1. What is GFCI and UL?

Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter / Underwriters Laboratory

a.) A ground-fault occurs when there is a break in the low-resistance grounding path from a tool or
electrical system. The electrical current may then take an alternative path to the ground through
the user, resulting in serious injuries or death. The ground-fault circuit interrupter, or GFCI, is a
fast-acting circuit breaker designed to shut off electric power in the event of a ground-fault within
as little as 1/40 of a second. It works by comparing the amount of current going to and returning
from equipment along the circuit conductors. When the amount going differs from the
amount returning by approximately 5 milliamperes, the GFCI interrupts the current.
The GFCI is rated to trip quickly enough to prevent an electrical incident. If it is properly installed
and maintained, this will happen as soon as the faulty tool is plugged in. If the grounding
conductor is not intact or of low-impedance, the GFCI may not trip until a person provides a
path. In this case, the person will receive a shock, but the GFCI should trip so quickly that the
shock will not be harmful.
The GFCI will not protect you from line contact hazards (i.e. a person holding two "hot" wires, a
hot and a neutral wire in each hand, or contacting an overhead power line). However, it protects
against the most common form of electrical shock hazard, the ground-fault. It also protects
against fires, overheating, and destruction of wire insulation.
b.) UL is an American safety consulting and certification company headquartered
in Northbrook, Illinois. It maintains offices in 46 countries. Established in 1894 as the
Underwriters' Electrical Bureau (a bureau of the National Board of Fire Underwriters),[1] it was
known throughout the 20th century as Underwriters Laboratories and participated in the
safety analysis of many of that century's new technologies, most notably the public adoption
of electricity and the drafting of safety standards for electrical devices and components.
UL provides safety-related certification, validation, testing, inspection, auditing, advising and
training services to a wide range of clients, including manufacturers, retailers, policymakers,
regulators, service companies, and consumers.
UL is one of several companies approved to perform safety testing by the US federal
agency Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). OSHA maintains a list of
approved testing laboratories, which are known as Nationally Recognized Testing
Laboratories.

2. What is Grounding?

a.) In electrical engineering, ground or earth is the reference point in an electrical circuit from
which voltages are measured, a common return path for electric current, or a direct physical
connection to the Earth.
In electrical power distribution systems, a protective ground conductor is an essential part of
the safety Earthing system.
Electrical circuits may be connected to ground (earth) for several reasons. In mains powered
equipment, exposed metal parts are connected to the ground to prevent user contact with
dangerous voltage when electrical insulation fails. Connection to ground also limits the build-
up of static electricity when handling flammable products or electrostatic-sensitive devices. In
some telegraph and power transmission circuits, the earth itself can be used as
one conductor of the circuit, saving the cost of installing a separate return conductor
(see single-wire earth return).
 For measurement purposes, the Earth serves as a (reasonably) constant potential reference
against which other potentials can be measured. An electrical ground system should have an
appropriate current-carrying capability to serve as an adequate zero-voltage reference level.
In electronic circuit theory, a "ground" is usually idealized as an infinite source or sink for
charge, which can absorb an unlimited amount of current without changing its potential.
Where a real ground connection has a significant resistance, the approximation of zero
potential is no longer valid. Stray voltages or earth potential rise effects will occur, which may
create noise in signals or if large enough will produce an electric shock hazard.
The use of the term ground (or earth) is so common in electrical and electronics applications
that circuits in portable electronic devices such as cell phones and media players as well as
circuits in vehicles may be spoken of as having a "ground" connection without any actual
connection to the Earth, despite "common" being a more appropriate term for such a
connection. This is usually a large conductor attached to one side of the power supply (such
as the "ground plane" on a printed circuit board) which serves as the common return path for
current from many different components in the circuit.

3.) What is MSDS and its contents?

A Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) provides basic information on a material or chemical
product. A MSDS describes the properties and potential hazards of the material, how to use it
safely, and what to do in an emergency. The purpose of this document is to assist Canadian
employees in understanding and interpreting this type of information.

The MSDS is an essential starting point for the development of a complete health and safety
program for the material. MSDSs are prepared by the manufacturer or supplier of the material.

