13 Implant Supported Fixed Prostheses

13
IMPLANT-
SUPPORTED
FIXED
PROSTHESES
Edwin A. McGlumphy
patient can benefit from fixed restorations. In addi-

KEY TERMS tion, in the short edentulous span, the single dental
complete metal-resin implant body implant is a popular option (Fig. 13-2).
fixed dental prosthesis implant placement
dental implant implant prosthodontics
healing cap implant surgery
IMPLANT TYPES
healing screw interim abutment There are three major subgroups of dental implants:
implant abutment osseous integration subperiosteal, transosteal, and endosteal (Fig. 13-3).
implant analog transosteal implant The first two, subperiosteal and transosteal, are
implant angulation designed primarily to anchor dentures in the com-
pletely edentulous patient, and thus they are outside
the scope of this chapter. The third, endosteal dental
implants, are surgically placed within alveolar or
oday the continued high rate of success basal bone and are most commonly used for the
T achieved with osseous integrated dental

implants allows a greater number of patients
to enjoy the benefits of fixed rather than removable
treatment of partially edentulous patients, either
singly or in multiples. They can be further subdi-
vided by shape into blade form (plate form) and root
dental prostheses.1–3 The main indications for form. Blades are wedge-shaped or rectangular in
implant-supported restorations in the partially eden- cross-section and are generally 2.5 mm wide, 8 to
tulous patient are the free-end distal extension, in 15 mm deep, and 15 to 30 mm long. Root forms are
which no posterior abutment is available (Fig. 13-1), 3 to 6 mm in diameter and 8 to 20 mm long, often
and the long edentulous span. In both these situa- with external threads (Fig. 13-4). Endosteal dental
tions, the conventional dental treatment plan would implants are also categorized as one-stage or two-
include a partial removable dental prosthesis. stage. The one-stage dental implant is designed to be
However, with the advent of dental implants, the placed in the bone and to immediately project
379
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380 PART II CLINICAL PROCEDURES: SECTION 1
through mucosa into the oral cavity. The two-stage superior surface of the implant, and an extension
dental implant requires two surgical procedures. collar or abutment that projects into the oral cavity
First, the implant is placed in bone to the level of the is fastened to the implant. Some authors have sug-
cortical plate and the oral mucosa is sutured over it; gested shortening the time before implant loading,
this is left for a prescribed healing period (usually 3 but the long-term consequences of this are still being
months in the mandible and 6 months in the investigated.4,5
maxilla), depending on the quality of bone. Then, in
a second surgery, the mucosa is reflected from the
Plate Implants (Blades)
Blades were the first endosteal dental implant to be
used with reasonable success in a large number of
patients. In all the original studies on blades, the
researchers used one-stage systems, but the success
rates were considerably lower than those of current
root-form implants. It has been suggested6 that many
of the problems of blade implants can be traced to
the high temperature at which the bone sites were
A prepared and the routine immediate loading of this
type of implant. Both these practices have been
linked to the fibrous encapsulation that occurred
with many of the original blade implants. Conse-
quently, submersible titanium blades are now avail-
able, and in more recent blade studies,7 investigators
have reported success rates above 80% for 5 years.
However, the drawbacks to blade implants remain:
difficulty of preparing precision slots for blade place-
ment in comparison with placing holes accurately
for root-form implants and the disastrously large cir-
cumferential area of the jaw that can be affected
when a blade fails.
B
Root-Form Implants
Root-form endosteal dental implants are considered
to be state-of-the-art implant dentistry. Advantages
include adaptability to multiple intraoral locations,
uniformly precise implant site preparation, and
Fig. 13-1 comparatively low adverse consequences similar to
Implant-supported fixed prosthesis. Four dental implants (A) those experienced when a tooth is lost. Most root
supporting a fixed dental prosthesis (B). forms are made of titanium or titanium alloy with or
A B
Fig. 13-2
A, Single-tooth implant with an internal anti-rotational feature. B, Implant crown replacing a single missing tooth (cement retained).
Chapter 13 IMPLANT-SUPPORTED FIXED PROSTHESES 381
A B C D
Fig. 13-3
The three major subgroups of dental implants. A, Subperiosteal. B, Transosteal. C and D, Endosteal. Endosteal implants can be further
subdivided into plate form (C) and root form (D).
without hydroxyapatite coating; these materials are Box 13-1 Indications for Implant Placement in
perceived to have the highest biofunctionality. the Partially Edentulous Patient
Both threaded and nonthreaded designs are avail-
able and are quite popular. Today many of the tita- 1. Inability to wear a removable partial dental
nium implants are grit blasted or acid etched to prosthesis or complete denture
roughen the surface and increase the area for bone 2. Need for long-span fixed dental prosthesis with
contact. Even the theaded dental implants can be questionable prognosis
further subdivided into “straight” and “tapered” (see 3. Unfavorable number and location of potential
Fig. 13-4). natural tooth abutments
In the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Con- 4. Single tooth loss that would necessitate
sensus Conference1 in 1988, root-form implants preparation of minimally restored teeth for
were reported to have already constituted 78% of the fixed prosthesis
dental implant market. This trend is credited to the
Brånemark system, which set the precedent for sur- A combined surgical and restorative treatment
gical techniques and restorative procedures that plan must be devised for prospective implant recip-
result in predictably successful implants. Two of the ients. Feasible nonimplant alternatives should be
most important additions from the Swedish research included in the overall treatment discussions.
team, led by P. I. Brånemark, were atraumatic Patients need to be evaluated preoperatively and
implant placement and delayed implant loading. assessed if they will be able to tolerate the procedure.
These factors contributed to a remarkably increased The predictable risks and expected benefits should
degree of implant predictability. The original Bråne- be weighed for each person. Although the place-
mark success rate of 91% in the mandible over 15 ment of dental implants does entail some risks, they
years2 has become the standard against which other are relatively minor. Absolute contraindications,
implant systems are judged.8 Many of the other root- based on immediate surgical and anesthetic risks,
form implant systems are also believed to have are limited to individuals who are acutely ill, indi-
reached or exceeded this high level of long-term viduals with uncontrolled metabolic disease, and
success. pregnant women (these contraindications apply to
virtually all elective surgical procedures).
Local and systemic contraindications that
TREATMENT PLANNING FOR THE threaten long-term implant retention must also be
IMPLANT PATIENT evaluated. Implants may be contraindicated in
Implant success reported from major research patients with abnormal bone metabolism, poor oral
institutions is quite high. However, meticulous atten- hygiene, and previous irradiation of the implant site.
tion to the procedures of patient selection, diagnosis, Most potential implant placement patients became
and treatment planning is necessary to duplicate edentulous or partially edentulous from caries or
this success. Indications for dental implant treat- periodontal disease resulting from poor oral hygiene.
ment in the partially edentulous patient are pro- Suspicion that inadequate hygiene will continue is a
vided in BOX 13-1. relative contraindication to implant placement.
STRAIGHT WALLED TWO-STAGE IMPLANT TAPERED TWO-STAGE IMPLANT
Soft tissue Soft tissue
Bone Bone
A B
ONE-STAGE IMPLANT
Soft tissue
Bone
Fig. 13-4
A, Straight walled two-stage implant. B, Tapered two-stage
C implant. C, One-stage implant.
Patients must be motivated and educated in oral insertion. However, clinical inspection alone may
hygiene techniques as part of their preparation for not be adequate if there is thick overlying soft tissue
implants. Some individuals, such as those suffering that is dense, immobile, and fibrous.
from paralysis of the arms, debilitating arthritis, cere-
bral palsy, and severe mental retardation, may not be
Radiographic Evaluation
able to improve their hygiene. Implants are con-
traindicated in these patients unless adequate oral Radiographic evaluation is also necessary. The best
hygiene will be provided by caregivers. A summary initial film is the panoramic view. However, there
of contraindications to implant placement is pre- can be variations in magnification (5% to 35%); a
sented in BOX 13-2. small radiopaque reference object should therefore
be placed near the proposed implant placement
site during the exposure (Fig. 13-5). Measurement of
Clinical Evaluation
this image on the actual radiograph enables the
Evaluation of the planned implant site begins with a practitioner to correct for any magnification error
thorough clinical examination. This examination (Fig. 13-6). A ball bearing placed in wax on a denture
determines whether there is adequate bone and baseplate or in polyvinyl siloxane impression putty
identifies anatomic structures that could interfere works well. Some new panoramic radiography
with ideal implant placement. Visual inspection and machines have standardized enlargement ratios,
palpation allow the detection of flabby excess tissue, which makes correction markers less necessary.
bony ridges, and sharp underlying osseous forma-
tions and undercuts that would limit implant
Box 13-2 Contraindications to Implant

Placement (National Institutes of
Health Consensus Conference)
1. Acute illness
2. Terminal illness
3. Pregnancy
4. Uncontrolled metabolic disease
5. Tumoricidal irradiation of the implant site
6. Unrealistic patient expectation
7. Improper patient motivation
8. Lack of operator experience Fig. 13-5
Ball bearings (5-mm diameter) placed on the diagnostic cast at
9. Inability to restore with a prosthesis
the proposed implant site.
Fig. 13-6
A panoramic radiograph exposed with the ball bearings positioned intraorally with a wax or resin baseplate.
The widths of the posterior mandible and maxilla Bone Sounding

are determined primarily by clinical examination.
Bone width not revealed on a panoramic film can be When the results of clinical and radiographic exam-
evaluated in the anterior maxilla and mandible with inations are equivocal and additional information is
a cephalometric film (Fig. 13-7). The location of the needed, sounding of the bone with a probe may be
inferior alveolar canal and maxillary sinus can be attempted. Under local anesthesia, a needle or sharp
determined by specialized computed tomography caliper is pushed through the tissue until it contacts
(CT) scans (Fig. 13-8), although high radiation expo- bone. This can help the examiner judge soft tissue
sure and considerable expense may limit their thickness at the planned implant sites.
routine use. However, significant advances being
made in this technology may change this trend. PRINCIPLES OF IMPLANT LOCATION
Diagnostic Casts Anatomic Limitations

