects grasped are work parts that need to be loaded or
unloaded from one station to another.

It may be custom-designed to suit the physical specifications of the work parts

they have to grasp.

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END EFFECTORS - GRIPPERS
End effectors, grippers are described in detail in table below.
Type comment
Two or more fingers that can be actuated by
Mechanical gripper robot controller to open and close on a work
part.

Vacuum gripper Suction cups are used to hold flat objects.

Making use of the principles of magnetism,
Magnetised devices these are used for holding ferrous work parts.

Deploying adhesive substances these hold

Adhesive devices flexible materials, such as fabric.
Simple mechanical devices For example, hooks and scoops.
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END EFFECTORS - GRIPPERS
End effectors, grippers are described in detail in table below.
Type comment
Mechanical gripper with two gripping
devices in one end effector for machine
Dual grippers loading and unloading.
Reduces cycle time per part by gripping two
work parts at the same time.
Mechanical gripper whereby, to
Interchangeable fingers accommodate different work part sizes,
different fingers may be attached.
Mechanical gripper with sensory feedback
capabilities in the fingers to aid locating the
Sensory feedback fingers
work part and to determine correct grip
force to apply (for fragile work parts).
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END EFFECTORS - GRIPPERS
End effectors, grippers are described in detail in table below.

Type comment
Mechanical gripper with the general anatomy of
Multiple fingered grippers the human hand.

Mechanical grippers that are commercially

available, thus reducing the need to custom-
Standard grippers design a gripper for each separate robot
application.

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END EFFECTORS - TOOLS
The robot end effecter may also use tools.

Tools are used to perform processing operations on the work part.

Typically the robot uses the tool relative to a stationary or slowly moving
object.

In this way the process is carried out.

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END EFFECTORS - TOOLS
Examples of the tools used as end effectors by roots to perform processing
applications include:
Spot welding gun
Arc welding tool
Spray painting gun
Rotating spindle for drilling, routing, grinding, etc.
Assembly tool (e.g. automatic screwdriver)
Heating torch
Water-jet cutting tool 35
END EFFECTORS
For each instance, the robot controls both the position of the work part and the
position of the tool relative to the work part.
For this purpose, the robot must be able to transmit control signals to the tool
for starting, stopping and otherwise regulating the tools actions .
Figure illustrates a sample gripper and tool.

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SENSORS IN ROBOTICS
Two basic categories of sensors used in industrial robots:

(i)Internal sensors

(ii)External sensors

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SENSORS IN ROBOTICS
(i) Internal sensors
Internal sensors are used to monitor and control the various joints of the robot .

They form a feedback control loop with the robot controller.

Examples of internal sensors include potentiometers and optical encoders,

while tachometers of various types can be deployed to control the speed of
the robot arm.
38
SENSORS IN ROBOTICS
(ii) External sensors
These are external to the robot itself.

They are used when we wish to control the operations of the robot with other
pieces of equipment in the robotic work cell.

External sensors can be relatively simple devices, such as limit switches that
determine whether a part has been positioned properly or whether a part is
ready to be picked up from an unloading bay. 39
SENSORS IN ROBOTICS
Micro Sensor board

40
SENSORS IN ROBOTICS
Advanced sensor model technologies for robotics

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END EFFECTORS - GRIPPERS
A number of advanced sensor technologies may also be used; these are
outlined in Table.
Sensor Type Description
Used to determine whether contact is made
between sensor and another object. Two
types: touch sensors which indicate when
Tactile sensors
contact is made and force sensors which
indicate the magnitude of the force with the
object.
Used to determine how close an object is to
Proximity sensors
the sensor. Also called a range sensor.
Photocells and other photometric devices that
are used to detect the presence or absence of
Optical sensors
objects. Often used in conjunction to proximity 42
sensors.
END EFFECTORS - GRIPPERS
A number of advanced sensor technologies may also be used; these are
outlined in Table.

Sensor Type Description

Used in robotics for inspection, parts
Machine vision identification, guidance and other uses.

temperature, fluid pressure, fluid flow,

Miscellaneous category electrical voltage, current and other physical
properties.