They tend to be general in nature, since they provide summarized information which tries to
address all reasonably anticipated uses of the material. The information on MSDSs is organized
into sections. The specific names and content of these sections can vary from one supplier's
MSDS to another, but are often similar to the 16 sections of the ANSI Standard for MSDS
preparation, as listed below. If you are using a 9-section MSDS, the types of information may be
in a different order and under slightly different headings.

1. Product and Company Identification

2. Hazards Identification
3. Composition, Information on Ingredients
4. First Aid Measures
5. Fire Fighting Measures
6. Accidental Release Measures
7. Handling And Storage
8. Exposure Controls, Personal Protection
9. Physical And Chemical Properties
10. Stability And Reactivity
11. Toxicological Information
12. Ecological Information
13. Disposal Considerations
14. Transport Information
15. Regulatory Information
16. Other Information
4.) Draw the load chart

5.) What is cave in and its preventive measures?

cave in
vb (intr, adverb)
1. to collapse; subside
3. the sudden collapse of a roof, piece of ground, etc, into a hollow beneath it; subsidence
4. (Mining & Quarrying) the site of such a collapse, as at a mine or tunnel

Protective Systems
How can you prevent cave-ins?
OSHA requires that all excavations in which employees could potentially be exposed to cave-ins be
protected by

Sloping or benching the sides of the excavation,

Supporting the sides of the excavation, or
Placing a shield between the side of the excavation and the work area.

How do you choose the most appropriate protective system design?

Designing a protective system can be complex because you must consider many factors: soil
classification, depth of cut, water content of soil, changes due to weather and climate, or other
operations in the vicinity. You are free to choose the most practical design approach for any particular
circumstance. Once you have selected an approach, however, the system must meet the required
performance criteria.
The OSHA standard describes methods and approaches for designing protective systems such as the
following:
Method 1 Slope the sides to an angle not steeper than 1-1/2:1; for example, for every foot of depth,
the trench must be excavated back 1-1/2 feet. All simple slope excavations 20 feet (6.11 meters) or less
deep should have a maximum allowable slope of 1-1/2:1. These slopes must be excavated to form
configurations similar to those for Type C soil, as described in Appendix B of the standard. A slope of this
gradation or less is safe for any type of soil.

Figure 1. Excavations Made in Type C Soil

Method 2 Use tabulated data such as tables and charts approved by a registered professional engineer
to design excavation. These data must be in writing and must include enough explanatory information,
including the criteria for making a selection and the limits on the use of the data, for the user to make a
selection. At least one copy of the data, including the identity of the registered professional engineer who
approved it, must be kept at the worksite during construction of the protective system. After the system
is completed, the data may be stored away from the jobsite, but a copy must be provided upon request
to the Assistant Secretary of Labor for OSHA.
Method 3 Use a trench box or shield designed or approved by a registered professional engineer or
based on tabulated data prepared or approved by a registered professional engineer. Timber, aluminum,
or other suitable materials may also be used. OSHA standards permit the use of a trench shield (also
known as a welders hut) if it provides the same level of protection or more than the appropriate shoring
system.

Figure 2. Trench Shields

Employers can choose the most practical method for the particular circumstance, but that system must
meet the required performance criteria. The standard does not require a protective system when an
excavation is made entirely in stable rock or is less than 5 feet (1.52 meters) deep, if a competent person
has examined the ground and found no indication of a potential cave-in.
What other safety precautions are you required to take?
The standard requires you to provide support systems such as shoring, bracing, or underpinning to
ensure that adjacent structures such as buildings, walls, sidewalks, or pavements remain stable. The
standard also prohibits excavation below the base or footing of any foundation or retaining wall unless

You provide a support system such as underpinning,

The excavation is in stable rock, or
A registered professional engineer determines that the structure is far enough away from the
excavation and that excavation will not pose a hazard to employees.