Accurately mounted diagnostic casts (see Chapter 2) To maximize the chance of success, the implant
are essential for treatment planning. They are used should be placed entirely within bone and away from
to study the remaining dentition, evaluate the resid-
ual bone, and analyze maxillomandibular relation-
ships. They can be helpful to the surgeon for fixture
placement. A diagnostic waxing is performed on the
cast or on a duplicate. Proposed fixture installation
sites are checked for proper alignment, direction,
location, and relation to the remaining dentition.
The waxing helps determine the most esthetic place-
ment of the teeth to be restored and the potential for
functional speech disturbances. After adjustments
and the diagnostic waxing are completed, a resin A
template can be made from the cast to guide the
surgeon during implant placement (Fig. 13-9). Diag-
nostic waxings and surgical templates are essential
when implants are planned as part of a full-mouth
reconstruction or when the anterior esthetic zone is
restored (Fig. 13-10).
Fig. 13-8
The computed tomography (CT) scan. A, CT scan with lines ori-
enting the position of transverse mandibular cross-sections.
Fig. 13-7 B, reformatted CT cross-section of the posterior mandible.
The lateral cephalometric radiograph can indicate bone width Arrows in A and B denote position of barium-impregnated resin
in the anterior midline. in the surgical guide.
A B
C D
E F
Fig. 13-9
A, Patient with bilateral missing posterior teeth planned for posterior implant-supported restorations. B, Diagnostic cast. C, Diag-
nostic denture tooth arrangement to simulate three-unit fixed prostheses on each side of the mandible. D, Vacuumed matrix formed
over the cast with 1.5-mm (0.060-inch) thermoplastic sheet. E, The matrix is marked with the most appropriate implant locations
and alignments and then removed from the cast. F, The completed surgical guide with holes drilled to guide the surgeon during
implant site preparation.
significant anatomic structures (e.g., the inferior alve- also must be considered. These include implant
olar canal). Ideally, 10 mm of vertical bone dimen- length, diameter, proximity to adjacent structures,
sion and 6 mm of horizontal should be available for and time required for integration.
implant placement. Placement at these dimensions The anterior maxilla, posterior maxilla, anterior
prevents encroachment on anatomic structures and mandible, and posterior mandible each require
allows 1.0 mm of bone on both the lingual and the special considerations in placing implants. Some
facial aspects of the implant. There should also be common guidelines include staying 2.0 mm above
adequate space between adjacent implants. The the superior aspect of the inferior alveolar canal,
minimum recommended distance varies slightly 5.0 mm anterior to the mental foramen, and 1.0 mm
among implant systems but is generally accepted as from the periodontal ligament of adjacent natural
3.0 mm (Fig. 13-11). This space is needed to ensure teeth.
bone viability between the implants and to allow ade- After tooth loss, resorption of the ridge follows a
quate oral hygiene once the restorative dentistry pattern that results in crestal bone thinning and a
is complete. Specific limitations resulting from change in angulation of the residual ridge. These
anatomic variations among different areas of the jaws sequelae most often cause problems in the anterior
A B
C D
E F
G H
Fig. 13-10
A, Diagnostic cast with missing maxillary left lateral incisor. B, The denture tooth is positioned for optimum esthetics. C, The denture
tooth is trimmed from the lingual side until it is 2 mm thick. D, If the tooth is held in position with light-cured composite, a vacuum
matrix can be performed directly without duplicating the cast. E, The matrix can be trimmed to the height of contour with a stiff
bristle brush. F, The denture tooth can be glued back into the matrix. G and H, The surgeon can use this template to guide both
horizontal and vertical positioning.
Implants should be
placed at least 3 mm
apart and 1 mm from
adjacent teeth.
1 4 3 4 1
A
Fig. 13-11
Recommended minimum distances (in millimeters) between
implants and between implants and natural teeth. B
mandible and maxilla. The irregular anatomy of the

residual ridge may lead to problems with achieving
ideal implant angulation or adequate bone thick-
ness along the labial aspect of the implant. Tech-
niques for the management of these problems
during surgery are discussed in this chapter, but they Fig. 13-12
must be anticipated in the preoperative phase. A, The arrow denotes thin maxillary bone inferior to the sinus,
which would be inadequate for implant placement without
Anterior maxilla additional grafting procedures. B, Radiograph showing suc-
cessful treatment with dental implants after graft placement.
The anterior maxilla must be evaluated for proximity
to the nasal cavity. A minimum of 1.0 mm of bone
should remain between the apex of the implant and in the maxilla. In addition, one implant for every
the nasal vestibule. Because of resorption of the ante- tooth that is being replaced is normally recom-
rior maxilla, the incisive foramen may be located near mended, especially in the posterior maxilla.
the residual ridge, especially in patients whose eden- The second concern is that the maxillary sinus is
tulous maxilla has been allowed to function against a close to the edentulous ridge in the posterior
natural mandibular anterior dentition. Anterior max- maxilla. Frequently, because of the resorption of
illary implants should be located slightly off midline, bone and increased pneumatization of the sinus,
on either side of the incisive foramen. only a few millimeters of bone remain between the
ridge and the sinus (Fig. 13-12A). In treatment plan-
Posterior maxilla ning for implants in the posterior maxilla, the
Implant placement in the posterior maxilla poses surgeon should leave 1.0 mm of bone between
two specific concerns. First, the bone of the posterior the floor of the sinus and the implant so the implant
maxilla is less dense than that of the posterior can be anchored apically into cortical bone of the
mandible. It has larger marrow spaces and a thinner sinus floor. Adequate bone height for implant stabil-
cortex, which can affect treatment planning, inas- ity can usually be found between the nasal cavity
much as increased time must be allowed for inte- and the maxillary sinus. If there is not adequate bone
gration of the implants and additional implants may for implant placement and support, bony augmen-
be needed. A minimum of 6 months is usually tation through the sinus should be considered (see
needed for adequate integration of implants placed Fig. 13-12).
Anterior mandible a conventional nonimplant-supported prosthesis

With regard to anatomic limitations, the anterior must be considered.
mandible is usually the most straightforward area for Implants placed in the posterior mandible are
treatment planning. It usually has adequate height usually shorter, do not engage cortical bone inferi-
and width for implant placement, and the bone orly, and must support increased biomechanical
quality is normally excellent; therefore, it requires occlusal forces once they are loaded, because of their
the least amount of time for integration. Success with location in the posterior area. Consequently, allow-
immediate loading of implants in the anterior ing slightly more time for integration may be bene-
mandible has been reported. This seems to be ficial. In addition, if short implants (8 to 10 mm) are
possible because the implants can have good initial used, “overengineering” and placing more implants
stability. than usual to withstand the occlusal load is re-
When possible, an implant in the anterior commended. Short implants are often necessary
mandible should be placed through the entire can- because of bone resorption, which thus increase the
cellous bone so that the apex of the implant engages crown/implant ratio when the normal plane of
the cortex of the inferior mandibular border occlusion is reestablished (Fig. 13-14).
(Fig. 13-13). In the premolar area, care must be
taken that the implant does not impinge on the infe-
rior dental nerve. Because this nerve courses as
much as 3.0 mm anterior to the mental foramen Superior cortical
plate
before turning posteriorly and superiorly to exit at
the foramen, an implant should be at least 5.0 mm
anterior to the foramen.
Posterior mandible Medullary

bone
The posterior mandible poses some limitations on
implant placement. The inferior alveolar nerve trav-
erses the mandibular body in this region, and treat-
ment planning must allow for a 2.0-mm margin
from the apex of the implant to the superior aspect Interior cortical
of the inferior alveolar canal. This is an important plate
guideline: Disregarding it can cause damage to
the nerve and numbness of the lower lip. If ade- Fig. 13-13
quate length is not present for even the shortest Whenever possible, implants should engage two cortical plates
implant, nerve repositioning, onlay grafting, or of bone.
A B
LONG IMPLANT, SHORT CROWN SHORT IMPLANT, LONG CROWN

Fig. 13-14
Shorter implants usually have two problems: (1) less bone contact and (2) longer crowns, which increase the forces acting on the
implant. More favorable crown-to-implant ratios (A) have a better prognosis than less favorable ratios (B).
The width of the residual ridge must be carefully To minimize harmful lateral forces, the long axis
evaluated in the posterior mandible. Attachments of of the implant should be positioned in the central
the mylohyoid muscle maintain it along the superior fossa of the restoration. This dictates placing the
aspect of the ridge, and a deep (lingual) depression implant accurately in all three planes of space.
exists immediately below it. This area should be pal- Superoinferior placement is important to ensure the
pated at the time of evaluation and examined at the optimal emergence profile of the restoration. Ideally,
time of surgery. the superior surface of the implant should be 2.5 to
3.0 mm directly inferior to the emergence position
of the planned restoration, particularly when the
Restorative Considerations
restoration is to be located in the anterior esthetic
Implant placement zone (Fig. 13-16).
Implant placement is crucial in the design of the
restoration. Thus, the treatment-planning aspects of Implant and restoration size
implant placement must begin with a restorative The choice of implant and its superoinferior place-
dentistry consultation. Implant placement dictates ment location are modified by the diameter of the
the appearance, contour, and long-term function of intended restoration and can be adjusted for differ-
the prosthesis. To prevent damage, staying at least ent sizes of teeth. For example, the typical root diam-
1.0 mm away from the adjacent natural tooth is eter of a maxillary central incisor is 8.0 mm; the
essential, but staying as close to the natural tooth as average implant diameter is 4.0 mm. Therefore, a
possible is also important; therefore, acceptable con- distance of 2.5 to 3.0 mm is needed to make the
tours can be created by the restorative dentist. For transition gradually from 4.0 to 8.0 mm. If this is
proper access during oral hygiene procedures, a done over too short a distance, the restoration will be
minimum of 3.0 mm should be left between overcontoured or look unnatural. In contrast, many
implants. In addition, implants must not encroach mandibular central and lateral incisors are smaller
on the embrasure spaces or be angled so that screw than 4.0 mm at the cementoenamel junction. There-
access is necessary through the facial surfaces of the fore, an esthetic restoration on a 4.0-mm implant
completed restoration (Fig. 13-15). is impossible. Smaller-diameter implants (about
CORRECT
A B
Fig. 13-15
Implant placement and angulation dictate the screw emergence position and crown contours. Esthetics and access for hygiene can
be greatly affected. A, A restored tooth. B, Ideal implant location with acceptable crown contours and lingual screw emergence.
CORRECT CORRECT
C D
INCORRECT INCORRECT
E F
G H
Fig. 13-15, cont’d