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ROBOT ACCURACY AND REPEATABILITY
The capacity of the robot to position and orient the end of its wrist with
accuracy and repeatability is an important control attribute in nearly all
industrial applications.

Some assembly applications require that objects be located with a precision

of only 0.002 to 0.005 inches.

Other applications, such as spot welding, usually require accuracies of 0.020

to 0.040 inches.
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ROBOT ACCURACY AND REPEATABILITY
There are several terms that must defined in the context of this discussion:
Control resolution
Accuracy
Repeatability

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ROBOT ACCURACY AND REPEATABILITY
Resolution
Resolution is based on a limited number of points that the robot can be
commanded to reach for, these are shown here as black dots .
These points are typically separated by a millimetre or less, depending on
the type of robot.
This is further complicated by the fact that the user might ask for a position
such as 456.4mm, and the system can only move to the nearest millimetre,
456mm, this is the accuracy error of 0.4mm.

46
ROBOT ACCURACY AND REPEATABILITY
Accuracy
How close does the robot get to the desired point.
This measures the distance between the specified position, and the actual
position of the robot end effector.
Accuracy is more important when performing off-line programming, because
absolute coordinates are used.

47
ROBOT ACCURACY AND REPEATABILITY
Repeatability
How close will the robot be to the same position as the same move made
before.
A measure of the error or variability when repeatedly reaching for a single
position.
This is the result of random errors only.
Repeatability is often smaller than accuracy.

48
INDUSTRIAL ROBOT APPLICATIONS
Industrial Robot Applications can be divided into:

(i) Material-handling applications

(ii) Processing Operations

(iii) Assembly Applications

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MATERIAL-HANDLING APPLICATIONS
The robot must have following features to facilitate material handling:

1. The manipulator must be able to lift the parts safely.

2. The robot must have the reach needed.
3. The robot must have cylindrical coordinate type.
4. The robots controller must have a large enough memory to store all the
programmed points so that the robot can move from one location to another.
5. The robot must have the speed necessary for meeting the transfer cycle of
the operation. 50
MATERIAL-HANDLING APPLICATIONS
This category includes the following:

(1) Part Placement

(2) Palletizing or depalletizing
(3) Machine loading or unloading
(4) Stacking and insertion operations

51
MATERIAL-HANDLING APPLICATIONS
(1) Part Placement:
The basic operation in this category is the relatively simple pick-and-place
operation.
Thisapplication needs a low-technology robot of the cylindrical coordinate
type.
Only two, three or four joints are required for most of the applications.
Pneumatically powered robots are often utilized.

52
MATERIAL-HANDLING APPLICATIONS
(2) Palletizing and/or Depalletizing:

The applications require robot to stack parts one on top of the other, that is to
palletize them or to unstack parts by removing from the top one by one, that is
depalletize them.
Example: Process of taking parts from the assembly line and stacking them on a
pallet or vice versa.

53
MATERIAL-HANDLING APPLICATIONS
(3) Machine loading and/or unloading:

Robot transfers parts into and/or from a production machine.

There are three possible cases:

Machine loading in which the robot loads parts into a production machine, but the
parts are unloaded by some other means.

Example: A press working operation, where the robot feeds sheet blanks into the press,
but the finished parts drop out of the press by gravity. 54
MATERIAL-HANDLING APPLICATIONS
Machine loading in which the raw materials are fed into the machine without robot
assistance. The robot unloads the part from the machine assisted by vision or no vision.

Example: Bin picking, die casting and plastic moulding.

Machine loading and unloading that involves both loading and unloading of the work
parts by the robot. The robot loads a raw work part into the process and unloads a
finished part.

Example: Machine operation

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PROCESSING OPERATIONS

In processing operations, the robot performs some processing actions such as

grinding, milling, etc. on the work part.
The end effector is equipped with the specialised tool required for the process .
The tool is moved relative to the surface of the work part.
Robot performs a processing procedure on the part.
The robot is equipped with some type of process tooling as its end effector .
Manipulates the tooling relative to the working part during the cycle.

