Baking

CHAPTER 8
Heat and mass transfer during baking
M. Marcotte
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, St. Hyacinthe, Quebec, Canada.
Abstract
Located at the end of the processing line, baking is essential to the manufactur-
ing of a variety of starchy foods (e.g. breads, cookies or biscuits, cakes). Baking
is a very complex unit operation leading to products undergoing numerous phys-
ical, chemical and biochemical changes, such as water and fat phase transition,
water evaporation, volume expansion, generation of a porous structure, denatu-
ration of protein, gelatinization of starch, crust formation and browning reaction.
These changes are appreciable involving products with typical macroscopic proper-
ties such as proper moisture content and product dimensions, desired and appealing
color, texture and taste. As well, these will happen as a consequence of simultane-
ous heat and mass transfers within the product and with the environment inside the
baking oven. Heat transport to the product will occur through radiation from oven
walls and product surfaces, natural and forced convection from the movement of
hot moist air, conduction from the carrier medium (e.g. mould, band) and within
the product. Water transfer will occur through the evaporation of water from the
product to the air and may also occur as a result of direct gas burning within the
oven. Depending upon product characteristics and oven type, the relative contri-
bution of the various mechanisms of heat transfer can be adjusted to influence the
water transport in order to achieve a desired quality in the final product. Any attempt
to modify or alter the process requires a thorough understanding of heat and mass
transfer phenomena upon baking and their relationship with physical, chemical and
biochemical changes involved. This chapter covers a general description of heat and
mass transfers during baking and a review of mathematical modeling as applied to
baking. It also discusses advances in the application of numerical methods in the
description of heat and mass transport during baking.
WIT Transactions on State of the Art in Science and Engineering, Vol 13, 2007 WIT Press
www.witpress.com, ISSN 1755-8336 (on-line)
doi:10.2495/978-1-85312-932-2/08
240 Heat Transfer in Food Processing
1 Introduction
Baking is a very complex unit operation in which numerous physicochemical and
biochemical changes take place within the starchy product. These happen as a con-
sequence of heat (radiation, convection and conduction) and mass transfer (water
vaporair movement in the oven, water evaporation within the product and some-
times water generation by gas burning). Baking is not only performed to elevate the
product temperature but also to induce some biochemical reactions of ingredients.
During the temperature rise, some reactions are desired and some are inflicted. Over-
all the reactions render the bakery products more palatable and easily digestible.
Baking will also structure the product and allow for the development of desired
flavor and color. By the application of direct heat, baking will inactivate enzymes
and various microorganisms. Induced by heat, baking will generate a significant
decrease of the products water content. Both phenomena will result in an apprecia-
ble increase of the starchy product shelf life. Undesirable transformations may also
occur such as excessive browning, pigments and vitamins degradation and fat oxi-
dation or rancidity as well as a general decrease of nutritional qualities by reversible
or irreversible degradation of proteins. The challenge of baking is to manage over
time the multiple desired and inflicted reactions as well as the heterogeneity of raw
materials and final products. Often, it is highly desirable to obtain a gradient of final
product properties from the surface to the core. The magnitude of various reactions
will depend on the history or time dependency of temperature, moisture content
and other variables (e.g. pH, water activity).
One of the most important changes is the product evolving from a liquid batter
or semi-viscous dough to a solid alveolar structure at the end of baking. Products
are characterized by two macroscopic phases with discontinuities. As a result of
the elevation of temperature, fat melts (3040 C) generating a decrease of batter or
dough viscosity for further spreading. As well, partial gelatinization will occur at
60 C and coagulation at 90 C. Marcotte et al. [1] demonstrated that cake ingredients
will shift the gelatinization of starch significantly from 60 C to almost 9497 C
due to the presence of cosolutes. Finally, gluten (80% of the protein content) will
denature at 7086 C. A significant volume expansion (25 times) occurs as a result
of the significant production of the CO2 from the added chemical leavening agent:
NaHCO3 Na+ + HCO3 (1)

+
HCO3 + H CO2 + H2 O (2)
or from the yeast fermentation (before or during baking) assuming Y as an alcoholic

fermentation agent and B as a lactic fermentation agent and z is the substrate:
Zn Y Z n1 + 2CO2 + 2C2 H5 OH (3)

Zn B Z n1 + 2CH3 CHOHCOOH (4)
CH3 CHOHCOOH + H2 O CH3 CHOHCOO + H3 O+ (5)
Heat and Mass Transfer During Baking 241
9,5 8,5
Cake A Cake B
9,0 8,0
8,5 7,5
pH
pH
8,0 7,0
7,5 6,5
7,0 6,0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250
Baking time, s Baking time, s
8,5 7,5
Cake C Cake D
8,0 7,0
pH
pH
7,5 6,5
7,0 6,0
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
Figure 1: Evolution of the pH of starchy products during baking.
The chemical reaction of the leavening can be monitored indirectly through the
measurement of pH of the baked product upon baking [2]. Hydrogen ion reacted
with the bicarbonate ion in a straightforward way to produce water and carbon
dioxide. The carbon dioxide migrates to gas nuclei in the batter and expands as
it is heated, increasing the volume of the baking product. Figure 1 shows the pH
evolution of four types of cakes during baking.
When baking starts, H+ concentration decreases in the batter (pH increasing
factor), producing CO2 for volume expansion. At the same time, because of the
water loss, H+ concentration can increase (pH decreasing factor), since in the
range of pK1 (6.34) of bicarbonate solution, pH can move from a basic region to an
acid region due to its concentration [3]. It might be inferred that in the earlier part
of baking, the effect of the leavening reaction on pH is more important than that of
the water loss. After the completion of the CO2 release, its reaction rate decreased
and the effect of water loss becomes a predominant factor for the later part of the
baking, resulting in a decrease in pH. For bread baking, reactions will mostly take
place during proving.
Air bubbles, introduced during the mixing of ingredients expand within the prod-
uct during cake baking and contribute also to the volume expansion although to a
lesser extent. Finally, upon baking the water evaporation/condensation within the
product structure results in a significant moisture loss qualified as moderate drying.

