Chapter 8

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Learning Objectives

1. Describe the communication process.

2. Describe the impact of information technology on interpersonal communication in

organizations.

3. Explain how nonverbal communication can be used to enhance communication.

4. Present details about the various channels of communication in organizations.

5. Summarize barriers to effective communication and how to overcome them.

6. Explain how to overcome potential cross-gender and cross-cultural communication problems.

7. Recognize the basics for becoming a more power-oriented communicator.

Chapter Outline and Lecture Notes

I. THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Environment

Environment
Environment

(Sender)
Message

Environment
 Interpersonal communication takes place through a series of steps. For effective communication to
take place, seven components must be present, as follows:

1. Source (the sender).

2. Message. The heart of a communication event is the message, a purpose or idea to be conveyed.
3. Channel (medium). Several communication channels are usually available for sending
messages in organizations.
4. Receiver (the recipient).
5. Feedback. Messages sent back from receiver to sender are referred to as feedback. Without
feedback it is difficult to know whether a message has been received and understood.
6. Environment. The organizational culture is a key environmental factor that influences
communication.
7. Noise. Noise is anything that disrupts communication, including the attitudes and emotions of
the receiver.

II. COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Advances in information technology have influenced the quantity and quality of interpersonal
communication in the workplace. Quite often the influence has been positive, but at other times
communication effectiveness has decreased.

A. E-Mail
E-mail has had two major impacts on interpersonal communication. First, written messages
replace many telephone and in-person interchanges. Second, people receive many more
messages than they did by paper and telephone. E-mail facilitates communication, including
making the workplace more democratic because so many workers can communicate with upper
management. A widespread problem with e-mail is that it encourages the indiscriminate
sending of messages including trivial information, and mass distribution of information of
interest to a limited number of people.

Some business firms have counterattacked the problems associated with e-mail by shifting to
related technologies. Among them are private workplace wikis, blogs, instant messaging, RSS,
and more elaborate forms of groupware that enables people to subscribe to the information they
need. For many workers, e-mail has become manageable due in part to dedicating certain times
of the day to dealing with e-mail. Exhibit 8-2 provides suggestions for the productive use of e-
mail.

The most impersonal use of e-mail is for firing people, either for poor performance or as part of
downsizing.

B. Company Blogs (Web Logs)

The blog communicates business information, but with a soft, human touch. The company blog
can be used to communicate with employees in a relaxed, casual tone. Employees as well as
customers can provide valuable feedback to management.

C. Presentation Technology
Speakers in all types of organizations supplement their talk with computer slides and
transparencies for overhead projectors. The ability to prepare a slide presentation has become a
corporate survival skill. A communication challenge is that during an oral presentation the
predominant means of connection between sender and receiver is eye contact. Suggestions for
integrating speaking skills with the new technology are:
 1. Reveal points only as needed.
2. Talk to the audience and not the screen.
3. Keep the slide in view until the audience gets the point.

D. Telecommuting and the Distributed Workforce

A major deviation from the traditional work schedule is spending full-time or part-time
working away from company premises. An estimated 22.5 million people in the United States
work at home, out of their cars, or from customer premises as corporate employees.
Collectively they are referred to as the distributed workforce.

Telecommuting is an arrangement in which employees use computers to perform their regular

work responsibilities at home or in a satellite office. Telecommuters usually spend some time in
the company office, including attending meetings. People can also work at home, not using a
computer. A major communication challenge to telecommuters is that they lose out on the
social interaction of work (face time).

E. The Impact of Computer-Mediated Communication on Behavior

On the positive side, communication can be more widespread and immediate than in making
telephone calls, holding meetings, or sending hard-copy memos. Computerized information has
also had substantial negative impacts on behavior in organizations. Limited human touch is a
real problem. Internet surfing can lower productivity. Repetitive motion disorder is a major
problem. Electronic customer service systems can be frustrating to use, and being a wired
managerial worker can interfere with personal life.

Finally, computerized communication encourages multitasking to the point that many workers
feel they are wasting time unless they are attempting two tasks at once, such as talking on a cell
telephone and accessing e-mail.

III. NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

A substantial amount of interpersonal communication occurs through nonverbal communication,

the transmission of messages by means other than words. Nonverbal communication usually
supplements rather than substitutes for writing, speaking, and sign language. The general purpose
of nonverbal communication is to express the feeling behind a message. Nine categories of
nonverbal communication are noted here.

1. Environment. The physical setting in which a message takes place communicates meaning.
2. Body placement. The placement of one's body in relation to someone else is widely used to
transmit messages.
3. Posture. A person's posture often serves as a clue to his or her attitude.
4. Hand gestures. For example, palms spread out can indicate perplexity.
5. Facial expression and movement. Both provide reliable cues as to approval, disapproval, or
disbelief.
6. Voice tone. Voice aspects may communicate confidence, nervousness, and confidence.
7. Clothing, dress, and appearance. A person's image communicates a message.
8. Mirroring. To mirror is to build rapport with another person by imitating his or her voice tone,
breathing rate, body movement, and language.
 9. Touching. Touch is a powerful vehicle for conveying such emotions as warmth, comfort,
agreement, approval, reassurance, and physical attraction. Yet touching behavior in the work
place is governed by cultural attitudes and status.