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PROCESSING OPERATIONS
Industrial robot applications in the processing operations include:
(1) Spot welding
(2) Continuous arc welding
(3) Spray painting
(4) Metal cutting and deburring operations
(5) Various machining operations like drilling, grinding, laser and
waterjet cutting and riveting.
(6) Rotating and spindle operations
(7) Adhesives and sealant dispensing 57
ASSEMBLY OPERATIONS
The applications involve both material handling and the manipulation of a tool .
They typically include components to build the product and to perform material
handling operations.
These are classified as:
Batchassembly: As many as one million products might be assembled. The
assembly operation has long production runs.
Low-volume: In this a sample run of ten thousand or less products might be
made. The assembly robot cell should be a modular cell.
One of the well suited area for robotics assembly is the insertion of odd
electronic components. 58
FUTURE APPLICATIONS

The medical applications of the robot

Routine examinations
Surgical procedures

Underwater applications
Involves prospecting for minerals on the floor of the ocean.
Salvaging of sunken vessels, repair the ship either at sea or in dry dock .
Mobile firefighters to be used by air force and navy.
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FUTURE APPLICATIONS

Surveillance and Guard duty

Used in military
Used in power generating plants, oil refineries and other civilian facilities that
are potential targets of terrorist groups.

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ROBOT PART PROGRAMMING

Itis a path in space to be followed by the manipulator, combined with

peripheral actions that support the work cycle.

To programme a robot , specific commands are entered into the robots

controller memory and this action may be performed in a number of ways.

For limited sequence robots ,programming occurs when limit switches and
mechanical stops are set to control the endpoints of its motions.

61
ROBOT PART PROGRAMMING
A sequencing device controls the occurrence of the motions, which in turn controls
the movement of the joints that completes the motion cycle.
For industrial robots with digital computers as controllers three programming
methods can be distinguished.
(a) Lead-through programming
(b) Computer-like robot programming languages
(c) Off-line programming.
Lead-through methodologies and associated programming methods, are
outlined in detail in table
62
 ROBOT PART PROGRAMMING - LEAD-THROUGH
PROGRAMMING

Task is taught to the robot by manually moving the manipulator through the
required motion cycle and simultaneously entering the programme into the
controller memory for playback.

Two methods are used for teaching: powered lead-through and manual lead-
through.

63
 ROBOT PART PROGRAMMING - MOTION
PROGRAMMING
To overcome difficulties of co-ordinating individual joints associated with lead-
through programming, two mechanical methods can be used :
The world co-ordinate system whereby the origin and axes are defined relative
to the robot base and the tool co-ordinate system whereby the alignment of the
axis system is defined relative to the orientation of the wrist face plate.
These methods are typically used with Cartesian co-ordinate robots and not for
robots with rotational joints.

64
 ROBOT PART PROGRAMMING - MOTION
PROGRAMMING

The latter robotic types must rely on interpolation processes to gain straight line
motion.
Straight line interpolation where the control computer calculates the necessary
points in space that the manipulator must move through to connect two points
and Joint interpolation where joints are moved simultaneously at their own
constant speed such that all joints start/stop at the same time.

65
 MANUAL LEAD-THROUGH PROGRAMMING
Manual lead through programming is convenient for programming playback
robots with continuous path control where the continuous path is an irregular
motion pattern such as in spray painting.
This programming method requires the operator to physically grasp the end of
arm or the tool that is attached to the arm and move it through the motion
sequence, recording the path into memory.

66
 MANUAL LEAD-THROUGH PROGRAMMING

Because the robot arm itself may have significant mass and would therefore be
difficult to move, a special programming device often replaces the actual robot for the
teaching procedure.

The programming device has the same joint configuration as the robot and is equipped
with a trigger handle (or other control switch) which the operator activates when
recording motions into memory.

The motions are recorded as a series of closely spaced points. During playback the
path is recreated by controlling the actual robot arm through the same sequence of
67
points.
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages
It can readily be learned by shop personnel.
It is a logical way to teach a robot.
It does not require knowledge of computer programming.

Disadvantages
Downtime regular production must be interrupted to program the robot .
Limited programming logic capability.
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Not readily compatible with modern computer based technologies.