Another important reaction influencing the quality of baked product is the appro-
priate brown color development on the surface by sugar caramelization, Maillard
reactions, starch dextrination and/roasting of protein network.
In traditional baking, heat is supplied directly either by electrical resistance (e.g.
wire, rods, tubes, plates) or by fabricated either in metal, ceramic-metal alloys or
nonmetallic materials. Alternatively, gas burners may be installed in the baking
chamber for direct heat. Because of gas combustion, CO2 and water are being pro-
duced continuously enriching the air of the baking chamber. Periodically, these
gas combustion products need to be evacuated. Indirect heat necessitates the pres-
ence of a combustion chamber apart from the baking chamber. Starchy products
are either baked in batches or continuously. In batch baking process, products are
entered. A time cycle of air temperature, velocity and humidity is applied. At the
end of baking, products are taken out from the oven. Continuous baking processes
are characterized by the movement of products along the oven. The oven is operated
at steady state. The applied profile of air temperature, velocity and humidity vary
along the oven length. Tunnel ovens are commonly used continuous oven type in
the starchy product baking industry mainly because these meets the bakersrequests
for increased mass production. The efficiency of energy utilization in a tunnel-type
multizone baking oven is relatively high such as 5070% for gas and 6070% for
electric ovens. As shown in Fig. 2, tunnel ovens are characterized by top and bot-
tom baking chambers divided into several zones along the oven length. In each
zone the temperature of the upper and lower baking chamber can be independently
controlled so the application of an optimal temperature sequence is possible [4].
In most ovens, heat is transferred essentially by radiation. The air movement
is induced by chimneys and natural convection. In a typical oven, heat transfer is
influenced by the size, geometry, heating mode and wall properties of the oven, as
well as by the size, geometry and physical, thermal and mass properties of baked
products.
Typically, industrial baking cycles are established using a trial and error approach
(at laboratory and industrial level) without a thorough understanding of the process.
Often many adjustments are necessary requiring time and considerable amount of
raw materials and generation of products with defects. As in drying, baking is a
combination of heat and mass transfer. The knowledge of heat and mass transfer
modes within the product and between the product and its environment and of
the reaction kinetics as influenced by temperature and moisture content are cru-
cial to properly and efficiently control this operation. The presence of volcanos, a
major defect in cake baking, may result from an insufficient understanding of the
phenomena as shown in Fig. 3.
(a)
Chimney
Upper
chamber Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3
Gas burners
Door
Batter on the band
Lower 7.11 m 7.11 m 7.11 m

chamber 4.52 m
10.62 m
16.71 m
21.34 m
(b)
Chimney
Upper
chamber Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4
Mold Hole for test
Band
Lower Heating elements
chamber
7.01 m 7.01 m 7.02 m 6.93 m
5.03 m
12.65 m
22.86 m
27.97 m
Figure 2: Schematic of two typical tunnel-type industrial baking ovens. (a) Gas
fired band oven and (b) electric fired mold oven.
Figure 3: Generation of volcanos during baking of cup cakes.
Injection Extraction
Baking Oven Wall
Convection
Radiation Hot Air Radiation

Water
Convection
Convection
Conduction
Physical Contact
Bakery Product (imperfections )
Figure 4: Heat and mass transfer phenomena.
2 Heat and mass transfer in the baking oven and within product
2.1 General description
Figure 4 shows heat and mass transfer phenomena encountered during baking. Heat
is transferred by radiation from the oven walls to the product surface, by convection
from the heating media (hot air and moisture) and by conduction from the surface
of the carrier to the product geometrical center. At the same time, moisture diffuses
outward to the product surface.
2.1.1 Radiation
Numerous studies were undertaken to study the contribution of individual heat
transfer modes [510] for bread, biscuits and cakes upon baking in electrically
powered, forced convention or gas fired ovens. Most studies revealed that radiation
was the predominant mode of heat transfer for a proportion varying between 50%
and 80% with respect to the total heat transfer.
Radiation is the transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves. All bodies emit
electromagnetic waves at wavelength between 0 and infinity. Radiant energy travels
uninterrupted until it strikes a surface where it is absorbed, reflected or transmitted.
Radiant energy is transmitted through electromagnetic waves and is released after
impacting a contact surface, converting into heat. It is only the absorbed fraction
between 0.1 and 100 m that is susceptible to be converted into thermal energy.
Radiation is an exchange of energy between two surfaces at two different tempera-