Excavations under sidewalks and pavements are prohibited unless you provide an appropriately designed
support system or another effective means of support. How do you safely install and remove protective
systems? The standard requires you to take the following steps to protect employees when installing
support systems:

Connect members of support systems securely,

Install support systems safely,
Avoid overloading members of support systems, and
Install other structural members to carry loads imposed on the support system when you need to
remove individual members temporarily.

In addition, the standard permits excavation of 2 feet (.61 meters) or less below the bottom of the
members of a support or shield system of a trench if the system is designed to resist the forces
calculated for the full depth of the trench. In addition, there must be no indications, while the trench is
open, of a possible cave-in below the bottom of the support system. Also, you must coordinate the
installation of support systems closely with the excavation work.

6. what is the safety preparation for Radiography

Radiography is a commonly used technique in the industry to evaluate the

structural integrity of a structure, or to search for less visible details. It's one of
the most common methods, in fact. Because radiography involves the use of
large amounts ionizing radiation, safety is integral for the technician, the
public, and the environment. In this post we'll be talking about radiation
safety in the workplace.

Radiation Protection and Dose Limitation

The International Committee on Radiation Protection (ICRP) has a set of

guidelines when it comes to radiation dose limitations:
 1. No radiation practice shall be justified until it produces a net positive
benefit.
2. Doses received during radiation work should be as low as reasonably
achievable.
3. The dose limit should not exceed prescribed limits.

This limit is put in place in order to prevent deterministic effects and limit
probabilistic effects. As the deterministic effects have specific threshold
values, they can be avoided by lowering the dose value below the threshold
value. The probabilistic effects, on the other hand, don't have any threshold
value. Because of this, a certain amount of risk is always involved with
radiation work proportional to the dose received.

Regulatory Requirement

To perform radiographic testing, a facility must get approval from their local
regulatory body. Before giving approval, the body will inspect different
conditions for carrying out radiography in a shielded enclosure such as
exposure devices, shielding adequacy, personnel, monitoring systems, and
emergency plans in case of accident. Periodic inspections should be carried
out as well to ensure that standards continue to be followed and at least one
radiation protection officer (RPO) should be deployed at the site by the firm to
conduct periodic training and awareness programs.

Personnel Monitoring

It's important to keep an accurate measurement of the radiation doses

received by any personnel who happen to be working with radiation. This
process is called personnel monitoring. Modern personnel monitoring systems
use what are known as thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD) badges, which are
made of two or three TLD discs in a plastic cassette, as shown in figure
1. When the radiation exposed disc is heated, it emits light photons and the
flux of light photons is proportional to radiation dose received.
 Figure 1 - Thermo-luminescent Dosimeter

Radiography Site Selection

The area where radiography work is carried out is called the radiography
installation. The radiography room in a manufacturing plant is a separate
room of suitable dimensions and of adequate wall thickness, constructed of
either brick or concrete slabs.The area of this room should be determined by
the size of the objects to be tested. Objects to be tested are brought to the x-ray
room by hand or trolley, having a maze-like entry is useful for minimizing
radiation leaks, as shown in Figure 2. This design will reduce the need for
heavy lead-lined or thick concrete doors at the entrance. A red warning light
may be placed outside the room during exposures.
 Figure 2: Maze-type radiography exposure room

In cases where there are jobs that can't be done in an enclosed room, site
radiography may be performed with proper planning and approval from the
regulatory body. To do this, the area should be properly cordoned off with wire
fencing to limit dose levels and strict vigilance around the site should be
maintained. The cordoning distance is dependent on the size of the job, source
strength, energy of the isotope, workload, etc. In many places such activities
are performed at night to avoid radiation accidents.

Area Monitoring

Area monitoring is the process of monitoring the radiation level at different

locations around the radiography installation. This process is useful for
checking the shielding adequacy and to evaluating the radiation protection
system at the facility. The process uses gas base radiation detectors which are
installed around the radiography room. The area is cordoned in case of field
radiography. Ionization chambers can also be used, but they are bulky and
sensitive to environmental conditions.

Radiation Hazard Control

The radiation hazard can be controlled by three fundamental parameters:
time, distance, and shielding. Radiation levels for a point source vary inversely
with the square of distance between the source and the point of measurement.
For that reason, increasing the distance between the operator and the source
is the most economical way of controlling the radiation intensity. The use of
remote handling devices, such as gamma cameras and long cables between the
tube head and control panel, are recommended for site applications.

