Materials Research Innovations

ISSN: 1432-8917 (Print) 1433-075X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ymri20

Coconut-based bacterial cellulose carbon

nanofibers

Zhiming Zhao, Yingjie Hua, Chenghang You, Yi Li, Huan Liu, Huihao Huang,
Xiaofang Wu, Yizhen Wang & Chongtai Wang

To cite this article: Zhiming Zhao, Yingjie Hua, Chenghang You, Yi Li, Huan Liu, Huihao Huang,
Xiaofang Wu, Yizhen Wang & Chongtai Wang (2016): Coconut-based bacterial cellulose carbon
nanofibers, Materials Research Innovations, DOI: 10.1080/14328917.2016.1192015

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14328917.2016.1192015

Published online: 10 Jun 2016.

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Download by: [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] Date: 12 June 2016, At: 04:01
 Coconut-based bacterial cellulose carbon
nanofibers
Zhiming Zhao1, Yingjie Hua1, Chenghang You1, Yi Li1, Huan Liu1,
Huihao Huang1, Xiaofang Wu1, Yizhen Wang*2 and Chongtai Wang*1
A series of porous carbon nanofibres, with network-like structures and high surface area, were
prepared using low-cost renewable bacterial cellulose, fabricated from the raw materials of coconut.
The performances of these coconut-based bacterial cellulose carbon nanofibres (BCCNFs) strongly
rely on their porous network-like graphitised structure. The carbonisation temperatures affect both
the graphitic degree of BCCNFs and the uniformity of their porous structure. The specific capacitance
of BCCNFs at 900C drops off due to the decrease in the uniformity of their porous structure. The
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prepared BCCNFs materials exhibited high electrochemical energy storage performance (with its specific
capacitance in 6M KOH solution being 289Fg1) and cycling excellent stability (after 5000 charge
discharge cycles, the material still maintained more than 80% of its initial capacitance), making them
potential for the practical application of supercapacitors.
Keywords: Bacterial cellulose, Porous carbon nanofibres, Coconut, Specific capacitance, Supercapacitors

Introduction Carbon materials are considered to be the ideal electrode

materials for the supercapacitors, owing to their good electri-
With the development of human society, the contradictions cal conductivity and stability, as well as the low-cost merit.10
between the demand of human for energy and the gradual In recent few years, the bacterial cellulose (BC), which can
depletion of the fossil energy resources become more promi- be easily acquired from green plants in land and crustaoc-
nent.1 At the same time, the environmental pollution, resulted ean in ocean, is of interest for preparing the novel carbon
from the production and consumption of energy, provides materials for supercapacitor. BC is a kind of renewable bio-
a serious threat to both the human health and the social logical material with the characteristics of low cost-efficient
development. Therefore, the development of the renewable production, high mechanical strength, light weight, large
energy and related energy storage technology is of great sig- surface area and sufficient porosity, as well as a unique fibre
nificance. Supercapacitor is a new type of energy storage network-like structure designed by nature.20, 21 Moreover, it
element, which relies on electric double-layers for the direct, has been shown recently that BC can produce abundant het-
fast physical storage and release of electric energy,1 and can eroatom functional groups in the resultant carbon materials,
thus offset the deficiencies of other power sources such as which further enhance the pseudocapacitance effects except
batteries and fuel cells. Compared with batteries, fuel cells for the electric double-layer one, thus leading to the improve-
and other conventional capacitors, supercapacitor has the ment of the electrochemical properties of supercapacitors.
advantages of high capacity, high power density, high effi- Coconut is one of the popular raw materials for preparing
ciency and long chargedischarge cycle life,3, 4 and has been BC materials by bacterial fermentation.21 Hainan, an island in
demonstrated to have the applications in both the human life the tropical region in China, is rich in the resource of coconut.
and industrial production. In recent years, supercapacitor has In this work, we report on the bacterial cellulose carbon-
attracted considerable attention in both scientific and techno- ised nanofibres (BCCNFs) with the porous network struc-
logical areas because of their prominent merits, multifunc- ture, fabricated from the raw materials of coconut. Detailed
tional properties and great potential applications. However, electrochemical and structural analysis has been provided to
the energy density of the developed supercapacitors is still characterise the electrochemical and structural properties of
significantly low, which greatly limits their further promo- all prepared BCCNFs, especially the dependence of which
tions and applications.5, 6 The energy density of the super- on the carbonisation temperature. We show that the prepared
capacitor depends mainly on its electrode material used. To coconut-based BCCNFs exhibit the excellent physical and
develop the high-performance supercapacitor, the electrode chemical properties including porosity, electrical energy
material with the good thermal and chemical stability, good storage and long-cycle stability; and that the carbonisation
electrochemical properties and high electrical conductivity temperature affects both the graphitic degree of BCCNFs and
is essentially required. the uniformity of their porous structure, thus changing their
1
School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal electrochemical properties.
University, Haikou 571158, China It is believed that our work can provide an experimental
2
School of Physics and Electronic Engineering, Hainan Normal University,
Haikou 571158, China basis for the application of BC materials and the resultant
device in the field of energy storage.
*Corresponding authors, email wangxuesu1980@163.com (Y. Wang)
wct581@sina.com (C. Wang)