tures without contact and transfer medium via emission, reflection and absorption
of thermal radiation. Infrared energy is supplied in baking and roasting operations
from the gas burners or electric elements as well as oven walls of ovens. Infrared
energy is emitted by all hot objects. The radiation gives up energy to heat materials
when it is absorbed. The rate of heat transfer will depend on (1) surface temperatures
of the heating and receiving materials, (2) the surface properties of the two materials
and (3) the shape of the emitting and receiving bodies. The amount of heat emit-
ted from a perfect radiator (black body) is calculated using the StefanBoltzmann
equation:
Qr = AT 4 (6)
where is the StefanBoltzmann constant and A is the area. Radiant heaters are
not perfect. To take this into account, the concept of gray bodies is used and the
equation is modified accordingly:
Qr = AT 4 (7)
where is the emissivity of the gray body (scale from 0 to 1). For most food products,
the emissivity is equal to the absorptivity. The net heat transfer by radiation to a
food is determined by
Qr = A(T14 T24 ) (8)
where T1 is the temperature of the emitting body surface and T2 is the temperature
of the food sample. In the context of baking, when using this relation, a lot of
assumptions have been made. The area of product surface is assumed negligible in
comparison to the walls area. Humid air is assumed transparent to radiation. The
product surface and wall have ideal optical properties (absorption and emission
properties independent of radiation wavelength and direction). The exchange of
energy is influenced by the respective dimensions of emitting surfaces and their
relative position. A view factor is defined as the fraction of energy emitted by
surface A1 to be intercepted by surface A2 . Abacus, diagrams and formulas exist
for standard arrangements of surfaces [11, 12].
In their study on cake baking, Baik et al. [6] have used the following formula to
calculate the proportion of heat transfer by radiation from the total heat transfer:
(Tkw 4 Tkps 4 )
Qr = 1ps
(9)
1w
Aps ps + 1
Aps Fpsw + Aw w
where, Qr is the radiative heat, W ; Tkw , Tkps are the temperatures of the inner wall
and the product surface in kelvin; is the StefanBoltzmann constant, 5.67 108
W/m2 K4 ; is the emisivity and A is the area, m2 . Subscript ps and w are the product
surface and wall, respectively. F is a view factor between the product surface and
the inner wall.
2.1.2 Convection
Convection heat transfer is a result of the movement of molecules or particles either
by density gradients set up by temperature differences or by forced movement of the
particles by external means such as a fan. Room heating by radiators or the stove
top heating of water in a container are common examples of natural convection
heating. Forced circulation of air using fans as in the case of baking chambers is
an example of forced convection where turbulence is set in to facilitate faster heat
exchange. Convection is governed by Newtons law which states that the rate of
convective heat transfer is proportional to the surface area of heat transfer and the
temperature difference between the surface and the fluid:
Qcv = hA(Ts T ) (10)
where Qcv is the heat transfer by convection, h is the heat transfer coefficient, Ts
is the product surface temperature and T is the temperature of the bulk fluid. The
heating characteristics by convection may be very different in agitated systems
(forced convection) compared to nonagitating systems (natural convection). Heat
transfer by natural or free convection (involving a motion in a fluid) is due to
differences in density and the action of gravity that causes a natural circulation and
a heat transfer. For many problems, the superimposed effect of natural convection
is negligibly small especially if forced convection exists. When there is no forced
velocity of the fluid, the heat is transferred entirely by natural convection. In such
cases, it is often necessary to consider also the radiation effect. Heat transfer by
forced convection occurs with a moving fluid and a solid surface. The various kinds
of forced convection, such as flow in a tube, flow across a tube and flow across a
flat plate may be solved mathematically under certain assumptions regarding the
boundary conditions. The essential step in the solution of the forced convection heat
transfer is to determine whether the boundary layer is laminar or turbulent. Since
heat transfer by convection involves both energy transfer and fluid flow, it defies
rigorous analysis to a great extent. Because it is extremely important, procedures
for the engineering analysis and modeling have been developed using empirical
methods. It is important to have some means of predicting whether the flow would
be laminar or turbulent in a given situation. In the laminar boundary layer, the
fluid motion is highly ordered and it is possible to identify streamlines along which
particles move. In the turbulent region, the motion is irregular and is characterized
by velocity fluctuations which begin to develop in the transition region. These
enhance the transfer of momentum, heat and species, and increase surface friction
as well as convection transfer rates. The problem is solved by finding a way to
use four variables: viscosity, density, velocity and diameter to characterize the flow
independent of the dimensions. The resulting dimensionless number is represented
by the symbol Re:
Lv
Reynolds number Re = (11)

With respect to the type of flow, it is generally recognized that the flow is laminar
if Re<2100 in tube flow. There is a transition period from 2100<Re<4000. Tur-
bulence can usually be well established for Re>4000. For an external flow on a flat
plate, the transition varies from 105 to 3 106 . The surface heat transfer coefficient
is related to the physical properties of a fluid, gravity, temperature difference and
the length or diameter of the container under investigation. The formulae that relate
these factors are expressed as dimensionless numbers:
hL
Nusselt number Nu = (12)
k
Cp
Prandtl number Pr = (13)
k
L 2 gT
3
Grashof number Gr = (14)
2
For the purpose of determination of the heat transfer coefficient in forced convection
systems, the NusseltReynolds correlations may be used. Instead of Reynold (Re)
number, the Grashof (Gr) number is used for natural convection problems. Heat
transfer through air is lower than through liquids. Larger heat exchangers are needed
when air is used and higher rates of heat transfer are obtained by moving air.
Condensing steam produces higher rates of heat transfer than hot water and the
presence of air in steam reduces the rate of heat transfer.
Specifically in baking, there are three common equations for the calculation of
heat transfer coefficients. For laminar flow to flat plate [13], the following equation
is used to approximate the heat transfer by convection:
Nu = 0.664Re1/2 Pr 1/3 (15)
The second equation is based on an equivalent diameter approach used for a pilot
scale conveyor biscuit oven [14]. The equivalent diameter is calculated as follows:
2bH
Deq = (16)
(b + H)
where b is the width and H is the height of the baking chamber, and Reynolds
number:
VDeq
Re = (17)
v
and the Nusselt number (valid for Re >40):
Nu = 0.7Re0.61 (18)
The third equation is a practical correlation applied for cooling and heating by air
flow over flat surfaces [15] (valid for v < 0.5 m/s):
hc = 5.7 + 3.9v (19)
A prediction equation for natural convection can be used as well, since the air
velocity range in a typical industrial oven is low and sometimes falls within the
category of mixed forced and natural convection [16]:
Nu = 0.82(GrPr)1/5 Pr 0.034 (20)
The idea is to estimate the heat transfer coefficients using a hypothetical forced
correction. If values are lower than those obtained for natural convection, values
for natural convection heat transfer coefficients are recommended.
2.1.2.1 Thermal boundary layer. In a typical baking oven, the thermal boundary
layer is considered as an insulating layer which resists heat flow between the air
mass and the product surface. This boundary layer has different properties and a
different velocity from the main fluid mass [17]. Since the convective heat transfer
coefficient is normally defined based on air mass temperature outside the boundary
layer, in order to calculate the heat transfer coefficient, the air temperature outside
the boundary layer must be known. An easy way to determine is to position various
thermocouples as different height from the surface of the product. Baik et al. [5]
demonstrated that in a typical baking oven for snack cakes where the distance
between the heating element and the product would be 200 mm and velocities lower
than 0.5 m/s, the boundary layer would be between 40 and 50 mm over the product.
2.1.3 Boiling heat transfer