C, Acceptable implant location for a cement retained crown. D, If the implant is more facially inclined, an angled abutment for a
cement retained crown may be necessary. E, If the implant is too lingual and too shallow, inadequate crown contours for hygiene
will result. F, If the implant is angled too far facially and too shallow, the implant and/or abutment may become an esthetic failure.
Accurate implant
depth is critical to a
successful result.
D
A
F
C
Fig. 13-16
Superior or inferior positioning may affect crown contours and pocket H
depth. A, The implant is not placed deep enough. This creates a short,
overcontoured crown. B, Placement 2 to 3 mm apical to the tooth
emergence position is ideal. C, Placing the implant 4 mm apical to
the crown contours may create an excessively deep gingival sulcus.
D to H, Clinical example of a properly positioned implant, both
facially and apically, which results in good esthetics.
3.0 mm) are available to allow esthetic restoration in restorative dentist. Placement of the implant for both
these areas. It is also possible to use a larger implant esthetics and biomechanical loading (to minimize
(5.0 to 6.0 mm) for molar restorations in patients screw loosening) is especially crucial. In addition, at
with adequate bone (Fig. 13-17). the treatment planning stage, the decision to place
Restoration size must always be considered an implant with an antirotational feature built into
during the treatment planning stage so that a prop- the system (e.g., a spline or a hexagon) is essential
erly sized implant is placed in the ideal location. (Fig. 13-18).
Single tooth implant Soft tissue contours

Treatment planning for the single tooth restoration, For implant treatment planning in the anterior
particularly in the anterior esthetic zone, is one of esthetic zone, it is important to look closely at the
the most challenging problems faced by the implant soft tissues that will frame the restoration. It can be
A B
C D
Buccal
Buccal 1 mm
1 mm
3 mm 5 mm 7 mm
E 5 mm
1 mm
F
Lingual 1 mm
Lingual
Fig. 13-17
A, Small-diameter implant and abutment positioned to restore a mandibular lateral incisor. The fixed abutment can be custom pre-
pared and narrowed to allow restoration of a small-diameter tooth. B, Completed implant restoration of the mandibular lateral
incisor. C, Wide-diameter (5.0 mm) implant in position to replace maxillary first molar. D, Completed implant restoration of the max-
illary first molar. E, The minimum bone dimension for a small diameter implant is 5 mm. Ideally, at least 1 mm of bone is still left
on either side of the implant site after the osteotomy has been prepared. F, The minimum bone dimension for a wider (5 mm)
implant is approximately 7 mm. At least 1 mm of bone should still remain laterally after the site has been prepared.
A
Fig. 13-18
A, Standard external hexagon in use. B, Internal hexagon connection implant.
A B
8 mm
5 mm or more
or less
PAPILLA NO PAPILLA
Fig. 13-19 Relationship of interdental bone to position of interproximal contacts seems to predict whether interdental papilla
will be present or not. If the distance between the bone and the contact is <5 mm (A), a papilla if usually present; if the distance is
>8 mm (B), there is usually no interdental papilla present.
challenging to achieve a completely formed papilla