2016 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

Received 24 February 2016; accepted 16 May 2016
DOI 10.1080/14328917.2016.1192015 Materials Research Innovations2016 1
 Zhao et al. Coconut-based bacterial cellulose carbon nanofibers

Experiment section freeze-dried BC has the network structure consisting of a large

number of fibres with the diameter of 2060nm. Through
The BC pellicles were cultured and provided by Hainan carbonising the BC samples in the nitrogen atmosphere and
Yeguo Foods Co., Ltd, China. The samples of BCCNFs were at temperatures from 600 to 900C, the water inside the BC
prepared by one-step carbonisation of the coconut-based samples was evaporated and some heteroatoms were left
bacterial cellulose in the same procedure as reported by Yuan from polycarbonhydrate, which leads to the formation of the
et al.22: freeze-drying the BC pellicles and carbonising under carbonised BC nanofibres with the worm-like microporous
flowing nitrogen from 600 to 900C. structure, as shown in Fig. 1b. The higher the carbonising
The phase structures of samples were analysed by a D8 temperature is, more compact the network structure of the
ADVANCE X-ray diffractometer (Cu K, 40kv, 40 mA, carbonised BC nanofibre will be. These linked carbon nano-
=1.54). The morphologies were observed by scanning fibres with porous structure could act as fast electronic and
electron microscope (SEM, HITACHI S4800). The Raman ionic conducting paths for energy storage.
spectrum was recorded in a backscattering configuration using Figure 2a shows the nitrogen adsorptiondesorption
the 514-nm line of an Ar+ ion laser and a Renishaw in via isotherms for investigating the porous structure of the as-
Raman spectrometer. prepared carbon nanofibres. All of the isotherms with a hys-
The electrochemical performances of the BCCNFs were teresis loop near the relative pressure of 0.5 in the desorption
measured by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and galvanostatic branches illustrate the presence of mesopores. Additionally,
chargedischarge in 6 mol/L KOH solution. The experi- the following sharp increase in the adsorption curves at high
ments were carried out in a standard three electrodes cell. relative pressure of 0.97 illustrates the presence of the mac-
The working electrode was fabricated by pressing the mix- ropores formed among the carbon nanofibres. From Fig. 2a,
ture of the PCNFs powder and 5%-PTFE (85:15 wt%) into a we can see that the nanofibres carbonised at low temperature
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foam nickel electrode, and a platinum electrode as auxiliary of 600 C have the small nitrogen adsorptiondesorption
electrode and a saturated calomel electrode as reference elec- quantity and the unobvious hysteresis loop, suggesting the
trode, respectively. few pores existing; and that with increasing the carbonised
temperature (e.g. up to 800 C), the nitrogen adsorption
Result and discussion desorption quantity increases and the hysteresis loop of the
nitrogen adsorptiondesorption isotherm in the 0.5 pressure
Morphological analysis of BCCNFs becomes more obvious. This result indicates that the high
Figure 1 shows the SEM images of the freeze-dried BC and carbonised temperature helps produce the micropores and
the resulting carbonised BC nanofibres. We can see that the mesopores in the carbon nanofibres. Figure 2b and its inset

