Boiler Introduction

General Boiler Information

Fire Tube Boilers
Water Tube Boilers
Steam Generators
Compact and Modular
Tubeless & Condensing
Steam Information
Superheat
Boiler Stack Economizer
Boiler Flue Condensers
Boiler Water Treatment
Deaerators
Blowdown Control
Boiler Efficiency
Boiler Combustion

Manufacturers

General Boiler Information

1 boiler horse power is about 42,000 BTUs of INPUT

1 pound of steam is about 1,200 BTUs of INPUT fuel, and

about 1,000 BTUs at the point of use, depending on the
pressure of the steam

Low pressure steam is considered to be up to 15 psi; high is

generally 100 psi and higher.

Superheat is a term that refers to higher temperature steam, as a result of a second special steam
heat exchanger in the boiler that allows steam pressure to increase, thereby taking on more BTUs
(in excess of 500 psi is typical of superheat). Superheated steam is very dry steam.

Smaller boilers are generally rated in horse power; larger are generally rated in thousands of
pounds of steam (500 hp and under will typically be rated in hp)
Typical boiler efficiency will be in the 75 - 85% range; new highest efficiency boilers may be
near 90%; newer quick heat up types of boilers with copper heat exchangers can be more
efficient, especially at startup and part load than older, heavy mass cast iron boilers.

Source: DOE 'Improving Steam System Performance - a Sourcebook for Industry' Oct.2004
Click on image for larger view

Fire Tube Boilers

In firetube boilers, the combustion gases pass

inside boiler tubes, and heat is transferred to
water on the shell side. Scotch marine boilers
are the most common type of industrial firetube
boiler. The Scotch marine boiler is an industry
workhorse due to low initial cost, and
advantages in efficiency and durability. Scotch
marine boilers are typically cylindrical shells with horizontal tubes configured such that the
exhaust gases pass through these tubes, transferring energy to boiler water on the shell side.

Scotch marine boilers contain relatively large amounts of water, which enables them to respond
to load changes with relatively little change in pressure. However, since the boiler typically holds
a large water mass, it requires more time to initiate steaming and more time to accommodate
changes in steam pressure. Also, Scotch marine boilers generate steam on the shell side, which
has a large surface area, limiting the amount of pressure they can generate. In general, Scotch
marine boilers are not used where pressures above 300 psig are required. Today, the biggest
firetube boilers are over 1,500 boiler horsepower (about 50,000 lbs/hr).
Firetube boilers are often characterized by their number of passes, referring to the number of
times the combustion (or flue) gases flow the length of the pressure vessel as they transfer heat to
the water. Each pass sends the flue gases through the tubes in the opposite direction. To make
another pass, the gases turn 180 degrees and pass back through the shell. The turnaround zones
can be either dryback or water-back. In dryback designs, the turnaround area is refractory lined.
In water-back designs, this turnaround zone is water-cooled, eliminating the need for the
refractory lining.

Water Tube Boilers

In watertube boilers, boiler water passes through the tubes

while the exhaust gases remain in the shell side, passing over
the tube surfaces. Since tubes can typically withstand higher
internal pressure than the large chamber shell in a firetube,
watertube boilers are used where high steam pressures (as
high as 3,000 psi) are required.

Watertube boilers are also capable of high efficiencies and can

generate saturated or superheated steam. The ability of
watertube boilers to generate superheated steam makes these
boilers particularly attractive in applications that require dry,
high-pressure, high-energy steam, including steam turbine
power generation.

The performance characteristics of watertube boilers make them highly favorable in process
industries, including chemical manufacturing, pulp and paper manufacturing, and refining.
Although firetube boilers account for the majority of boiler sales in terms of units, water-tube
boilers account for the majority of boiler capacity.

For more info on boiler type terminology, see Boiler Basic Types

Steam Generators
Steam generators are like boilers in that they are fired
by gas and produce steam, but they are unlike boilers
in that they do not have large pressure vessels and are
made of light-weight materials. The fact that they do
not have pressure vessels means that in most locations
they do NOT require a boiler operator (always confirm
with local codes). This can be a substantial savings
when there is no other reason to have an operator other
than the local code requires it for a large pressure
vessel. The fact that they are made out of light weight
materials means they perform well at part loads and
respond quickly to changes in loads. This greatly
increases part load operating efficiency.