between the implant restoration and the adjacent
SURGICAL GUIDE
teeth in the final outcome. If the interdental The coordination of surgical and prosthetic proce-
tissue and underlying bone have already been lost dures through proper treatment planning is one of
before implant placement, it may not be possible to the more crucial factors in obtaining ideal esthetic
achieve ideal papillary contours. The literature con- results for the implant restoration. A surgical
tains guidelines that help in predicting whether ade- guide template is extremely useful for anterior
quate soft tissue contour can be maintained. As implants because slight variations in angulation can
diagrammed (Fig. 13-19), the relationship of inter- significantly affect the appearance of the final
dental bone to the interproximal contact seems to restoration. Fabrication of the surgical guide tem-
predict whether an interdental papilla will be plate has become a requirement in patients in whom
present or not. If the distances between the bone and it is necessary to optimize fixed replacement and
the contact is short (~5 mm), a papilla is usually ensure correct emergence profiles. Surgical tem-
present. If the distance is long ~8 mm), a papilla plates can also be beneficial in areas where esthetics
would not normally be present without additional is less important. The objectives for using a surgical
soft tissue grafting.9,10 template in partially edentulous patients are as
follows: (1) delineate the embrasures, (2) locate in the chapter, but the same preoperative planning
the implant within the restoration contour, (3) and interspecialty cooperation are as important as
align implants with the long axis of the completed just described.
restoration, and (4) identify the level of the cemen-
toenamel junction or tooth emergence from the soft
tissue.
IMPLANT SURGERY
A clear resin facial veneer template is recom- Peter E. Larsen
mended for anterior implant placement to allow the
surgeon access to the osseous receptor site and an Implant surgery can be performed in an
unimpeded view of the frontal and sagittal angula- ambulatory setting with the patient under local
tions as the site is being prepared. This type of tem- anesthesia. However, it requires more time than
plate is fabricated from a diagnostic waxing or do other surgical procedures, and so conscious
denture tooth arrangement on a mounted cast. The sedation may be preferred. Patients expect implant
waxing is duplicated with alginate or polyvinyl silox- placement to be more traumatic than extracting a
ane and poured in quick-setting stone. Then 1.5-mm tooth. In fact, it is less traumatic. Preoperative edu-
(0.060-inch)–thick of vacuum-formed matrix mate- cation and conscious sedation should lessen the
rial is adapted to the replicated cast. For accurate anxiety.
orientation, the vacuum-formed matrix should be A complete description of the surgical procedures
trimmed to extend over the full facial surface of the involved in implant placement can be found in one
teeth being restored and about a third of the facial of the current standard texts.11,12
surface of the remaining dentition. This template is
removed from the duplicate cast and returned to the
Surgical Access
original cast. A 2-mm thickness of autopolymerizing
resin is added to the lingual surface to compensate Several types of incision can be used to gain access
for the space occupied by the porcelain on the to the residual ridge for implant placement. The
implant restoration (Fig. 13-20). (The total thick- incision chosen should allow retraction of the soft
ness, including an additional millimeter from the tissue for unimpeded implant placement and should
vacuum-formed matrix, is about 3.0 mm.) To make preserve attached tissue esthetics and quantity.
surgical guides appear radiopaque, barium powder When the quantity of attached tissue is adequate
is often added to the resin during its fabrication (see and the underlying bone is expected to be of
Fig. 13-8). The surgeon must stay as close as possi- sufficient width, a simple crestal incision is recom-
ble to this guide during implant placement, which mended. However, closure must be performed
allows maximum flexibility in selecting an implant carefully, because the implant lies directly beneath.
site without violating the facial surface or forcing In the posterior mandible, an incision may be
screw access holes to be located inappropriately in placed toward the buccal aspect of the ridge to
the facial surface of the restoration. Following this allow the flap to be retracted by a suture. This may
guide enables the surgeon to place a fixture in the be a disadvantage, however, because the incision
best location with minimum undesirable sagittal line is thus immediately over the area where the
angulation. If a cement-retained restoration is bone may be thinnest, and a dehiscence can
desired, the orientation of the implant can be slightly occur during surgery. An incision slightly to the
more facial. palatal side is particularly effective in the maxillary
Although the use of a guide is most necessary anterior zone. After the bone is exposed, the surgi-
in the maxillary anterior region, where bony cal template is positioned, and a periodontal probe
dimensions are sometimes surprising and often is used to make a preliminary assessment of the
unfavorable, the guide may also be useful in poste- potential implant site. The residual ridge may
rior areas with wide edentulous ridges. However, a have areas that are uneven or with sharp ridges.
different type of guide or template may be fabricated These areas should be smoothed before implant
in this area. Holes are drilled through the resin into placement.
the underlying cast and are paralleled with a milling
machine or dental surveyor. Such templates locate
Implant Placement
the placement of an implant and direct the inclina-
tion of its long axis with maximum accuracy. Placement procedures for all implant systems
Surgical templates also can be fabricated for a require atraumatic preparation of the recipient site.
maxillary edentulous arch that is to be restored with Thermal injury to bone is minimized by using a low-
a fixed prosthesis. Such templates are described later speed, high-torque handpiece, along with copious
A B
C D
E F
Fig. 13-20
Anterior implant placement with a surgical guide template. A, The apical extent of the template is not removed, which allows
the superoinferior orientation of implant placement to be determined. B, Full-thickness flap incisions are made, preserving
the interdental papilla. The flap is reflected to expose bone for preparation of the implant site. C, Resin (2.0 mm) has been
added to the lingual aspect of the matrix; the rest of the lingual area was left open so the surgeon can choose the best
available bone. The site should be prepared as close to the template as possible. D, The implant is positioned 2.5 to 3.0 mm
apical to the desired emergence position of the final restoration. E, The implant is positioned at an angle and depth that allows
optimum esthetics and access for hygiene. F, The surgical site is sutured. A 4 to 6-month healing time is allowed. (Courtesy of Dr. J. A.
Holloway.)
irrigation. The irrigation is either externally or inter- to mark the implant site. The implant site is located
nally applied and directed through channels in the through use of the surgical template, which may also
drill. Manufacturer recommendations relating to the assist in directing angulation of the implant. The
type of irrigation and speed of the drilling equip- center of the implant recipient site is marked with
ment should be followed. Threaded implants often the initial drill, and a pilot hole is prepared. A par-
require final thread preparation in the bone at very alleling pin is then placed in the preparation to
low speeds. check alignment and angulation.
The implant recipient site is prepared with At this point, a final determination is made
a series of gradually enlarged burs. All implant regarding the adequacy of the recipient site for
systems have an initial small-diameter drill used implant placement. Although implant placement is
a surgical procedure, it is influenced by critical bone quality and surgery were less than ideal or if
restorative parameters. The template communicates the bone-implant interface was questionable at the
the range of acceptable implant positions and angu- time of placement. In general, recommended inte-
lations. At this step, if it is apparent that supporting gration times are 6 months in the maxilla, 3 months
bone will not allow proper positioning of the in the anterior mandible, and 4 months in the pos-
implant, further osseous augmentation may be nec- terior mandible.
essary, either simultaneously with implant place- The goals of surgical uncovering are to accurately
ment or as a separate procedure with implant attach the abutment to the implant, to preserve
placement delayed until proper osseous support is attached tissue, and to recontour tissue as necessary.
available. These goals may be accomplished with any of these
After the desired depth and diameter of the recip- three techniques: the tissue punch, crestal incision,
ient site are achieved, the implant is placed. For tita- or flap repositioning.
nium implants, an uncontaminated surface oxide After the implant is exposed, the implant abut-
layer is required for osseous integration. ment is placed. There are two approaches for this
Hydroxyapatite-coated implants are also sensitive to procedure. The first approach is to place the same
contamination. abutment as will be used in the restoration. The
Nonthreaded implants are positioned in the recip- second approach is to place an interim healing cap
ient site and gently tapped into place with a mallet that will remain until the tissue heals and will then
and seating instrument. Threaded implants are be replaced by the abutment during the restorative
screwed into place, which also requires cutting the treatment procedures.
screw threads in the recipient site. Self-tapping When the abutment is placed, the superstructure
implants are available for use in the maxilla, where must be completely seated on the implant body
the bone is soft enough to make prethreading unnec- without gaps or intervening tissue. In systems with
essary. After all implants are placed, tension-free antirotational facets in the implant (see Fig. 13-18),
closure prevents wound dehiscence. these features must be aligned to allow complete
seating of the abutment. Thesuperstructure–implant
body interface should be evaluated radiographically
Postoperative Evaluation immediately after the uncovering. If a gap is present,
the superstructure must be repositioned.
A radiograph should be taken postoperatively to
evaluate the position of the implant in relation
to adjacent structures (e.g., the sinus and the IMPLANT RESTORATIONS
inferior alveolar canal) and other implants. Any
Osseous integrated implants are generally designed
significant problems noticed at this time should be
to support screw- or cement-retained dental pros-
corrected.
theses. These implant systems offer many advan-
Patients are given mild analgesics and 0.12%
tages over conventional dental restorations and
chlorhexidine gluconate rinses for 2 weeks after
one-stage implants (BOX 13-3).
surgery to keep bacterial populations to a minimum
Fabrication of screw-retained prostheses requires
during healing. Weekly evaluations are recom-
a number of components unique to implant den-
mended until soft tissue healing is complete (2 to 3
tistry. For less experienced clinicians, the large
weeks). If possible, complete or partial removable
number of parts included within one system might
dental prostheses should not be worn for 1 week
create problems. This section describes in generic
after surgery. The resin over the implant can then be
terms the component parts typically needed to
reduced by 2.0 or 3.0 mm and replaced with a soft
restore an osseous integrated implant. There are
liner, so that the denture can be worn without injur-
many dental implant systems, and although all the
ing the healing implant site.
major components are available for each system,
many differ slightly in specific design and materials.
The basic steps for implant restoration fabrication
Implant Uncovering
are described in Figure 13-21.
If a two-stage system is used, implant uncovering is
performed after complete implant fixture integra-
Clinical Implant Components
tion has been achieved. The time interval for inte-
gration to occur varies and depends on the particular Terms used to describe similar implant components
site and patient. Longer times may be required if the vary widely among manufacturing companies. A list
Box 13-3 Advantages of Osseous Integrated the time of placement, this is referred to as “using a
Implants two-stage implant with a one-stage protocol.”
1. SURGICAL
a. Documented success rate Healing Screw
b. In-office procedure
During the healing phase after first-stage surgery, a
c. Adaptable to multiple intraoral locations
screw is normally placed in the superior aspect of
d. Precise implant site preparation
the fixture. It is usually low in profile to facilitate the
e. Reversibility in the event of implant failure
suturing of soft tissue in the two-stage implant or to
2. PROSTHETIC minimize loading in the one-stage implant (Fig. 13-
23). At second-stage surgery, it is removed and
a. Multiple restorative options
replaced by subsequent components. In some
b. Versatility of second-stage components
systems the screw is made slightly larger than the
• Angle correction
diameter of the implant, which facilitates abutment
• Esthetics
placement by ensuring that bone does not grow over
• Crown contours
the edge of the implant. The implant surgeon should
• Screw- or cement-retained options
always be sure that the healing screw is completely
c. Retrievability in the event of prosthodontic
seated after stage-one surgery to prevent bone from
failure
growing between the screw and the implant. If this
occurs, removing the bone may damage the superior
surface of the implant and affect the fit of subse-
quent components.
Interim abutment
Interim abutments are dome-shaped screws
of terms used in this book and a partial list of alter-
placed after second-stage surgery and before inser-
native terms are provided in Table 13-1.
tion of the prosthesis. They range in length from 2 to
10 mm and project through the soft tissue into the
Implant body oral cavity. They may screw directly into the fixture
The dental implant body is the component placed or, in some systems, onto the abutment immediately
within the bone during first-stage surgery. It may be after second-stage surgery. Those that screw onto the
a threaded or nonthreaded root form and is ordi- abutment are commonly referred to as healing caps
narily made of either titanium or titanium alloy of (Fig. 13-24). Both interim abutments are made of
varying surface roughnesses, with or without a titanium or titanium alloy. In areas where esthetics
hydroxyapatite coating (Fig. 13-22). Although some is paramount, healing should be sufficiently com-
controversy exists regarding the optimum shape and pleted around an interim abutment to stabilize the
surface coating for an implant in different parts of gingival margin. At this time, abutments of appro-
the mouth, the significant factors for success are priate length are selected to ensure that the metal-
precise placement, atraumatic surgery, unloaded porcelain interface of the restoration will be located
healing, and passive restoration. subgingivally. In areas where tissue esthetics is not
All contemporary dental implants have an crucial, adequate healing for impressions usually
internally threaded portion that can accept second- takes 2 weeks. In esthetic zones, 3 to 5 weeks may
stage screw placements. These implants also may be required before abutment selection. In addition,
incorporate an antirotational feature within the knowing the length of the healing cap can expedite
design of the fixture body. If it is incorporated, the abutment selection.
antirotational feature may be either internal or exter-
nal. Abutments
Implant bodies can also be classified as one-stage or Abutments are the component of the implant system
two-stage. One-stage implants project through the soft that screw directly into the implant. They eventually
tissue immediately after stage I surgery. Two-stage support the prosthesis in screw-retained restorations,
implants are typically covered with soft tissue at this inasmuch as they accept the retaining screw of the
point. When a tall healing screw or cap is placed on prosthesis. For cement-retained restorations, they
a two-stage implant to project it through the tissue at may be shaped like a conventional crown prepara-
A B,C
D E,F
G H,I
J K,L
Fig. 13-21
A, A single-unit implant-supported prosthesis will replace the maxillary right central incisor. The impression post is tightened into
the implant. B, A closed tray impression of the impression coping. C, Impression coping removed from the mouth. Pictured adja-
cent to implant analog. D, Impression coping attached to implant analog and inserted into impression (E). F, Polyether soft tissue
cast material (Permadyne, 3M-ESPE North America, St. Paul, Minnesota) injected around analog before pouring. G, Poured cast. After
an impression is made, the impression post is removed from the mouth and attached to the implant analog. Impression coping and
analog are relocated in the impression before pouring. H, The impression coping locates the analog in the same position on the cast
as the implant is in the mouth. I, Soft tissue cast material can be contoured to mimic adjacent tooth emergence profile. J, Abutment
for cement-retained restoration selected. K, Zirconia abutment seated on the cast and ready for fabrication of all-ceramic restora-
tion (see Chapter 25). L, Zirconia abutment seated in the mouth. M, All-ceramic restoration.
Table 13-1 IMPLANT TERMINOLOGY
Text term Also known as Function
Implant body (see Fig. 13-22) Implant fixture screw or Portion of the implant system within
cylinder the bone
Healing screw (see Fig. 13-23) Sealing screw Seals the occlusal surface of the
Cover screw implant during osseointegration,
First-stage cover screw if a two-stage procedure is used
Interim abutment (see Temporary gingival cuff A cover, attached to the implant,
Fig. 13-24) Healing collar that is used to maintain the
Implant healing cap opening through the tissue until
Healing abutment the restoration is completed. Is
placed immediately onto the
implant if a one-stage protocol is
used.
Healing cap (see Fig. 13-24B) Temporary screw A cover that is attached to the top
Comfort cap of a transmucosal abutment,
Abutment healing cap protecting the internal threads
and interface surfaces of the
abutment while the restoration is
being completed
Standard abutment (see Transmucosal abutment An intermediate component placed
Fig. 13-25A) Tissue extension between the implant and metal
Permucosal extension framework/restoration, providing
support and retention for a fixed-
removable restoration
Excellent for bar overdentures
Tapered abutment (see Conical abutment An intermediate component placed
Fig. 13-25B) Transmucosal abutment between the implant and
Tissue extension restoration, providing support and
Permucosal abutment retention for a fixed-removable
restoration
The abutment is cone shaped for
maximum esthetics
Excellent for screw-retained fixed
prostheses
Hex driver (see Fig. 13-33C) Hex tool Used for placing and removing all
Screwdriver hex screws (i.e., abutment
fastening screws), impression
post-retaining screws, and
healing abutments
Available in two lengths—short
(19 mm, for posterior) and long
(24 mm, for anterior)—and three
hex sizes (0.048, 0.050, and
0.062 inch)
Abutment driver or seating Name of each driver/tool is Used to seat the abutment directly
tool specific, based on its use onto the implant
Impression coping (see Impression post Component used during the
Fig. 13-33A, B, and D) Impression pin impression procedure to transfer
Transfer pin the position of the implant to the
Transfer post cast
Implant analog (see Implant fixed analog Replicates the implant for use in
Fig. 13-33G) Laboratory analog the cast
Abutment analog
Implant body analog
Fixture replica
Table 13-1—cont’d
Text term Also known as Function
Interim abutment sleeve Temporary cylinder Provides support and retention for
(see Fig. 13-47H) Temporary coping acrylic temporary/interim
Temorary abutment restorations
sleeve May also be used for occlusal rim
Provisional abutment and wax setup try-in procedures
for overdentures
Fixed abutment (see Straight abutment An abutment used for a cement-
Fig. 13-25B and C) Coping abutment retained restoration (also available
Abutment post in 15- and 25-degree angles)
Crown and bridge
abutment (slang)
Waxing sleeve (see Fig. 13-37) Plastic sheath A castable plastic pattern usually
Plastic sleeve attached to a premachined metal
Plastic coping base used to form an abutment
Castable abutment during the laboratory waxing
Castable coping procedure
Gold sleeve It interfaces directly onto the
Gold coping implant or onto the transmucosal
Gold cylinder abutment
Prosthesis-retaining Gold screw Screw used to secure a screw-
screw (see Fig. 13-38) Coping screw retained metal (bar) framework
Implant fixture screw or restoration to transmucosal
Fastening screw abutments (i.e., conical or
standard abutments)
A B C D
Fig. 13-22
Four main categories of osseous integrated implants. A, Tita-
nium screw. B, Hydroxyapatite-coated screw. C, Hydroxyap-
atite-coated cylinder. D, Titanium plasma-sprayed cylinder.
䉴
Fig. 13-23
Healing screw (arrow) in place during the initial implant-
healing phase. Soft tissue is sutured over the implant. A remov-
able prosthesis can be worn over this area during healing.
A B
Fig. 13-24
Components that allow for soft tissue healing after second-stage surgery. A, This interim abutment screws into the implant. B, The
healing cap screws into the abutment.
tion. Abutments take many forms (Fig. 13-25). Their wide-base abutments, which allow teeth with larger
walls are usually smooth, polished, and straight-sided cross-sectional diameters to be restored with more
titanium or titanium alloy. Their lengths range from physiologic contours. The nonsegmented implant
1 to 10 mm. In nonesthetic areas, 1 to 2 mm of tita- crown (UCLA) bypasses the abutment portion by
nium should be allowed to penetrate the soft tissue means of a sleeve waxed directly to the implant.
to maximize the patient’s ability to clean the pros- Using nonsegmented implant crowns may be neces-
thesis (Fig. 13-26). In esthetic areas, an abutment can sary when soft tissue thickness is less than 2 mm.
be selected to allow porcelain to be carried subgingi- All-ceramic components onto which all-ceramic
vally for optimum esthetics (Fig. 13-27). crowns can be cemented are gaining popularity for
In implant systems that incorporate an antirota- the anterior part of the mouth. The ceramic compo-
tional feature, the abutment must have two components are usually made of sintered alumina, zirconia
nents that move independently of each other: One or a combination of the two.
engages the antirotational feature, and the other The choice of abutment size depends on the ver-
secures the abutment within the fixture (Fig. 13-28). tical distance between the fixture base and opposing
With angled abutments, a similar technique is used dentition, the existing sulcular depth, and the
to correct divergently placed implants (Figs. 13-29 esthetic requirements in the area being restored. For
and 13-30). Some systems have included tapered or acceptable appearance, fixtures in the posterior
Text continues on page 406
ABUTMENTS
A B C D E
Standard Fixed Angled Tapered Nonsegmented