If a phase change process takes place as during boiling, the heat transfer coefficient
is much more complicated than for single phase convection. Four regions can be
distinguished. In pooled boiling, at low temperature gradient, very few bubbles
are formed and released, and the heat transfer is similar to natural convection in a
liquid. During nucleate boiling, the rate of bubble production increases enhancing
the circulation of the liquid and therefore increasing the heat transfer coefficient.
During film boiling the bubbles are formed so rapidly that they join to form a film of
vapor between the surface and the liquid. It forms an insulating layer and decreases
the rate of heat transfer. With a very large temperature gradient, the heat transfer
can occur due to radiation. Boiling heat transfer can be an important phenomenon
within the product during baking as water evaporates.
2.1.4 Condensation heat transfer

Condensation occurs when saturated vapor comes into contact with a colder surface.
The liquid collects on the surface and is removed either by gravity or carried away
by the moving vapor. Two modes of condensation may be encountered. The most
common is film condensation and it occurs when a film of liquid is formed over
the entire surface. Drop-wise condensation occurs on nonwettable or contaminated
surfaces. A portion of the surface is in direct contact with the surface making heat
transfer rates much higher than for film condensation. These principles are used to
design evaporators. Upon the migration of the evaporated water within the product
during baking, condensation is likely to occur.
2.1.5 Experimental proportion of radiation and convection

Heat flux (W) or heat flux densities (W/m2 ) were found to be the best nonintrusive
indicator or metric to characterize the performance of ovens with respect to the
product upon baking. They are measured directly in the oven using commercially
available heat flux sensors. It is based on the assumption that the heat transfer
6
2
3
1 4 5
5
5
2
1
3
4
(a)
Upper zone
Heating element
Measurement
position
Plate
Band
(b)
Figure 5: (a) Simplified description of h-monitor and (b) measurement position

inside the baking chamber of the tunnel-type multizone industrial oven
tested. (1) SMOLE, (2) aluminum plate, (3) thermocouple for plate tem-
perature, (4) the original (manufacturer) thermocouple position for air-
mass temperature, (5) insulation, and (6) thermocouple holder for air
temperature measurement.
between the oven and the dough/batter is the same as between the oven and the
sensor. However, one must always remember that there are differences in surface
properties and temperatures experienced by the starchy product and the sensor.
Figure 5 shows a typical heat flux sensor used commonly for total heat flux mea-
surement.
Campden and Chorleywood Food Research Association (CCFRA) in the UK
were probably the first to report on the development of a heat flux probe allowing the
measurement of the actual heat flux (W/m2 ) to a product upon baking. Using a pilot-
scale forced convection oven, research conducted by Fearn et al. [18] established
linear relationships between heat fluxes and biscuits properties, for a wide range
of air velocity and temperature. De Vries et al. [19] demonstrated the power of
the measurement of heat fluxes to monitor and to control the baking process. They
7000
Process C
6000
Smoothed
5000
Measured
Heat flux, W/m2
Convection
4000
Radiation
3000
2000
1000
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Baking time, s
Figure 6: Relative proportion of heat transfer by radiation and convection.
suggested that a 10% reduction in energy consumption was possible, optimizing