1SEMs of the coconut-based BC a, and the resulting carbon nanofibres b, c, d, which were carbonised at temperature 600C,
700C and 800C

 Materials Research Innovations2016 2

 Zhao et al. Coconut-based bacterial cellulose carbon nanofibers

2 Nitrogen adsorptiondesorption isotherms of carbonised BC nanofibres a and the pore size distribution curves (b and its inset)

Table 1BET surface area and pore structural parameters The crystallinity of BC pellicles was characterised by
of BCCNFs XRD, as shown in Fig. 3a. The three main peaks located at
14.36, 16.6 and 22.58 (see Fig. 3a), which could be respec-
SBET (mg1) Vtotal (cmg1) Daverage (nm)
tively ascribed to the (110), (110) and (200) diffraction
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BCCNF-600 252.07 0.165 8.28 planes of cellulose I structure,24 confirm the high crystallin-
BCCNF-700 405.74 0.321 5.04
ity nature of the BC samples used in this work. Figure 3b
BCCNF-800 422.43 0.560 9.02
BCCNF-900 756.82 0.722 10.52 shows the XRD patterns of corresponding BCCNFs. It is
clear that after carbonising, the three characteristic peaks at
14.36, 16.6 and 22.58 disappear, there instead appears two
broad and weak diffraction peaks around 24.00 and ~44.00,
shows the pore size distribution of the as-prepared BCCNFs.
indicating the formation of the amorphous carbon phase with
All the BCCNFs have the noticeable pore size distribution
some hexagonal graphitic structure in the (002) and (100)
with the peaks centred around ~7 nm, consistent with the
facets in the carbonised nanofibres.
previous result reported by Yuan.22 There to, the PCNF car-
The Raman spectra of the BCCNFs, as shown in Fig. 4,
bonised at 700C evidently has the better uniform mesopores
provide further evidence to quantify the effect of the carbon-
than those of the BCCNFs obtained at the other carbonised
isation temperature on the BC samples. From Fig. 4, it can
temperature. The BET surface area and pore structure param-
be seen that the Raman spectra of four investigated BCCNFs
eters calculated from the isotherms are list in Table 1. The
present two peaks around 1340cm1 and 1596cm1. It has
BET surface area and total pore volume become larger with
been demonstrated in previous studies that the two character-
increasing the carbonisation temperature. The average pore
istic peaks of 1340cm1 and 1596cm1 correspond to the D
sizes are at 510nm and quite different for various carbonisa-
(disorder) and G (graphite) bands in porous carbon nanofibres,
tion temperatures due to the different uniformities of the pore
respectively. The G band is associated with the sp2-bonded
structure (as indicated in Fig. 2b). Here, our result shows that
carbon atoms in a 2D hexagonal lattice (such as a graphite
the BCCNF carbonised at 700C has best uniformity structure
sheet), while the D band is related to the disorder-induced
and the smallest average pore size, 5.04nm. This effect of
feature as a result of the finite particle size effect or lattice
carbonisation temperature results mainly from the faster and
distortion of the graphite crystals. The ratio of the intensity of
the nitrogen or stream flow rate at the higher carbonisation
D band to G band, R=ID/IG, can be used to evaluate the gra-
temperature, which is not only helpful to enlarge the pore size,
phitic degree of carbon materials.22 From Fig. 4, the R values
but also to produce more micropores and mesopores in the
for four BCCNF samples can thus be obtained as 0.85, 0.82,
carbon nanofibres. Besides, it has also been reported that the
0.77 and 0.73, respectively. It can be seen that the R values
high carbonisation temperature would decrease the heteroa-
of BCCNFs decrease with the increase in temperature, indic-
toms,26 thus affecting the worm-like microporous structure in
ative of the higher graphitic degree at the higher carbonisation
the carbon nanofibres.