(screw-retained (cemented (cement or (screw- or UCLA
crown) crown) screw-retained retained (screw)
crown) crown)
Fig. 13-25
Types of abutments (left to right). A, Standard. Length can be selected to make the margin subgingival or supragingival. B, Fixed. This
abutment is much like a conventional post and core. It is screwed into the implants, has a prepared finish line, and receives a
cemented restoration. C, Angled. This type is available when implant angles must be corrected for esthetic or biomechanical reasons.
D, Tapered. This type can be used to make the transition to restoration more gradual in larger teeth. E, Nonsegmented, or direct.
This type is used in areas of limited interarch distance or areas where an esthetic outcome is important. The restoration can be built
directly on the implant, so there is no intervening abutment. This direct restoration technique has been called the UCLA abutment.
(Modified from Peterson et al: Contemporary Oral Surgery, 3rd ed. St. Louis, Mosby, 1998.)
A B
Fig. 13-26
A, Interim abutments projecting through the soft tissue. B, Implant restorations supported by standard abutments that allow easy
access for oral hygiene.
A B
C D
Fig. 13-27
A, Interim abutments projecting through the tissue for implant restoration of maxillary central incisors. B, Fixed abutments selected
with margins 1 to 2 mm subgingival. C, Completed, cemented restorations. D, Overall esthetic result.
For a single tooth, the hex must

be “engaged”
A B
Fig. 13-28
A to D, When an antirotational feature is to be engaged by the abutment, one component of the abutment (the sleeve) must fit the
hexagon, whereas the other (the screw) independently tightens the components together.
Incorrect Correct
C D
For a multiple unit restoration, the hexes usually cannot be
“engaged” due to lack of parallelism of the implants. So
“non-engaging” direct abutments must be used.
Fig. 13-28, cont’d
A B
C D
Fig. 13-29
A and B, This implant in the maxillary central incisor position is angled too far facially to restore with a straight abutment. C, An
abutment angled 15 degrees with subgingival margins is chosen to rectify the situation. D, The completed crown cemented onto
the angled abutment. An interim luting agent can be used to maintain retrievability, although choosing a suitable material that
retains the restoration adequately but can still be removed is not always easy.
A B
C D
Fig. 13-30
A to D, Zirconia abutments with all-ceramic restorations used to replace missing maxillary central incisors. (Courtesy of Dr. D. Gozalo.)
A B
Fig. 13-31
A, Two crowns fabricated for the same lingually tipped mandibular implant. The arrows denote the connection to the implant body
for both units. Crown 2 is fabricated on a 4-mm abutment. Crown 1 is connected directly to the implant body, allowing the creation
of more physiologic contours. B, One-year follow-up of crown 1. The soft tissue response is excellent despite a poorly placed implant.
maxilla or mandible may require margin termina- When these measurements have been made, the
tion at or below the gingival crest. An anterior max- correct abutment is attached to the implant. The
illary crown may require 2 to 3 mm of subgingival abutment length can have a dramatic effect on
porcelain at the facial gingival margin to create the restoration contours (Fig. 13-31).
proper emergence profile and appearance. Frame-
work fit should be checked on multiple unit restora- Impression copings
tions if abutment margins are no more than 1 mm Impression copings facilitate transfer of the intraoral
subgingivally. Periodontal probing of the sulcus after location of the implant or abutment to a similar
the healing cap is removed reveals the space avail- position on the laboratory cast. They may screw into
able for subgingival extension and can be performed the implant or onto the abutment and are custom-
at the time of abutment placement or after a period arily subdivided into fixture types or abutment types
of tissue healing around an interim restoration. (Fig. 13-32).
Both of these can be further subdivided into trans- analog before being transferred to the impression in
fer (indirect) and pickup (direct) types. With the the proper orientation. If the clinician anticipates
transfer impression coping in place, an impression is that the implant angulation will have to be corrected
made intraorally, after radiographs are taken to on the laboratory cast, a flat-sided impression coping
confirm complete engagement. Heavier body that goes directly into the fixture or implant should
impression materials (e.g., polyvinyl siloxane and be used (Fig. 13-33). The flat side of the post accu-
polyether) are usually recommended, although any rately orients the location of the implant and posi-
conventional impression material can be used. tions the threads and the antirotational feature.
When the impression is removed from the mouth, When an angled abutment is placed or screwed onto
the impression coping remains in place on the the implant, it must be oriented in the same position
implant abutment or on the fixture. It is then in which the prosthesis was fabricated in the labora-
removed from the mouth and joined to the implant tory. Completely symmetric impression copings
A B C
Fig. 13-32
Types of impression copings. A, A one-piece coping (screws onto abutment) is used if the abutment does not need to be changed
on the laboratory cast. B, A two-piece coping (transfer/closed tray) is attached directly to the fixture if the abutment does need to
be changed on the cast (it should have a flat side if angle correction is necessary). C, A two-piece coping (pickup/open tray), used
to orient the antirotational feature or to make impressions of very divergent implants.
A B,C
D E,F
G H,I
J K,L
Fig. 13-33
A, A standard transfer impression coping is a sleeve that matches the implant diameter. A screw penetrates through its center. B,
The screw can be placed through the impression coping sleeve and carried to the mouth with the standard hex driver (C). D, Impres-
sion coping seated into the implant. E, Radiograph confirming complete seating. F, Complete impression, clearly showing flat sides.
G, Implant analog corresponding to the size of the implant. H, Impression coping removed from the mouth and attached to an
implant analog. I, Impression coping/analog complex inserted into the impression with flat sides properly oriented. J, Polyether
impression material injected around the complex before pouring. K and L, Impression coping orients the implant analog to the cast
as the implant body is positioned in the mouth.
are contraindicated if angle correction may be access to the guide pin for unscrewing after the
necessary. If the clinician decides to transfer the ori- material has set so that the copings can be picked
entation of an antirotational feature from the mouth up within the impression when removed from
to the laboratory model, the two-piece pickup the mouth (Fig. 13-34). When implants are oriented
(direct) impression technique should be used. This at significantly divergent angles, the pickup tech-
technique requires a two-piece impression coping nique is generally considered to be the more accu-
with a removable guide pin that screws directly into rate of the two procedures. The transfer technique is
the abutment or onto the fixture. A square coping more convenient and sometimes mandatory when
with a long guide pin and usually an open-top tray space is limited and screwdriver access would be
are used. The impression coping is designed with limited. Before an implant impression is taken, a
square side walls to prevent rotation in the impres- radiograph should be made to ensure that the com-
sion material. An open-top impression tray allows ponents are properly assembled. This requirement is
A B
Fig. 13-35
Implant analogs. These represent either implants or abut-
ments. A, Analog that duplicates the top of the implant. B,
Analog that duplicates the top of the abutment.
1 ments without breaking the stone and losing the ref-