the performance of baking ovens through the application of a heat flux approach.
Heat fluxes were found to be dependent on air temperature and velocity. Linear
relationships were established between oven conditions and biscuits properties and
oven settings and heat fluxes and power use. Li and Walker [20] measured the oven
heat transfer rates during cake baked in conventional, impingement and hybrid
ovens and reported average values of apparent convective heat transfer coefficients
using a h-monitor in commercial conveyor ovens. Under constant baking conditions
of an experimental oven kept at 300 C without forced convection and an air flow of
1 m/s, total heat fluxes were reported constant at 800019,000 W/m2 [19]. As shown
in Fig. 6, Baik et al. (1999b) [5] used the h-monitor device to evaluate heat transfer
coefficient on commercial cake in a tunnel-type electrical industrial oven. At the
beginning of the process, surface heat flux increased to around 6300 W/m2 and
then decreased quickly to 2500 W/m2 and slowly. A similar pattern was reported
for another type of cake but the maximum value was 7550 W/m2 . It then decreased
smoothly to 1570 W/m2 and increased slightly to 1950 W/m2 . Figure 6 shows that
a significant proportion of heat transfer was coming from radiation. These values
were much higher than the 1700 W/m2 to 2000 W/m2 measured in a tunnel-type
biscuit oven operated at 200 C with 13 m/s of air velocity [8] or 1200 W/m2 to
900 W/m2 (slightly decreasing) for indirect fired experimental oven kept at constant
220 C with 0.6 m/s [7].
2.1.6 Conduction
Conduction heat transfer occurs in solid bodies and is transmitted directly through
molecules. The rate of heat transferred by conduction is determined by the tem-
perature difference between the food and the heating/cooling medium and the total
resistance to heat transfer. Fouriers law of heat conduction states that the heat
transfer rate through a uniform material is directly proportional to the area of heat
transfer and the temperature gradient with reference to the thickness in the direction
of heat transfer. Mathematically, for 1D heat transfer:
dQc dT
= kA (21)
dt dx
where dQc /dt is the rate of heat transfer, A is area of heat transfer, dT /dx is the
temperature gradient across unit thickness and k is the proportionality constant
(thermal conductivity). A negative sign is included on the right-hand side because
dT /dx is negative (temperature decreases as thickness increases).
If the temperature at a given point within the food during processing depends
on the time of heating or cooling and the position within the food, unsteady-state
conduction conditions prevail. Temperature changes with time and directions result
in equations that are more complicated. The governing partial differential equation
for unsteady-state conduction heating involving a 3D body is given by
2 2 2
T T T T
= 2
+ 2
+ (22)
t x y z2
The assumptions associated with the above equation are (1) the product temperature
is uniform at the start of heating, (2) the surface temperature of the 3D body is
constant after the start of heating and (3) the product thermal diffusivity is constant
with time, temperature and position in the body. The differential equation can
be solved analytically for simple shapes (cylinders, slab or sphere). For complex
geometries or for thermal properties that vary as a function of the position within
the food, numerical methods are needed to solve these equations.
Evidence of a significant heat transfer by conduction can be easily demonstrated
while baking starch products in moulds. Figure 7 exhibits cup cakes that were taken
out before the end of baking. The core structure collapsed and a layer of cooked
solid product was found from the mould surface to the core of the product.
Baik et al. [6] have calculated the approximated proportion of individual heat
transfer (radiation, convection, conduction) for two tunnel-type baking ovens (elec-
trically operated and gas fired) and four types of products. Figure 8 shows that the
heat transfer to the top surface (Qs ) occupied 20.256.2% of the total heat in both
ovens. Radiation was the predominant heat transfer mode (79.5% and 81.5%) for
the top surface of cakes in the gas oven. Using the electric oven 66.2% and 72.4%
of the total top surface heat transfer was provided by radiation. If the radiation heat
from the heating element was taken into consideration, a higher ratio of radiation
could be observed. In addition, the assumption of the average conditions and the
uniform radiation transfer across the oven length could cause some deviations. The
conduction ratio to total heat was higher in the electric mould oven (79.8% and
78.1%) than in the gas oven (43.7% and 49.0%). The area of the exposed surface
receiving radiation and convective heat was smaller than that in the gas oven.
A thorough understanding of the heat transfer mechanisms make possible to
adjust heat fluxes from bottom and top chambers of various types of ovens in order
Figure 7: Evidence of conduction heating within cup cake during baking.
H2O Air H2O Air
Qs/Qt=44-48% Qs/Qt=20-22%
Qr/Qs=80-82% Qr/Qs=66-72%
INLET INLET Qcv/Qs=28-34%
Qcv/Qs=18-20%
Qco/Qt=52-56% OUTLET
Qco/Qt=78-80%
Qcs/Qt: 38% Qcs/Qt: 26-36%
Ql/Qt:62%) Ql/Qt:64-74%)
Qcv: HT by convection
Qcs: HT by sensible heat
Qco: HT by conduction
Ql: HT by latent heat
Qr: HT by radiation
Qs: HT at the surface
Figure 8: Relative proportion of heat transfer by radiation, convection and conduc-

tion.
to avoid the generation of major defects. Zareifard et al. [21] developed a method
to balance heat fluxes for a newly designed pilot oven aiming at representing con-
tinuous baking conditions of various tunnel-type industrial ovens. In their process
for validation of the pilot oven heat fluxes, they found that as the total heat flux
from the top and the bottom chambers were closer to the total industrial heat flux,
the proportion of volcanos was decreased exponentially as shown in Figure 9.
Zareifard et al. [21] also identified that heat flux sensors were limited in detecting
heating heterogeneity at 5% difference within the location in the baking ovens. To
obtain uniform baked cakes, differences of 24% were necessary. Starchy products
were found to be highly sensitive to heat fluxes.
8 000 Top 1
Top 2
Bottom 1
Heat Flux (W/m2)

6 000
Bottom 2
4 000
2 000
0
Time (s) 0 100 200 300 400
(a)
1
Proportion of volcanoes
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.90 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1.00
Heat flux relative to plant (-)
(b)
Figure 9: Adjustment of the heating profiles for bottom and top chambers to prevent
the generation of volcanos: (a) high proportion of volcanos and (b) low
proportion of volcanos.
2.1.7 Moisture distribution within product

The initial moisture content of starchy products is a result of water addition at
the dough mixing stage together with water naturally present in some ingredients.
As shown in Fig. 10, moisture contents, expressed on a dry basis, were found to
decrease linearly as a function of baking time which would tend to indicate that
drying rate were constant. However, it cannot be clearly stated that no falling rate
existed since the air temperature and humidity were variable during baking and only
point measurements were performed. The rate of drying may be one of comparative
parameters in the baking process. In the case of cookie baking [22] in a continuous
oven (160200 C), the constant drying rate period seemed to occupy around 40%
of the whole baking process. The drying rate was about 1.82 103 kg H2 O/kg
solid s (estimated from the data in the graph). During bread baking in an electric
batch oven (200 C), the drying rate varied from 2.78 105 to 2.36 104 kg
H2 O/kg solid s [23]. Baik et al. [2] found that magnitudes of the drying rate of
cakes (4.677 104 kg H2 O/kg solid s to 1.395 103 kg H2 O/kg solid s) fell
between those of cookie (typical final moisture content: 4%) and bread (35%).
2.1.8 Simultaneous modeling of temperature and moisture distribution

within product
It is generally recognized [24] that the temperature and moisture distribution within
the product can be predicted using the following heat and water diffusion equations:
T C
Heat diffusion b Cpb = (kp T ) + l v (23)
t t
60 50
Moisture content, dry basis, %

Cake A Cake B
50 40
40
30
30
20
20
10 10
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250
50