(a) 22.58
(b) BCCNF-600
25000 BCCNF-700
BCCNF-800
BCCNF-900
20000
Intensity

15000
14.36 (002)
2600
10000 2080
Intensity

16.6
1560
5000
1040 (100)

0 520
10 20 30 40 10 20 30 40 50 60
2 (Degree) 2 (Degree)

3 XRD patterns of coconut-based BC a and BCCNFs b

 Materials Research Innovations2016 3

 Zhao et al. Coconut-based bacterial cellulose carbon nanofibers

Table 3Specific electric capacity of the BC carbon nano-

PCNF-600 G fibre
PCNF-700
D Carbon nanofibre Specific electric capacity (Fg1)
PCNF-800
PCNF-900 BCCNF-600 158
Intensity

BCCNF-700 289
BCCNF-800 169
BCCNF-900 128

in Fig. 5a obviously shows that the BCCNF-700-based elec-

trode has the highest chargingdischarging current among
all BCCNF-based electrode materials. The galvanostatic
chargedischarge curves of BCCNFs, given in Fig. 5b, further
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 indicate that the BCCNF-700-based electrode has the longer
1
Wavenumber (cm ) discharge time than those of the other BCCNF electrodes.
The high energy density (or specific capacitance) is essen-
4
Raman spectra of BCCNFs yielded at different tial for a good electrochemical energy storage device operated
temperatures at a high chargedischarge current. The specific capacitance
of the BCCNFs-electrode materials can be calculated from
the discharge time (obtained from the galvanostatic charge
Table 2 Element analysis of BCCNFs discharge curves as given in Fig. 5b) based on the following
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equation22:
Materials N C H
BC sample 0.6 40.69 7.64
C = itmV (1)
BCCNF-600 0.84 71.79 3.445 where i denotes the discharge current, t denotes the total
BCCNF-700 0.86 75.81 2.71 discharge time, V is the total potential deviation of voltage
BCCNF-800 1.31 77.19 2.37
BCCNF-900 0.75 78.69 2.31 window, and m represents the mass of active materials in the
electrodes. The calculated results are summarised in Table 3.
Table 3 shows that the specific capacitance of the BCCNFs var-
ies with changing the carbonisation temperature. Despite the
temperature, which is in good agreement with the above XRD
BCCNF carbonised at 900C has the best graphitic degree and
analysis and the element analysis (results of which are given
the largest BET surface area as indicated in Fig. 4 and Table 1,
in Table 2). The Raman result verifies the improvement of
the BCCNF carbonised at 700C is up to 289 Fg1, exhibit-
the graphitisation of BCCNFs with increasing temperature,
ing the best energy storage capability among all four BCCNF
which is well consistent with the previous results of other
materials. It was argued by Yuan et al. that despite the high
porous carbon materials27 and implying that the BCCNFs will
carbonisation temperature can improve the graphitic degree of
perform better conductivity and corrosion resistance.
porous carbon nanofibres, it would also further volatilise the
heteroatoms to decrease the pseudocapacitance in total specific
The electrochemical performances of BCCNFs capacitance, thus resulting in the lower specific capacitance
for the porous carbon nanofibre at the higher carbonisation
As previously done,22 the electrochemical performances of temperature. From the result of Fig. 2, it is suggested that
the as-prepared BCCNFs were studied by CV and galvanos- the uniformity of the micro and mesopore structure of the
tatic chargedischarge within the potential range from 0.9 BCCNFs materials is advantageous to the high specific capac-
to 0.1V in alkaline media. Figure 5a shows the CV curves itance. Therefore, the decrease in the uniformity of the micro
of BCCNFs at a scan rate of 100mVs1. The shape of the CV and mesostructure of the BCCNFs materials at the higher
curves shows that the capacitive responses mainly ascribe carbonisation temperature would also lead to the lower spe-
to the double-layer capacitance, and there might exist a side cific capacitance. Furthermore, Fig. 5c shows the CV curves
reaction,28 which is closely related to the intrinsic oxygen of BCCNF-700 with varying the scanning rate from 8.0 to
functional groups derived from bacterial cellulose. The result 80.0mVs1. As can be seen the dischargecharge current of the