erence point of the soft tissue (Fig. 13-36).
Abutment analogs are generally attached to an
B implant impression coping. Implant body impres-
sion copings are normally attached to implant body
2 analogs. The advantage of using the implant body
analog is that the abutments can be changed in the
laboratory. Also, if a flat-sided impression coping has
been used to orient the threads or the hexagon of the
implant body analog properly, the decision to correct
Fig. 13-34 for less than optimal implant angulation can be
A, Two-piece impression coping and screw seated intraorally. deferred until the laboratory stage. If the clinician is
B, Cross-sectional view of the impression coping and screw (1) confident that the appropriate abutment has been
with the implant analog (2) attached. The impression coping selected, using the abutment impression coping and
remains within the impression material. abutment analog can simplify the procedure. If a
supragingival abutment margin has been selected, a
soft tissue cast is not necessary.
especially important when an antirotational feature Waxing sleeves
is involved.
Waxing sleeves are attached to the abutment by the
Implant analogs relating screw on the laboratory model. They even-
tually become part of the prosthesis. In nonseg-
Implant analogs are made to represent exactly the
mented implant crowns, they are attached directly to
top of the implant fixture or the abutment in the lab-
the implant body analog in the cast.
oratory cast. Therefore, they can be classified as
Commonly referred to as UCLA abutments, they
fixture analogs and abutment analogs (Fig. 13-35).
may be plastic patterns that are burned out and cast
Both types screw directly into the impression coping
as part of the restoration framework, precious metal
after it has been removed from the mouth, and
that is incorporated in the framework when it is cast
the joined components are returned to the impres-
to the precious alloy cylinder, or a combination of
sion before pouring. The final impression should
each. Use of a metal waxing sleeve ensures that two
be poured in either dental stone or die stone. The
machined surfaces are always in contact. The cast
gingival tissues can be reproduced by injecting an
surface of the plastic waxing sleeve may be retooled
elastomer (e.g., Permadyne*) to represent soft tissue
before it is returned to the fixture.
around the implant analog before pouring. This facil-
Waxing sleeves are available in several vertical
itates removal of the impression coping from the
dimensions. Tall ones can be shortened to conform
stone cast and the placement of subsequent abut-
to the requirements of the occlusal plane. Today,
most waxing sleeves are a combination of gold alloy
*3M-ESPE North America, St. Paul, Minnesota. and plastic (Fig. 13-37). This combination allows the
A B
C D
Fig. 13-36
A and B, Polyether impression material injected around an implant analog before the impression is poured. The gingival material
should not cover any retention features of the analog. C, The impression material reproduces the patient’s soft tissue contours adja-
cent to the implant. The impression coping may be removed and other components inserted without losing the associated anatomic
landmarks. D, Completed restoration. (Courtesy of Dr. C. Pechous.)
A B
Fig. 13-37
A, Waxing sleeves with gold alloy base and plastic extension. B, On the laboratory cast, the technician can wax to the plastic exten-
sion. The wax and plastic are burned out, and the new alloy is “cast to” the original alloy base.
machined fit of the alloy at the implant, with the cost occlusal surface of the restoration). Screws that are
advantage of plastic at the waxing surface. countersunk must be covered by an initial layer of
resilient material (e.g., gutta-percha, cotton, or sili-
Prosthesis-retaining screws cone). A subsequent seal of composite resin is placed
Prosthesis-retaining screws penetrate the fixed over the resilient plug (Fig. 13-39).
restoration and secure it to the abutment (Fig. 13-38).
They are tightened with a screwdriver and attach
nonsegmented crowns to the body of the implant. Implant Restorative Options
They generally are made of titanium, titanium alloy,
or gold alloy and may be long (which allows them to Distal-extension implant-supported restoration
penetrate the total length of the implant crown) or Implant support offers major advantages in the treat-
short (which requires countersinking them into the ment of partially edentulous patients in whom no
tooth is highly recommended. If doubt remains, more

implants are used when heavier forces are expected
(e.g., the posterior part of the mouth in patients with
evidence of parafunctional activity). Fewer implants
are used when lighter forces are expected (e.g., those
opposing a complete denture or those supporting a
prosthesis in the anterior part of the mouth).
Long edentulous span restoration
Similar options can be used to treat a long edentu-
lous span. The clinician may choose to have multi-
ple implants placed between the remaining natural
teeth and to fabricate a fully implant-supported
Fig. 13-38 restoration. As an alternative, one or two implants
Two types of prosthesis-retaining screws. A, Nonsegmented can be placed in the long edentulous span and the
crown retained to implant. B, Crown retained on abutment. final restoration connected to natural teeth. When it
is necessary to connect implants and the natural
teeth, protecting the teeth with telescopic copings is
recommended. In this manner, prosthesis retriev-
ability can be maintained. In addition, some long
edentulous spans require the reconstruction of soft
and hard tissue as well as teeth. In these instances,
use of resin teeth processed to a metal substructure
rather than a conventional metal-ceramic restoration
is recommended. Soft tissue esthetics can be more
easily and accurately mimicked with heat-processed
resin and large defects (Fig. 13-41). This type of
restoration is best described as a complete metal-
resin fixed dental prosthesis. It has also been called
a hybrid prosthesis because it combines the principles
of conventional fixed and removable prosthodontics.
For smaller defects, pink porcelain can be used to
Fig. 13-39 compensate for missing soft tissue (see Fig. 13-26B).
Prosthesis-retaining screws countersunk below the occlusal
surface of the restoration. Single-tooth implant restoration
The use of single implants in restoring missing teeth
is an attractive option for the patient and the dentist.
terminal abutment is available. In this situation, However, it requires careful implant placement and
the conventional dental treatment plan would precise control of all prosthetic components. Single-
include a partial removable dental prosthesis. tooth restorations supported by implants may be
However, with the implant alternative, patients indicated in the following situations:
can avoid the discomfort and inconvenience of a 1. An otherwise intact dentition.
removable prosthesis. 2. A dentition with spaces that would be more diffi-
There are two distal-extension restorative options. cult to treat with conventional fixed prosthodontics.
One option is to place an implant distal to the most 3. Distally missing teeth when cantilevers or partial
posterior natural abutment and fabricate a fixed pros- removable dental prostheses are not indicated.
thesis connecting the implant with the natural tooth. 4. A prosthesis that needs to closely mimic the
However, there are problems associated with im- missing natural tooth.
plants connected to natural teeth (see p. 422). The The requirements for single-tooth implant crowns
other option is to place two or more implants poste- are as follows:
rior to the most distal natural tooth and fabricate a 1. Esthetics.
completely implant-supported restoration (Fig. 13- 2. Antirotation, to avoid prosthetic component
40). If the crown/implant ratio is favorable, two loosening.
implants to support a three-unit fixed dental pros- 3. Simplicity, to minimize the amount of compo-
thesis may be considered. If implants are short and nents used.
crowns are long, one implant to replace each missing 4. Accessibility, to maintain optimum oral health.
A B
C D
Fig. 13-40
A, Two implants placed distal to the mandibular premolar. B to D, The completed restoration is not connected to the crown on the
natural tooth. (Courtesy of Dr. R. B. Miller.)
A B
C D
Fig. 13-41
A, Large mandibular defect created by a shotgun wound. B, Metal substructure of a metal-resin prosthesis tried onto three implants
in this defect. C, Denture resin can more effectively recreate the soft tissue color and contours in the completed restoration than
dental porcelain. D, Metal-resin restoration over the defect.
5. Variability, to allow the clinician to control the congenitally missing maxillary lateral incisors
height, diameter, and angulation of the implant (Fig. 13-42) and teeth in which endodontic treatment
restoration. was unsuccessful (Fig. 13-43). Screw loosening has
Several systems have been developed to comply most commonly been associated with the terminally
with these demands. Common indications include positioned single molar implant crown (Fig. 13-44).
A B
C D
E F
G H
Fig. 13-42
A, Patient with congenitally missing maxillary lateral incisor. B, Placement of dental implant through the use of a surgical template.
C, Final soft tissue contours. D, Impression post projecting from definitive cast. E and F, Final restoration. G and H, Single tooth
implant crown replacing the maxillary lateral incisor.
A B
Fig. 13-43
A, Occlusal view of a single tooth implant crown replacing a fractured mandibular premolar. B, Implant crown with screw access
restored.
resin and teeth. It is typically supported by a