For more information see Steam Generators

Compact and Modular Boilers

Modern materials, controls and the pursuit

of ever higher energy efficiency and
reduced emissions is leading to boilers
that are smaller in physical size, have
cleaner emissions and produce dryer
steam. Materials are critical because old
cast iron boilers relied on mass to prevent
them from thermal shocks that could split
the boiler apart. New metals reduce mass
which improves thermal transfer and can
handle the thermal stress of going from cold water to steam in seconds.

Space is money, especially in new construction. Boilers of similar output capacity made
smaller to reduce their space requirements can result in overall lower first cost of
equipment plus space.

Boilers have a certain efficiency curve that tends to result in the boiler having the highest
efficiency at full-fire. As the boiler is 'turned-down' to run at less than 100% capacity,
efficiency typically drops. To counter this situation, a modular boiler bank of 3 or more
boilers with a programmed controller can improve operational efficiency over a single
boiler operating in a turn-down mode, and provides a certain amount of redundancy for
back-up.
Tubeless and Condensing Boilers

High energy prices along with improved material and combustion

technology is resulting in a new generation of high efficiency gas
boilers. Traditional boilers are designed to PREVENT condensation
because it is corrosive to boiler components and the wide variations in
temperatures cause problems with thermal shock. However, without
condensation, boilers can not be higher than about 85% efficient.
Boilers that are designed for condensation and use advanced controls to
squeeze every possible BTU from the combustion process are able to
achieve efficiencies in the high 90's. There is a first-cost premium, but
when energy prices are high, paybacks are more acceptable.

"Tubeless" Boilers use tubing coils instead of rigid tubes. "Direct Contact" water heaters have no
tubes, tubing or coils; they have heat transfer media such as spheres or cylinders and allow flue
gases to come in direct contact with the water.

Steam Information

Steam is an invisible gas that's generated by heating water to a temperature that brings it to the
boiling point. When this happens, water changes its physical state and vaporizes, turning from a
liquid into a gas.
Conversely, when heat energy is removed from steam, it loses its
ability to retain a gaseous state and condenses back into a liquid.
The resulting liquid is called condensate. The temperature at which
condensation takes place is known as the dew point.

When water is heated at atmospheric pressure, its temperature rises

until it reaches 212F (100C), the highest temperature at which
water can exist at this pressure. Additional heat does not raise the
temperature, but converts the water to steam.

One pound of water takes 1 BTU per Degree of Temperature rise up

to 212F; to form steam, an additional 970 BTUs is required for the
"Latent Heat of Vaporization". Therefore, steam has (970 + (212 -
Condensate Temperature)) BTUs per pound.

EXAMPLE: If the condensate temperature is 160F, (970 + (212 - 160)) = 1,022 BTUs per
pound. This clearly shows why steam has more energy content than hot water.

NOTE: These are BTUs delivered to the water; efficiency must also be factored in to determine
INPUT BTU requirements.

For more information about Steam

For specific information about Steam Trap Audits

Superheat

Superheat refers to the process of increasing the temperature of steam above about 400F and
100 psi to produce a very "dry" steam with absolutely no water vapor. This feature is most
common in very large power plant boilers of watertube construction. An additional heat
exchanger capable of the high temperatures and pressures is required.
At least one company promotes a "direct fired" superheater, that could
have some advantages for facilities with smaller sized boilers that need
higher temperatures and pressures, but do not want to invest in a new
boiler or use a Thermal Fluid system. According to their web site, the
Cannon Superheater can be used on new boilers and retrofit installations.
The Cannon Superheater can be used on watertube or firetube boilers in
the 25 HP to 1,000 HP range. For more information, see
www.cannonboilerworks.com.

Boiler Stack Economizer

Flue gases from large boilers are typically 450 - 650F. Stack Economizers recover some of this
heat for pre-heating water. The water is most often used for boiler make-up water or some other
need that coincides with boiler operation. Stack Economizers should be considered as an
efficiency measure when large amounts of make-up water are used (ie: not all condensate is
returned to the boiler or large amounts of live steam are used in the process so there is no
condensate to return.)

The savings potential is based on the existing stack temperature, the volume of make-up water
needed, and the hours of operation. Economizers are available in a wide range of sizes, from
small coil-like units to very large waste heat recovery boilers.
For More Information see Boiler Stack Economizers and Flue Gas Condensers

Boiler Flue Condensers

There is a class of economizers that are

designed to condense the flue gases and/or
have the water in direct contact with flue
gases. I have called them 'Flue Gas
Condensers'. Stack Economizers and
Condensers should be considered as an
efficiency measure when large amounts of
make-up water are used (ie: not all
condensate is returned to the boiler or large
amounts of live steam is used in the process
so there is no condensate to return) or there is a simultaneous need for large volumes of hot
water.