(a) 10 (b) 0.2

BCCNF-600
(c) 8 8 mV s
-1

BCCNF-600
Potential (V vs. Hg/HgO)

8 -1
BCCNF-700 16 mV s
)

BCCNF-700 0.0
-1

6
Current density (A g

BCCNF-800
-1

6 BCCNF-800 32 mV s
-1
Current density (A g

BCCNF-900 BCCNF-900 -1
4 -0.2 4 48 mV s
-1
64 mV s
2 2
-0.4 80 mV s
-1

0 0
-2 -0.6
-2
-4 -0.8
-4
-6
-1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 -1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2
Potential (V vs. Hg/HgO) Time (s) Potential (V vs. Hg/HgO)

5
a cyclic voltammograms of the as-prepared BC carbon nanofibres at a scan rate of 100mV/s; b the galvanostatic charge
discharge curves of BCCNFs at a current density of 0.125A/g; c cyclic voltammograms of BCCNF-700 at different scan
rates. Electrolyte: 6molL1KOH

 Materials Research Innovations2016 4

 Zhao et al. Coconut-based bacterial cellulose carbon nanofibers

(a) (b)

Capacitance retention (%)

Specific capacitance (F g )
1
BCCNF-600
300 BCCNF-700 100
BCCNF-800
BCCNF-900 80
250

200 60
BCCNF-600
BCCNF-700
150 40 BCCNF-800
BCCNF-900
100 20

50 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

Cycle number Cycle number

6The relationship of the specific electric capacity a and its retention b of the BC carbon nanofibres with the chargedischarge
cycle numbers. Scan rate:10 mVs1

BCCNF-700 electrode increases with gradually increasing the that the BCCNF material carbonised at around 700C has
scanning rate, further indicative of the good capacitive prop- the higher specific capacitance than that was carbonised at
erties and dischargecharge kinetics of BCCNFs electrodes. 900 C. Therefore, the carbonisation procedure, especially
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Cycling stability is another key factor for supercapacitor the choice and control of the carbonisation temperature, is of
electrodes. To confirm the electrochemical performances of great importance in preparing the BCCNFs materials. How to
the BCCNFs, we have measured the cycle life of BCCNFs obtain a BCCNF material with the porous network structure
by CV at 10 mVs1, as shown in Fig. 6a and b. It can be seen of high graphitisation degree, large BET surface area and the
that BCCNF-700 exhibits the highest capacitance among four good uniformity is a challenge for our work.
materials, but BCCNF-900 with the improved graphitisation
has the higher cycling stability, only 5% loss capacitance
after 5000 cycles, as well as the better durability. Previous Funding
studies have shown that both cycling stability and durability This work was support by the National Natural Science
strongly of porous carbon fibres rely on their carbonisation Foundation of China [grant number 11504073]; the Natural
temperature. The higher the carbonisation temperature, the Science Foundation of Hainan Province, China [grant num-
higher the graphitisation and the larger the BET surface area, ber 20151014 & grant number 20154175]; the University
and thus the better conductivity, stability and anti-corrosion Education Research Foundation of Hainan Province,
of the carbonised materials will be. However, we need to China [grant number Hnkyzx2014-06]; the Hainan Normal
emphasise that as discussed above, the higher carbonisation University graduate research university innovation [grant
temperature might also lead to losing more heteroatoms or number Hsyx2015-52]; the Key research and development
functional groups, or to decreasing the uniformity of the micro project of Hainan Province [grant number ZDYF2016207].
or mesostructure of the carbonised nanofibres, thus causing
the decrease in pseudocapacitance.
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