minimum of five implants in the mandible and six
in the maxilla. One major determining factor for
selecting this option is the amount of bone and soft
tissue that has been lost. For patients who have had
moderate bone loss, the prosthesis restores both
bone and soft tissue contours.
The metal-ceramic prosthesis also requires a
minimum of five implants in the mandible and six
in the maxilla. It can be made esthetically pleasing
Fig. 13-44 only if bone loss is minimal and is best suited for
Screw loosening is most commonly associated with single- patients who have recently (within 5 years) lost their
tooth molar implant crowns. natural teeth. For patients with severe bone loss,
there is probably only one option: a removable
Matching the soft tissue contours of adjacent restoration (Fig. 13-51).
natural teeth remains the most difficult challenge for The main advantage of a fixed restoration,
completing the anterior single-tooth restoration. whether it is metal-resin or metal-ceramic, is that it
These contours can be reliably created with interim is attached to the implants at all times. Therefore,
restorations. One technique, which combines soft patients experience the psychologic benefit of
tissue contouring and interim placement, is shown in having a restoration that closely resembles their orig-
Figure 13-45. When the tissue has matured around inal natural teeth. In addition, movement within the
the interim restoration, a final impression can be system is minimized, and the components tend to
made to complete the definitive restoration (Fig. 13- wear out less quickly. Because the prosthesis is screw
46). Impressions can also be made at the time of retained, the dentist can remove it, allowing access
stage I surgery so that an interim restoration can be for cleaning and repairs. A potential disadvantage is
delivered at stage II to facilitate more ideal soft tissue that the implants must be precisely placed, espe-
contours (Fig. 13-47). The best soft tissue esthetics is cially in the maxillary anterior esthetic zone.
still generally achieved when interdental papillae are Implants placed in embrasure spaces can lead to dis-
present before the surgery. If soft tissue contours are astrous esthetic results and can impede access for
deficient before surgery, the patient should expect hygiene. With a metal-resin prosthesis, the clinician
some compromise in the final soft tissue result. must decide between leaving enough space for
hygiene access and minimizing space for optimum
Fixed restoration in the completely esthetics. Some patients may be concerned by the
edentulous arch amount of metal shown in a metal-resin prosthesis.
For completely edentulous patients who require However, from a conversational distance, a properly
nonremovable restorations, there are two implant made prosthesis is hardly noticeable. Esthetic and
options: a complete metal-resin fixed dental pros- phonetic problems in the maxillary arch can often
thesis and a metal-ceramic fixed dental prosthesis be avoided by not placing implants near the midline
(Figs. 13-48 to 13-50). and restoring the incisor teeth with pontics. This
The complete metal-resin fixed dental prosthesis approach to implant placement improves the
is a cast alloy framework with processed denture restorative outcome considerably (Fig. 13-52).
Text continues on page 420
A B,C
D E,F
G H,I
J K,L
Fig. 13-45
Soft tissue contouring with interim restoration. A, This patient has lost the left maxillary central incisor, which will be replaced with
an implant-supported prosthesis. B, Soft tissue healing 2 weeks after second-stage surgery and placement of an impression coping.
Note that the interdental papilla has been preserved. C, Soft tissue cast prepared with a laboratory bur to create the ideal soft tissue
architecture. D, A waxing sleeve attached to the implant analog retains the interim restoration. E, An anatomic-contour wax pattern
can be used to fabricate the interim restoration. F, Duplicate cast of the anatomic-contour wax pattern. G, An acrylic template is
adapted to the duplicate cast and returned to the definitive cast. A waxing post is placed in the interim restoration to create a screw
access hole. H, An interim implant-supported restoration is fabricated by one of the techniques described in Chapter 15. I, The soft
tissue is contoured to accept the interim restoration. A diamond curettage bur can be used when sufficient attached tissue is present.
J, Soft tissue contouring improves esthetics, minimizes pocket depths, and allows more physiologic restoration contours. K, The
interim restoration. Soft tissue is allowed to heal for 4 to 6 weeks before the definitive impression is made. L, Definitive implant-
supported restoration.
A B
C D
E F
Fig. 13-46
A, Soft tissue around a maxillary implant provisional restoration after 6 weeks of healing. B, New soft tissue contours compared to
the healing abutment previously in place. C, Final impression made and a definitive cast fabricated. The new soft tissue contours
are reproduced. D, Implant crown placed on the maxillary right central incisor. E, Preservation of the interdental papilla is impor-
tant for patients with medium to high smile lines. F and G, One- and five-year follow-ups showing that the patient has maintained
healthy soft tissue contours. (Courtesy of Dr. J.A. Holloway.)
A B,C
D E,F
G H,I
J K,L
Fig. 13-47
Stage II interim restoration technique. A, View of missing maxillary right central incisor. B, Surgical template in position. C, Once
the screw-shaped implant is in place, the fixture mount is luted to the surgical template with resin before it is unscrewed from the
mouth. D, Analog attached to the fixture mount. E, Diagnostic stone cast prepared to position analog. F, Template placed back on
diagnostic cast. G, Dental stone is flowed around the analog. The position of the analog is identical to the position of the implant
in the mouth. H to L, A plastic sleeve is used for the fabrication of an interim restoration that can be delivered at stage II surgery.
A B
C D
Fig. 13-48
A to D, A metal-ceramic implant restoration may be indicated if adequate bone and soft tissue contours are available.
Fig. 13-50
Fig. 13-49 Metal-resin restorations are the treatment of choice for eden-
Radiograph showing fixed restorations supported by seven tulous patients with moderate bone resorption.
implants in the maxilla and six in the mandible. Radiograph of
patient in Fig. 13-48.
Bone
Bone Bone
Soft
tissue
Soft Soft
tissue tissue
15–20 mm
10–14 mm
8–9 mm
Pink Pink
denture denture
resin resin
A B C
Fig. 13-51
The amount of bone resorption dictates the treatment options for an edentulous patient. A, Minimal resorption may allow metal-
ceramic restorations. B, Moderate resorption may necessitate resin-to-metal restorations. C, Severe resorption necessitates only
implant-supported overdentures for optimum esthetic results.
A B
C D
E F
G H
I J
Fig. 13-52
Posterior implant placement for a maxillary complete arch prosthesis. A surgical template can be fabricated for an edentulous patient
by duplicating the existing denture in clear resin. A to C, Putty impression material is used to form a mold of the fitting and pol-
ished surfaces of the denture, which is reassembled to form the mold. D, Clear autopolymerizing resin is poured into the mold and
placed in a pressure pot (E). F, The lingual aspect of the template is removed, leaving the most facial 2 mm of resin intact. The
surgeon will have access to the bone, but it will be confined to the arch form. G, The ideal positions for maxillary implants are the
canine, second premolar, and second molar areas. H, Cross-arch implant parallelism is also important. I, Access for hygiene must be
allowed around implant abutments. If implants are located posterior to the canine, access for hygiene can be created without com-
promising esthetics or phonetics. J, Reasonable esthetics and phonetics can be accomplished with a metal-resin restoration if mod-
ified ridge-lap pontics are used in the maxillary central and lateral incisor positions.
Cement-Retained versus Screw-Retained The screw-retained implant crown is fastened

Implant Crowns either to the abutment or directly to the implant. The
main advantage of this restoration is its retrievability.
Cemented implant crowns can be luted to a screw- Retrievability allows for crown removal, which can
retained abutment. Zinc phosphate, glass ionomer, facilitate soft tissue evaluation, calculus débride-
and composite resin cements have all been sug- ment, and any other necessary modifications. In
gested for this purpose. However, retrievability of the addition, future treatment considerations can be
implant restoration is ordinarily not considered made more easily and are less costly if the implant
when a permanent cement is used. The interim restoration is retrievable. However, in screw-retained
cements have been recommended because they restorations, the access hole must be through the
allow restoration retrieval. However, unpredictability occlusal table of posterior teeth or the lingual
of the interim luting agents can lead to a difficult surface of anterior teeth. Forces can then be directed
retrieval or premature displacement.13 in the long axis of the implant, and an optimum
Simplicity and, in some systems, economy are the esthetic outcome is more easily achieved. This
major advantages of cement-retained restorations. In requirement dictates an ideal surgical location,
addition, cementing allows minor angle corrections which is not always possible because of anatomic
to compensate for discrepancies between the limitations. A possible disadvantage of a screw-
implant inclination and the facial crown contour retained implant restoration is that the screw may
(Fig. 13-53). Resistance to rotation is particularly loosen during function. Many techniques for retain-
crucial with cemented prosthetics, and the abut- ing screw connection have been reported.14 The
ment should then incorporate an antirotational direct mechanical interlock or antirotational feature
feature. Very small teeth are most easily replaced appears to be the most effective.
with cement-retained implant crowns. If the screw is sufficiently tightened into the
One misconception about cement-retained crowns implant crown to seat it, a clamping load or preload
is that they are simpler and have fewer screw-loosen- is developed between the implant and the crown
ing episodes. They actually may require more chair (Fig. 13-54). If this clamping force is greater than the
time and have the same propensity to loosen as does a forces trying to separate the joint between implant
directly screw-retained restoration. They are, however, and crown, the screw will not loosen. A restoration
more esthetically pleasing and less expensive. screw should be tightened with sufficient force to
A B
C D
Fig. 13-53
A, Implant in position to replace the maxillary right central incisor. B, A laboratory cast demonstrates facial angulation of the implant.
C, An angled abutment allows esthetic restoration (D). A cement retained restoration would be necessary to avoid a hole through
the facial surface.
Screw loosening can be