The application difference between an economizer and condenser is that economizers are
primarily used to heat a smaller volume of water to a high temperature for boiler feed water, and
condenser units heat a larger volume of water to a lower temperature. Condensers can be more
efficient because they can have a lower outlet exhaust temperature and take advantage of the
energy in condensed flue gasses (the Latent Heat of Vaporization).

For more information see Flue Gas Condensers

Boiler Water Treatment

Origin of the Problem

The most common source of corrosion in boiler systems is dissolved gas: oxygen, carbon dioxide
and ammonia. Of these, oxygen is the most aggressive. The importance of eliminating oxygen as
a source of pitting and iron deposition cannot be over-emphasized. Even small concentrations of
this gas can cause serious corrosion problems.

Makeup water introduces appreciable amounts of oxygen into the system. Oxygen can also enter
the feed water system from the condensate return system. Possible return line sources are direct
air-leakage on the suction side of pumps, systems under vacuum, the breathing action of closed
condensate receiving tanks, open condensate receiving tanks and leakage of nondeaerated water
used for condensate pump seal and/or quench water. With all of these sources, good
housekeeping is an essential part of the preventive program.

One of the most serious aspects of oxygen corrosion is that it occurs as pitting. This type of
corrosion can produce failures even though only a relatively small amount of metal has been lost
and the overall corrosion rate is relatively low. The degree of oxygen attack depends on the
concentration of dissolved oxygen, the pH and the temperature of the water.

The influence of temperature on the corrosivity of dissolved oxygen is particularly important in

closed heaters and economizers where the water temperature increases rapidly. Elevated
temperature in itself does not cause corrosion. Small concentrations of oxygen at elevated
temperatures do cause severe problems. This temperature rise provides the driving force that
accelerates the reaction so that even small quantities of dissolved oxygen can cause serious
corrosion.

The Corrosion Process

Localized attack on metal can result in a forced shutdown. The prevention of a forced shutdown
is the true aim of corrosion control.

Because boiler systems are constructed primarily of carbon steel and the heat transfer medium is
water, the potential for corrosion is high. Iron is carried into the boiler in various forms of
chemical composition and physical state. Most of the iron found in the boiler enters as iron oxide
or hydroxide. Any soluble iron in the feed water is converted to the insoluble hydroxide when
exposed to the high alkalinity and temperature in the boiler.

These iron compounds are divided roughly into two types, red iron oxide (Fe2O3) and black
magnetic oxide (Fe3O4). The red oxide (hematite) is formed under oxidizing conditions that
exist, for example, in the condensate system or in a boiler that is out of service. The black oxides
(magnetite) are formed under reducing conditions that typically exist in an operating boiler.

External Treatment

External treatment, as the term is applied to water prepared for use as boiler feed water, usually
refers to the chemical and mechanical treatment of the water source. The goal is to improve the
quality of this source prior to its use as boiler feed water, external to the operating boiler itself.
Such external treatment normally includes:
1. Clarification
2. Filtration
3. Softening
4. Dealkalization
5. Demineralization
6. Deaeration
7. Heating

Any or all of these approaches can be used in feed water or boiler water preparation.

Internal Treatment

Even after the best and most appropriate external treatment of the water source, boiler feed water
(including return condensate) still contains impurities that could adversely affect boiler
operation. Internal boiler water treatment is then applied to minimize the potential problems and
to avoid any catastrophic failure, regardless of external treatment malfunction.

Feed Water Preparation

The basic assumption with regard to the quality of feed water is that calcium and magnesium
hardness, migratory iron, migratory copper, colloidal silica and other contaminants have been
reduced to a minimum, consistent with boiler design and operation parameters.

Once feed water quality has been optimized with regard to soluble and particulate contaminants,
the next problem is corrosive gases. Dissolved oxygen and dissolved carbon dioxide are among
the principal causes of corrosion in the boiler and pre-boiler systems. The deposition of these
metallic oxides in the boiler is frequently more troublesome than the actual damage caused by
the corrosion. Deposition is not only harmful in itself, but it offers an opening for further
corrosion mechanisms as well.

Contaminant products in the feed water cycle up and concentrate in the boiler. As a result,
deposition takes place on internal surfaces, particularly in high heat transfer areas, where it can
be least tolerated. Metallic deposits act as insulators, which can cause local overheating and
failure. Deposits can also restrict boiler water circulation. Reduced circulation can contribute to
overheating, film boiling and accelerated deposition.