Cake C 40 Cake D
40
30
30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
Figure 10: Evolution of moisture content within the cake during baking.
C
Water diffusion = (DC) + l (T ) (24)
t
with boundary conditions
kp T n = ht (Ta Ts ) (25)
DC n = hm (Ca Cs ) (26)
kn T n = (Tkw
4
Tks
4
) (27)
The heat and water diffusion equations are coupled through the second term of
the right side of eqns (1) and (2) and must be solved simultaneously. To predict
temperature and water distributions within the product during baking knowledge of
product properties such as bulk density, heat capacity, thermal conductivity, effec-
tive moisture diffusivity is necessary. Because product properties are temperature
and water dependent, the resulting system of equations is nonlinear and the solution
procedure is more complex. It is also necessary to obtain accurate values of the latent
heat of evaporation and convective heat and water transfer coefficients. Since the
radiation heat transfer is predominant, values of absorption coefficient of product,
oven surfaces and air/steam mixtures are required. To obtain transient temperature
and water distribution in the product, nonlinear partial differential equations with
appropriate initial and boundary condition have to be solved using numerical meth-
ods (e.g. finite difference or finite element). In addition, heat and water transport
analysis of the baking chamber requires solution of 3D conservation equations for
mass momentum, energy and water.
3 Physical, thermal and mass transfer properties

3.1 Thermophysical properties
Heat capacity, thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity and density are regarded
as key thermophysical properties for modeling of heat transfers during baking as
well as to design baking ovens. Information regarding thermophysical properties
of batter, dough and bakery products is scarce in the literature and usually not
available at various temperature, moisture and density levels. Until now, many
researchers have measured thermophysical properties with various measurement
techniques that are found in the literature. Rask [25] reviewed data and prediction
models of thermal properties of bakery products. Lind [26] presented measurement
techniques and models for thermal properties of dough during freezing and thaw-
ing. Traditionally, properties were measured on bread products but recent studies
focused more on other starchy products. Baik et al. [27] measured thermophys-
ical properties as affected by cake baking conditions and volume expansion and
observed a combined effect of moisture content, temperature and density on thermal
properties. The interaction between moisture content and density was significant
for thermal conductivity as was the interaction between temperature and moisture
content on specific heat. They found discrepancies between predicted and experi-
mental values, especially for thermal conductivities that are greatly influenced by
the porosity of the starchy product. More recently, Baik et al. [28] reviewed com-
mon and new measurement techniques, prediction models and published data on
thermal and physical properties of bakery products. Even though several modeling
approaches have been proposed to predict thermal properties of a material at desired
conditions, none of them can be used over a wide range of foods [29]. The most
promising approach is based on chemical composition, temperature and physical
characteristics. A general expression of series model gives the thermal property of
foods as a function of the thermal property of its components [30]. This has been
applied successfully for specific heat, density and thermal diffusivity of bakery
products, considered as a porous material. For the prediction of thermal conduc-
tivity of porous food, a theoretical argument favors the use of a parallel structural
model (two phases: continuous and discontinuous) or the use of the Maxwell
Euken model. Other structural models include the Kopelman, the Keey, the fluid
continuous, the solid continuous, the combined parallelperpendicular and the ran-
dom distribution. In their evaluation of nine different structural models, Murakami
and Okos [29] found that parallel and perpendicular models showed 1297% and
1861% standard errors. These models require empirical factors or product spe-
cific information not easily available in the literature. All structural models neglect
interactions between components and phase transitions which are significant in

bakery manufacturing. Therefore, regression models based on experimental data
are used more than structural models. Moreover, for bakery products, there is a sig-
nificant volume increase to be included for the prediction of properties. A similar
approach is used in drying where it has been demonstrated that it was important to
take into account nonhomogeneous shrinkage to predict the drying of macroscopic
phases. For bakery products, the mass fraction model (water and dry solid) was
found to give satisfactory results for specific heat. However, predicted values are
generally lower than experimental data, attributed to the binding of water within
the structure. Due to the complexity of the mixing, proofing and baking processes
in which chemical and physical reactions (e.g. phase transition of water) occur, the
complicated temperature and water content history that are location dependent and
the significant volume expansion of the whole structure, empirical models such as
regressions or neural network approaches [31] are found to be more appropriate
than structural models for the calculation of properties. Neural networks as a mod-
eling technique have several advantages. First, these can relate the input and output
variable without any prior knowledge of the relationship between them. Second,
they can be used for modeling very complicated and nonlinear case with multiple
input and output variables. Third, neural networks have much faster calculation
speed than conventional mathematical modeling methods.
3.2 Mass diffusion and transfer properties
Compared to thermal properties, mass diffusivities of bakery products have been

poorly studied. The moisture diffusivity within an expanding cake structure was
studied by Baik and Marcotte [32]. Table 1 shows the resulting values of moisture
diffusivities as a function of moisture content and porosity.
Moisture diffusivities for high porosity samples decreased with increasing mois-
ture content. Those for low porosity samples increased with increasing moisture
content while those for middle porosity samples rose and fell as moisture content
increased. The porosity and moisture were inversely related. This was explained,
at temperatures below 7080 C, by the water migrating in a liquid state accom-
panied by liquid water diffusivities increasing with the water content. At higher
temperatures, the porosity increased as a considerable amount of water was being
generated. The water migrated both in the liquid and in the vapor state. Moving
toward a greater amount of vapor, water diffusivity in a porous media was found to
be directly proportional to the porosity, decreasing as the water content decreased.
Mass transfer coefficients can be estimated using the heat and mass transfer
analogy which was applied to the modeling of biscuit baking in a tunnel baking
oven [33]:
hc
= 64.7 kg/ms2 K (28)
h m v
Table 1: Effective moisture diffusivity De 1010 m2 of cake batter during baking.
Relationship of temperature to the average porosity
Low Medium High High

= 0.150.2 = 0.350.5 = 0.550.7 = 0.70.8
Average product 33.135.9 C 53.558.5 C 73.884.1 C 118126 C

temperature in the
first falling rate
period
Mo (d.b.)
0.369 0.990.1 4.60.5 313 3822
0.431 1.20.1 5.61.0 266 35064
0.539 1.310.01 5.62.4 2717 340130
0.611 1.20.2 5.00.1 255 340140
0.707 1.40.2 4.81.5 223 27023
4 Starchy products as bubble foods or cellular solids