Transportation of Radioisotopes

There are specific rules that govern the process of carrying a source from one
place to another. For example, it needs to be inside the source housing and
with locks properly closed. The container should be placed in a carrier box and
the maximum dose on the surface should not exceed 200 mR/h. In addition,
the dose level in mR/hr at a distance of 1 meter from the surface of the
package should be recorded along with the maximum dose value. Package
details, such as the address of the sender and receiver, as well as the weight
and type of package, should be clearly labeled on at least two separate exterior
areas of the package.

Figure 4: ICRP dose limits for planned exposure condition

 Figure 5: Category of Sources

Radiation Emergency Plan

Even when all the necessary precautions are taken, radiation accidents still
occur. For this reason every organization using radiation should have an
emergency preparedness plan to tackle unexpected circumstances. Emergency
planning includes assessment of radiation hazards in accidental situations,
procurement of radiation detection equipment for use in emergency
situations, and proper classroom training to handle the emergency situation.

7.) Classification of Soil and Excavation Grafts; angles.

Four Types of Soil

Employees who work on excavations must be trained in the four soil classifications: stable rock, Type A,
Type B and Type C. In general, stable rock is not common because we disturb it by excavating, leaving
us with the following three soil types to gauge our excavations.
Type A: This is the most stable of the soil classifications and implies that you have a slope angle of a
3/4:1 ratio, which means that for every foot of depth, the sides of the excavation will slope back three-
quarters of a foot or a 53-degree angle. Type A soils are cohesive with an unconfined compressive
strength of 1.5 tons per square foot (tsf) or greater. Examples include clay, silty clay, sandy clay and clay
loam. Type A soil may also be benched, or set at specific angles for employee protection. Benching
creates a stair-step condition; the soil comes up 5 feet vertically from the bottom of the excavation, and
cuts back 4 feet horizontally at 90-degree angles on the sides. This is repeated to the top of the
excavation.
Type B: This soil is less stable than Type A type soil, but is very cohesive and still quite stable. The slope
angle for a Type B excavation is a 1:1 ratio or a 45-degree angle. For every foot of depth, the sides of the
excavation must slope back 1 foot. Type B soil is cohesive with an unconfined compressive strength
greater than 0.5 tsf, but less than 1.5 tsf. Other examples include granular noncohesive soils such as
angular gravel, which is similar to crushed rock; silt; silt loam; sandy loam; previously disturbed soils
except those that would otherwise be classified as Type C soil; soil that meets the unconfined
compressive strength or cementation requirements for Type A, but is fissured or subject to vibration; and
dry rock that is not stable. Type B soil may also be benched, coming up 4 feet vertically from the bottom
of the excavation and 4 feet horizontally at 90-degree angles on the sides, repeating to the top of the
excavation.
Type C: Of all the soil types, this is the least stable and most hazardous, and must be sloped at a 1-1/2:1
ratio or a 34-degree angle. Depending on water saturation or seepage, the angles may need to be greater
than 34 degrees for employee safety. Type C soil is cohesive with an unconfined compressive strength of
0.5 tsf or less. Examples include granular soils such as gravel, sand and loamy sand; submerged soil or
soil from which water is freely seeping; and submerged rock that is not stable. Benching Type C soil is
unacceptable and shall not be done.
Slope Angle Calculations
Determining your slope angle is not complicated; in fact, you dont even need a protractor. This simple
equation will tell you the proper opening width: (depth x 2) x type slope ratio + width of original excavation
= top width. As an example, lets calculate the slope angle of a simple trench that is 6 feet deep by 2 feet
wide, factoring in the type of soil.
Type A: (6 feet x 2) x .75 + 2 feet = 11 feet wide at the top.
Type B (6 feet x 2) x 1 + 2 feet = 14 feet wide at the top.
Type C (6 feet x 2) x 1.5 + 2 feet = 20 feet wide at the top.

8.) What is LMI and Double