The best way to start to control pre-boiler corrosion and ultimate deposition in the boiler is to
eliminate the contaminants from the feed water. Consequently, this section deals principally with
the removal of oxygen, the impact of trace amounts of contaminants remaining in the feed water,
and heat exchange impact.

Feed water is defined as follows:

Feed water (FW) = Makeup water (MW) + Return condensate (RC)

The above equation is a mass balance (pounds or kilograms).

Deaeration (Mechanical and Chemical)

Mechanical and chemical deaeration is an integral part of modern boiler water protection and
control. Deaeration, coupled with other aspects of external treatment, provides the best and
highest quality feed water for boiler use.

Simply speaking, the purposes of deaeration are:

1. To remove oxygen, carbon dioxide and other noncondensable gases from feed water

2. To heat the incoming makeup water and return condensate to an optimum temp
3. Minimizing solubility of the undesirable gases
4. Providing the highest temperature water for injection to the boiler

For more information see Water Treatment

Deaerators

Mechanical deaeration is the first step in eliminating oxygen and other corrosive gases from the
feed water. Free carbon dioxide is also removed by deaeration, while combined carbon dioxide is
released with the steam in the boiler and subsequently dissolves in the condensate. This can
cause additional corrosion problems.

Because dissolved oxygen is a constant threat to boiler tube integrity, our discussion on the
deaerator will be aimed at reducing the oxygen content of the feed water. The two major types of
deaerators are the tray type and the spray type. In both cases, the major portion of gas removal
is accomplished by spraying cold makeup water into a steam environment.

Tray Type Deaerating Heaters

Tray-type deaerating heaters release dissolved gases in the incoming water by reducing it to a
fine spray as it cascades over several rows of trays. The steam that makes intimate contact with
the water droplets then scrubs the dissolved gases by its counter-current flow. The steam heats
the water to within 3-5 F of the steam saturation temperature and it should remove all but the
very last traces of oxygen. The deaerated water then falls to the storage space below, where a
steam blanket protects it from recontamination.

Nozzles and trays should be inspected regularly to insure that they are free of deposits and are in
their proper position.

Spray-Type Deaerating Heaters

Spray-type deaerating heaters work on the same general philosophy as the tray-type, but differ in
their operation. Spring-loaded nozzles located in the top of the unit spray the water into a steam
atmosphere that heats it. Simply stated, the steam heats the water, and at the elevated temperature
the solubility of oxygen is extremely low and most of the dissolved gases are removed from the
system by venting. The spray will reduce the dissolved oxygen content to 20-50 ppb, while the
scrubber or trays further reduce the oxygen content to approximately 7 ppb or less.

During normal operation, the vent valve must be open to maintain a continuous plume of vented
vapors and steam at least 18 inches long. If this valve is throttled too much, air and
nonconclensable gases will accumulate in the deaerator. This is known as air blanketing and can
be remedied by increasing the vent rate.

For optimum oxygen removal, the water in the storage section must be heated to within 5 F of
the temperature of the steam at saturation conditions. From inlet to outlet, the water is deaerated
in less than 10 seconds.
 Click on images for larger views

Deaerators and Economizers

Where economizers are installed, good deaerating heater operation is essential. Because oxygen
pitting is the most common cause of economizer tube failure, this vital part of the boiler must be
protected with an oxygen scavenger, usually catalyzed sodium sulfite. In order to insure
complete corrosion protection of the economizer, it is common practice to maintain a sulfite
residual of 5-10 ppm in the feed water and, if necessary, feed sufficient caustic soda or
neutralizing amine to increase the feed water pH to between 8.0 and 9.0.

Below 900 psi excess sulfite (up to 200 ppm) in the boiler will not be harmful. To maintain
blowdown rates, the conductivity can then be raised to compensate for the extra solids due to the
presence of the higher level of sulfite in the boiler water. This added consideration (in protecting
the economizer) is aimed at preventing a pitting failure. Make the application of an oxygen
scavenger, such as catalyzed sulfite, a standard recommendation in all of your boiler treatment
programs.

Treatment

The foregoing discussion shows the importance of proper deaeration of boiler feed water in order
to prevent oxygen corrosion. Complete oxygen removal cannot be attained by mechanical
deaeration alone. Equipment manufacturers state that a properly operated deaerating heater can
mechanically reduce the dissolved oxygen concentrations in the feed water to 0.005 cc per liter
(7 ppb) and 0 free carbon dioxide. Typically, plant oxygen levels vary from 3 to 50 ppb. Traces
of dissolved oxygen remaining in the feed water can then be chemically removed with the
oxygen scavenger.