Starchy products belong to the broad category of softmaterials considered as man-
made heterogeneous structures. These cellular solids comprised of a solid matrix
and an associated fluid (mostly air) and contain more than one phase at macro-
scopic level. If the fluid is air, cellular solids have low densities. Cellular solids
are alternatively named bubble foods. The constituents can retain their identity or
interact with each other in various phases. Typically bakery products (e.g. breads,
cookies, cakes) fall in this category because they are comprised of solid structures
containing air giving them their desired or appealing textural properties.
The principles for studying the structure and properties of cellular solids were
laid out by Gibson and Ashby [34] and by Weaire and Hutzler [35]. A relationship
was established between the Youngs modulus (an indication of the hardness of the
structure) and the density as well as between the failure stress and the density as

2
= C and

1.5

= C (29)

where C is the parameter characterizing the microstructure, * indicates the prop-
erty of the cellular solid whereas the absence of * indicates only the property of
the solids without bubbles. At first, food technologists applied these principles to
develop consistent strategies for creating and controlling cellularity in extruded
starch foams [36]. Models were developed further to describe volume expansion
in other areas of research [37], for extrudate expansion [38] and for bread [39]. To
demystify structure-property relationships of cereal products, Elmehdi et al. [40,

41] used the same principles. It is interesting to point out that the volume fraction
occupied by gas bubbles in a final bread product may represent more than 50% of the
total loaf volume [42]. However, the majority of the rheological studies on starchy
products [43] have not viewed the presence of gas bubbles as an important area
of investigation, despite their importance to the rheological properties of the pro-
cessed dough/batter. Alternatively, Campbell et al. [44] are viewing starchy product
making as a series of aeration stages with published detailed results on number,
size and distribution of bubbles during the proofing of bread. In their recent study,
Babin et al. [45] have shown that the Gibson and Ashby models could not explain
satisfactorily the great dispersion of experimental data for extruded starches. The
difference of mechanical properties for samples of same density could be explained
by their inherent microstructure (number of bubbles, size and distribution).
It is well recognized in the literature that there is not only a strong relationship
between the formulation (choice and quantity of ingredients) and final product prop-
erties but also between processing conditions and final product properties [2, 6].
Moreover, the properties are influenced by the structure that may be evolving during
processing. Due to a lack of knowledge, most of the research on these relationships
are specific to a particular operation and product, and the relationships are estab-
lished using a trial and error approach. The processing of a typical bakery product
requires several steps including using the appropriate flour (the major ingredient
that may change from year to year due to varying weather conditions, origin of
the grain, cultural practices, grain milling processes, etc.), adding other ingredients
(e.g. sugar, fat, leavening agents, water) by mixing (incorporation of air), forming,
proofing (e.g. bread fermentation for CO2 production) and final baking (e.g. air
temperature, humidity and velocity in various ovens, moisture evaporation within
the product) at the industrial plant. Variations at any of these steps (e.g. flour grain
production, milling factory, bakery plant) can affect ones ability to manufacture a
bakery product of the final structure with desired macroscopic physical characteris-
tics (e.g. consistent dimension, density, moisture content, surface color and texture).
Industrial variability is experienced quite frequently (e.g. uncontrolled thickness of
cookies, undesirable cake volcanos, textural variations making the resulting cook-
ies more brittle and fragile, bread or cookie dough sticking to the equipment during
the forming process). In a typical bakery plant, the control of the product yield
(i.e. the ratio of a given mass of product to its volume) is compulsory. On the one
hand, it is relatively easy to control the mass of product. This is performed on a
routine basis as a quality control measurement. However, since the volume of a
typical bakery product will expand significantly (410 times) upon processing (e.g.
proofing, baking), controlling the volume expansion (i.e. the yield) still remains an
important difficulty. Troubleshooting of these recurring variability problems is not
an easy task and requires in-depth, hands-on practical experience. Because of a lack
of basic understanding of the mechanisms involved, solutions are normally found
empirically. This is quite time consuming and expensive (because of the quantity
of raw materials needed), and results in considerable product waste. Understand-

ing the effect of ingredient selection and processing conditions on the resulting
structure and properties during mixing, proofing and baking is a key issue.
4.1 Volume expansion kinetics
During baking, as the dough/batter of starchy products increased, the macroscopic

volume is expanding from the effect of the air incorporation (mixing), the pro-
duction of CO2 either by the chemical agent or by fermentation (proofing) and the
water vaporization (during baking). For all starchy products, typical kinetic profiles
are usually obtained: an increase up to around two-thirds to two-fourths of the bak-
ing time then a decrease to some extent. As invasive measurements may provoke
dough/batter collapsing, nondestructive or noninvasive methods are increasingly
being used to elucidate the food structure to provide a better understanding of the
nucleation and growth of bubbles. As an example, digital image analysis was used
to classify various cellular structures of spongy cereal products [46]. Characteriza-
tion of the microstructure of cereal-based foods as a function of moisture content
has been recently achieved using Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy
(ESEM), allowing the examination of food samples for high water activity range
in their natural state [47, 48]. More recently, X-ray tomography [45] was used to
study the 3D structure with a high resolution without the need for sample prepa-
ration. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) [49, 50] has been successfully used to
study the movement of water during proofing of bread in an attempt to assess the
local porosity. More recently, MRI has been applied to study bubble expansion and
growth in bread during baking [51]. Recently, low frequency ultrasounds (50 kHz)
have been used successfully to monitor bread dough fermentation [40], to investi-
gate the cellular structure of bread crumb [41]. More and more ultrasounds are seen
as useful tools for investigating mechanical properties or structural characteristics
or viscoelastic materials. Results reported in the literature are highly frequency
dependent. The velocity has greater sensitivity to the presence of bubbles at low
frequencies and to the properties of the dough matrix at high frequencies. Although
for other field (e.g. polymer foams), there has been a great deal of development
for online monitoring [52, 53], these transducers are still being adapted for online
ultrasonic monitoring of batters and other food systems [54].
Figure 11 shows the volume expansion kinetics at various temperatures. A typ-
ical increase was observed to reach a maximum volume. Then the cake volume
decreased significantly. The height of the cake as well as the rate of increase is
greatly affected by the baking temperature. These profiles are typically obtained for
other bakery products such as bread [55] or cookies and are even similar to those
obtained for extruded products [38]. A visual observation of the baking process
demonstrated that the volume expansion ceased as soon as there was a significant
crust formation at the surface. As well, the viscous batter is gradually becoming
an elastic cellular solid. Bubbles expansion is reduced by the solidification of the
structure.
40
38
Height at Centre (mm) 36
34
32
Baking at 200C
30
Baking at 225C
28
Baking at 250C
26
Baking at 275C
24
Baking at 300C
22
20
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Time (s)
Figure 11: Volume expansion kinetics.
The shape of the curves in Fig. 11 is typically encountered for all bakery products
although the magnitude of volume expansion or spread may change according to
product formulations or recipes.
4.2 Modeling of volume expansion kinetics
It is well understood that volume expansion is necessary to create an aerated