One practical application of nonverbal communication is to project enthusiasm and confidence with
body language, such as moving closer to the sender. A key workplace application of nonverbal
communication in current use is the art of spotting nervous or threatening behavior among airport
passengers (or those preparing to board). Many nonverbal signs are ambiguous, thus lowering their
communication effectiveness.

IV. ORGANIZATIONAL CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION

Messages in organizations travel over many different channels or paths.

A. Formal Communication Channels

Formal communication channels are defined as the official pathways for sending information
inside and outside an organization. These channels are specified in a bureaucratic organization
with its many layers. Communication channels are difficult to follow in the modern network
organization, a spherical structure that can rotate self-managing teams and other resources
around a common knowledge base. The purpose of the network organization is to enter into a
strategic alliance.

B. Informal Communication Channel

An informal communication channel is the unofficial network that supplements the formal
channel. Most of these informal channels rise out of necessity. The grapevine is the major
informal channel in organizations. The grapevine often carries negative rumors and gossip yet
is sometimes used purposely to disseminate information along informal lines.

C. Rumors

Rumors are an important communication force within organizations, and they tend to thrive in
organizations with poor corporate communication, such as a penitentiary. One approach to
minimizing rumors is to promote healthy, accurate information. A problem with inaccurate
rumors is that they can distract workers, create anxiety, and decrease productivity.

D. Chance Encounters and Management by Walking Around

Chance encounters between managers and employees can be an efficient and effective informal
communication channel. One important communication channel can be classified as formal or
informal. Management by walking around involves managers intermingling freely with
workers on the shop floor, in the office, and with customers. The process enhances open
communication.

E. Communication Directions

Downward communication is the flow of messages from one level to a lower level. Upward
communication is the transmission of messages from lower to higher levels. Upward channels
include management by walking around, chance encounters, chatting, and the open-door policy.
Horizontal communication is sending messages among people at the same organizational level,
 such as coworkers communicating. Diagonal communication is the transmission of messages to
higher or lower organizational levels in different units. Spherical communication takes place
among members from different teams in the network organization.

V. BARRIERS TO INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Barriers exist at every step in the communication process. Interference is the most likely when a
message is complex, arouses emotion, or clashes with a receiver's mental set. The first four
communication barriers described here relate primarily to sending messages; the last three more to
receiving them.

1. Semantics. Many communication problems are created by semantics, the varying meanings
people attach to words.
2. Filtering of negative information. A formidable upward communication barrier is filtering, the
coloring and altering of information to make it more acceptable to the receiver.
3. Credibility of the sender. The more trustworthy the source or sender, the greater the probability
that the messages will get through clearly.
c. Women are more likely to give compliments, whereas men are more likely to be
critical.
d. Men tend to be more directive in their conversation, whereas women emphasize
politeness.
e. Women tend to downplay their certainty; men are more likely to minimize their doubts.

4. Overcoming Cross-Cultural Communication Barriers

Managers face the challenge of preventing and overcoming communication barriers created
by differences in language and customs. Sensitivity to cultural differences goes a long way
toward overcoming these potential communication barriers. Additional suggestions follow:
a. Show respect for all workers.
b. Use straightforward language and speak slowly and clearly.
c. Be alert to cultural differences in customs and behavior.
d. Be sensitive to differences in nonverbal communication.
e. Do not be diverted by style, accent, grammar, or personal appearance.
f. Listen for understanding, not agreement.
g. Be attentive to individual differences in appearance.

VI. USE THE POWER-ORIENTED LINGUISTIC STYLE

A major part of being persuasive involves choosing the right linguistic style, a persons
characteristic speaking pattern. A linguistic style is complex because it includes the culturally
learned signals by which people communicate what they mean, along with how they interpret what
others say and how they evaluate others. Here is a sampling of the components of linguistic style
that would give power and authority to the message sender.
1. Choose words that show conviction, such as Im convinced.
2. Use the pronoun I to receive more credit for your ideas.
3. Emphasize direct rather than indirect talk.
4. Speak at length, set the agenda for a conversation, make jokes and laugh.
5. Apologize infrequently, and particularly minimize saying, Im sorry.
VII. IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERIAL PRACTICE

Because communication is the basic process by which managers and professionals carry out their
functions, it is critical to work toward unclogging communication channels. Be aware of
communication barriers and recognize the receivers frame of reference. Two-way communication
is usually superior to one-way. Interact with the receiver to foster understanding. Pay attention to
the nonverbal messages you send and receive. A starting point is to become more conscious of
ones facial expressions and those of other people. Language has become more informal, yet
committing too many language errors can hold a person back from being promoted into higher-
level positions.