More on Deaerators see Deaerator, Deaerator - Energy Recovery

Blowdown Control

The main purpose of blowdown is to maintain the solids content of the boiler water within
prescribed limits. This would be under normal steaming conditions. However, in the event
contamination is introduced in the boiler, high continuous and manual blowdown rates are used
to reduce the contamination as quickly as possible.

Because each boiler and plant operation is different, maximum levels should be determined on an
individual basis.

Bottom Blowdown

By definition, bottom blowdown is intermittent and designed to remove sludge from the areas of
the boiler where it settles. The frequency of bottom blowdown is a function of experience and
plant operation. Bottom blowdown can be accomplished manually or electronically using
automatic blowdown controllers.

Continuous Blowdown

Frequently used in conjunction with manual blowdown, continuous blowdown constantly

removes concentrated water from the boiler. By design, it is in the area of highest boiler water
concentration. This point is determined by the design of the boiler and is generally the area of
greatest steam release.

Continuous blowdown allows for excellent control over boiler water solids. In addition, it can
remove significant levels of suspended solids. Another advantage is that the continuous
blowdown can be passed through heat recovery equipment.

Blowdown Control Summary

Proper boiler blowdown control in conjunction with proper internal boiler water treatment will
provide the desired results for a boiler water program. Many modern devices can automate boiler
blowdown, thereby increasing the overall efficiency of the unit.

For more information see Blowdown, Blowdown Control, Blowdown Heat Recovery

ION EXCHANGE SYSTEMS

Ion exchange systems range from light commercial water softeners and filters to specially
designed industrial equipment. Also known as deionizations (DI) systems. These systems are
considered high-end where the highest quality of water treatment is needed, such as with steam
turbines.

For more information see Water Softener

RO SYSTEMS

Reverse Osmosis (RO) systems are available for tap water, brackish water or seawater. These
systems are considered high-end where the highest quality of water treatment is needed, such as
with steam turbines.

For more information see Reverse Osmosis

Boiler Manufacturers

The following manufactures have provided content used on this page. This section is NOT
intended to be a comprehensive source of references. See also Resource Links and Vendor
Directory

Cleaver-Brooks
7800 N. 113th Street
Milwaukee, WI 53224
Telephone: 414-359-0600

Web site: www.cleaver-brooks.com

Johnston Boiler
300 Pine Street
Ferrysburg, MI 49409
Telephone: 616-842-5050

Web site: www.johnstonboiler.com

Clayton Industries
World Headquarters
4213 North Temple City Blvd.
El Monte, CA 91734
Telephone: 800-423-4585

Web site: www.claytonindustries.com

MIURA Boiler Company

8 Copernicus Boulevard
Brantford, Ontario
N3P 1Y4 Canada
Telephone: 519-758-8111

Go to the Miura Boiler web site at www.miuraboiler.com

Gasmaster Industries Incorporated

#5 - 15050 54A Avenue
Surrey, British Columbia Canada, V3S 5X7
Telephone: 604-574-9874

Web site www.gasmaster-ind.com

Economizers and Condensers

E-Tech
P.O. Box 35258
Tulsa, OK 74153
Telephone: 918-665-1930

Web site: www.e-techinc.com

Cannon Boiler Works, Inc.

510 Constitution Blvd.
New Kensington, PA 15068
Telephone: 724-335-8541

Web site: www.cannonboilerworks.com

Sidel USA Systems

PO Box 1868
Atascadero, CA 93423
Telephone: 805-462-1250 or 800-668-5003

Web site: www.sidelsystems.com

For more economizer manufacturers, see Economizers and Flue Gas Condensers

Sources: Bob Fegan 8/01; Johnston Boiler web site, 8/01; Armstrong International web site,
9/01; N.E.M. Business Solutions, "An Introduction to Steam Boilers and Steam Raising" at
www.cip.ukcentre.com/steam.htm 9/01; 3-10-03; economizer picture from www.e-techninc.com
9/01; rev 1/2004; rev 2-2005; flue gas condenser photo from Sidel Systems USA 3/2005; Boiler
type descriptions from DOE 'Improving Steam System Performance - a Sourcebook for Industry'
Oct.2004; diagram of superheater system from Spirax Sarco Learning web site 3/2005; rev
3/2005; rev with Miura Compact/Modular, GasMaster Condensing Boilers 2-2007;