structure in the baked starchy products with desired characteristics of mouth feel,
digestibility and softness, etc. Volume expansion is the result of gaseous expansion
incorporated during mixing (expansion of air), yeast proving or chemical leavening
reaction (CO2 generation) and baking (water vapor generation). The driving force
of the volume expansion phenomenon is the expansion of all individual bubbles
within the structure due to the pressure difference between the inside and the out-
side of the bakery product. Volume expansion has been modeled using two distinct
approaches either rheology or diffusion based. Using the rheology approach, the
volume expansion results from an imposed pressure difference between the gas
bubble and the surrounding liquid whereas in the diffusion-based methodology,
volume expansion is governed by the rate of mass transfer of the diffusing species.
New hybrid models combine both approaches. A 1D model for heat and mass trans-
fer within a sponge cake batter during a baking process was developed by Lostie
et al. [56]. This model took into account both the heat and mass transfers com-
bined with the thickness change of cake during baking. Fan et al. [39] suggested a
volume expansion model of dough during baking based on rheology whereas Shah
et al. [57] developed a simplified model for the growth of individual bubbles in
bread dough based on the mechanism of gasliquid diffusion to describe the bub-
ble growth. Although most studies on modeling concentrated on the description of
either the heat or/and moisture transfer or volume expansion during baking only
few reported on dealing with all combination of phenomena and that is necessary
to understand the volume expansion as affected by baking conditions and bakery

product recipes. Various input data on properties varying with time and temperature
is necessary to use these models. These are not necessarily easily measurable or
even available in the literature. In reference to Fig. 11, it is generally well accepted
that the first part of the graph is relatively easy to model whereas the second part is
not very well understood. The understanding of volume expansion will remain for
few years a very popular R&D subject.
5 Conclusions
Baking is crucial in determining the quality of flour-based foods. The quality factors
of baked products include many aspects such as sponginess, flavor, texture, volume
and browning. These quality factors or process outputs are varied with process input
variables: oven temperature, moisture and process time.
The process of baking is complicated because it involves not only physical
changes, such as temperature and moisture because of heat transfer and moisture
transfer, but also chemical reactions to generate the desired final product quality,
i.e. a typical bubble or aerated structure, a good flavor and an optimal color. In
addition, most of material properties are dependent on baking conditions such as
temperature, moisture and process time. It is hard to measure these properties under
these conditions. Thus, it is still a challenging subject for food scientists to develop
such a model which can simulate the baking process especially under conditions
of a real baking system including baking oven and the food product.
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Food and Bioproducts Processing, 76, pp. 7379, 1998.

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CHAPTER 8

Heat and mass transfer during baking

NaHCO3 Na+ + HCO3 (1)

or from the yeast fermentation (before or during baking) assuming Y as an alcoholic

Zn Y Z n1 + 2CO2 + 2C2 H5 OH (3)

Figure 1: Evolution of the pH of starchy products during baking.

product structure results in a significant moisture loss qualified as moderate drying.

Batter on the band

Lower 7.11 m 7.11 m 7.11 m

Mold Hole for test

Figure 3: Generation of volcanos during baking of cup cakes.

Radiation Hot Air Radiation

Figure 4: Heat and mass transfer phenomena.

Radiation is an exchange of energy between two surfaces at two different tempera-

2.1.3 Boiling heat transfer

2.1.4 Condensation heat transfer

2.1.5 Experimental proportion of radiation and convection

Figure 5: (a) Simplified description of h-monitor and (b) measurement position

Figure 6: Relative proportion of heat transfer by radiation and convection.

suggested that a 10% reduction in energy consumption was possible, optimizing

Figure 7: Evidence of conduction heating within cup cake during baking.

H2O Air H2O Air

Figure 8: Relative proportion of heat transfer by radiation, convection and conduc-

Heat Flux (W/m2)

2.1.7 Moisture distribution within product

2.1.8 Simultaneous modeling of temperature and moisture distribution

Moisture content, dry basis, %

Moisture content, dry basis, %

Moisture content, dry basis, %

3 Physical, thermal and mass transfer properties

interactions between components and phase transitions which are significant in

3.2 Mass diffusion and transfer properties

Compared to thermal properties, mass diffusivities of bakery products have been

Table 1: Effective moisture diffusivity De 1010 m2 of cake batter during baking.

Relationship of temperature to the average porosity

Low Medium High High

Average product 33.135.9 C 53.558.5 C 73.884.1 C 118126 C

4 Starchy products as bubble foods or cellular solids

demystify structure-property relationships of cereal products, Elmehdi et al. [40,

of raw materials needed), and results in considerable product waste. Understand-

4.1 Volume expansion kinetics

During baking, as the dough/batter of starchy products increased, the macroscopic

Figure 11: Volume expansion kinetics.

4.2 Modeling of volume expansion kinetics

It is well understood that volume expansion is necessary to create an aerated

to understand the volume expansion as affected by baking conditions and bakery

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