a problem with implant
prostheses.
Preload
Fig. 13-54
Torque on the screw develops a preload (clamping force)
between the implant and the crown.
Fig. 13-55
The screw will loosen only if the joint-separating force is greater
than the clamping force.
seat the crown, but not so much as to affect the bone- Box 13-4 Loose Restoration Retaining Screws
implant interface. Torque wrenches are available to
achieve this. In addition, lateral forces (which tend Check for:
to separate the joint) should be eliminated or 1. Excessive occlusal contacts not in the long axis
reduced (Fig. 13-55 and BOX 13-4.) of the implant body
2. Excessive cantilever contacts
3. Excessive lateral contacts
BIOMECHANICAL FACTORS AFFECTING 4. Excessive interproximal contacts
LONG-TERM IMPLANT SUCCESS 5. Inadequately tightened screws
Occlusion
Bone resorption around dental implants can be Box 13-5 Occlusion on Implant-Supported
caused by premature loading or repeated overload- Dental Prostheses
ing. Vertical or angular bone loss is usually charac-
1. Direct forces in long axis of the implant body.
teristic of bone resorption caused by occlusal trauma
2. Minimize lateral forces on the implant.
(BOX 13-5). When pressure from traumatic occlu-
3. Place lateral forces when necessary as far
sion is concentrated, bone resorption occurs by
anterior in the arch as possible.
osteoclastic activity. In the natural dentition, bone
4. When it is impossible to minimize or move
remodeling typically occurs once the severe stress
lateral forces anteriorly, distribute them over as
concentration is reduced or eliminated. However, in
many teeth and implants as possible.
the osseous integrated implant system, after bone
resorbs, it usually does not re-form. Because dental
implants most effectively resist forces directed pri- be completely eliminated from the implant prosthe-
marily in their long axis, lateral forces on implants sis, efforts should be made to distribute them equally
should be minimized. over as many teeth as possible.
Lateral forces in the posterior part of the mouth Implant restorations should be designed to mini-
are greater and more destructive than lateral forces mize damaging forces at the implant-bone interface,
in the anterior part of the mouth. When they cannot with particular attention to the occlusion.15 Flatter
A carefully designed
occlusion is critical to
implant success.
Fig. 13-56
Sharper cusp inclines and wider occlusal tables increase the Fig. 13-57
resultant force on implant components. When a single implant is attached to a natural tooth, biting
forces on the natural tooth and pontic cause stress to be con-
centrated at the superior portion of the implant.
inclines can be developed on implant-supported
cusps, creating more vertical resultant forces and a
shorter moment arm (Fig. 13-56). Whenever possi- tant when shorter implants are placed in bone of
ble, a cusp-fossa relationship should be established poorer quality. When implants longer than 13 mm
in maximum intercuspation with no eccentric can be placed in dense bone, two for every three
occlusal contacts (see Chapter 18). The maxillary teeth being replaced are acceptable. Complete arch
single-tooth restoration is vulnerable to screw loos- restorations should not be considered on fewer than
ening as a result of occlusal contacts, which usually six implants in the maxilla and five in the mandible.
produce an inclined resultant force with increased Implant cantilevers should be kept as short as
torque on the retaining screw. Optimum implant ori- possible. However, cantilevering considerable dis-
entation effectively reduces these forces. tances off five well-integrated fixtures in the anterior
In general, the location and inclination of force mandible is possible. Quite often, cantilevering
should be seriously considered in the restorative to the first molar is possible. Equations based on
phase of implant treatment. Divergent implant the distribution and length of fixtures have been
placement increases the moment arm through proposed.17
which force is transmitted to the bone-implant inter-
face; this could exceed the threshold for bone resorp-
Connecting Implants to Natural Teeth
tion. Interchangeable components to alter implant
angles have been produced by implant body manu- It has been suggested18 that connecting a single
facturers. However, it has been shown16 that increas- osseous integrated implant to one natural tooth with
ing abutment angles also produces increased stresses a fixed dental prosthesis can create excessive forces
at the bone-implant interface. Angled abutments because of the relative immobility of the osseous
may solve immediate esthetic or contour problems integrated implant in comparison with the func-
while masking potential long-term consequences tional mobility of a natural tooth. During function,
created by an implant placement that is poorly the tooth moves within the limits of its periodontal
planned or dictated by the patient’s anatomy. ligament, which can create stress at the neck of the
Inadequate implant distribution may also lead to implant up to two times the implied load on the pros-
excessive cantilevers or forces that could potentiate thesis (Fig. 13-57). Potential problems with this type
overloading of implant bodies. Whenever possible, of restoration include (1) breakdown of the osseous
dental implants should be joined so that forces may integration, (2) cement failure on the natural abut-
be more equally distributed over multiple implants. ment, (3) screw or abutment loosening, and (4)
Ideally, one implant for every tooth to be restored failure of the implant prosthetic component. This sit-
should be placed. This number is particularly impor- uation is encountered clinically when the most pos-
terior abutment is lost in the dental arch and a fixed This is permanently cemented to the natural tooth
prosthesis is needed to connect a single implant to and can prevent decay if loosening occurs. Interim
the natural tooth. If possible, a totally implant- cement is used to attach the prosthesis to the coping.
supported fixed dental prosthesis with two or more If it leaches out of the implant crown, the natural
implants should be provided. However, anatomic tooth is still protected (Fig. 13-59).
limitations of the maxillary sinus or the mandibular
canal often limit restorative efforts directed at a
Implant and Framework Fit
single fixture site.
When connecting an implant to a natural tooth is Pathogenic forces can be placed on an implant if
necessary, multiple implant or natural tooth abut- the framework does not fit passively. When all the
ments should be used. A semiprecision attachment prosthesis-retaining screws are tightened, gaps
(keyway) in the prosthesis between the implant and between the abutment and a poorly fitting frame-
the natural tooth may solve potential problems18 work close, giving the appearance of an acceptable
(Fig. 13-58). However, under most circumstances, fit. However, significant compressive forces are
when a load is applied to the pontic, the additional placed on the interfacial bone, which can lead to
movement at the attachment actually increases implant failure. The fit of all implant frameworks
the cantilever effect on the implant abutment. In should be checked with only one screw in place. No
practice, the only advantage of a semiprecision visible amounts of space or any amounts of move-
attachment may be that it allows a screw-retained ment with finger pressure should be discernible on
implant abutment crown to be removed for periodic any of the other implant abutments (Fig. 13-60). If
evaluation. a nonpassively fitting framework is identified, it
When circumstances dictate use of a natural tooth should be sectioned and soldered and then
abutment, a telescopic coping should be considered. reassessed for passive fit. A relation record should
also be made.
CAD/CAM Abutments and Frameworks

Recent technology has made it possible to design
virtual abutments and frameworks with nearly
unlimited design options. By scanning the
dental cast of the interim abutment (Fig. 13-61),
some manufacturers can fabricate final ceramic
or titanium abutments of any shape or angle
with computer-assisted design/computer-assisted
Fig. 13-58 machining (CAD/CAM) technology. Interimplant
A semiprecision attachment may compensate for vertical dis- titanium frameworks fabricated with this technology
placement forces in the tooth and an implant-supported fixed have been reported to fit more accurately and
prosthesis. It does not compensate for forces in the buccolin- passively than those fabricated with standard casting
gual direction. (Courtesy of Dr. G. Seal.) technology.
A B
Fig. 13-59
A, Maxillary abutments positioned to support a fixed prosthesis. B, Metal evaluation of maxillary rehabilitation with implant-
supported abutments and telescopic copings.
this has yet to be definitively proved. Until more

research is available, proper and timely home care
measures for prolonging the lifetime of an implant
are most effective. The clinician must ensure that the
patient receives thorough instruction in mainte-
nance techniques, including an initial session with
the clinician. This should be reinforced by a training
session with the dental hygienist during a recall visit.
Recall visits should be scheduled at least every 3
months during the first year. The patient’s oral
hygiene should be evaluated and documented at a
recall visit; reinstruction should be provided when
Fig. 13-60 necessary. Sulcular debridement must be performed
Metal framework fit should be evaluated with only a single with plastic or wooden scalers, because conventional
retaining screw tightened in place. Any detectable incomplete instruments scratch the titanium. Implant abut-
seating requires framework correction.
ments may be polished by rubber cups with a low-
abrasive polishing paste or tin oxide.
At each recall appointment, implant mobility
should be evaluated; any bleeding after probing
should be examined. Framework fit and occlusion
also must be checked. Attention to both biologic and
biomechanical factors is important for the long-term
success of dental implants.
A
COMPLICATIONS
Bone Loss
The primary complication with dental implant
therapy is bone loss around the implant (Fig. 13-62).
Any loss exceeding 0.2 mm per year is cause for
concern. Multiple factors are associated with
implant bone loss:
1. Inappropriate size and shape of the implant.
2. Inadequate number of implants or implant
B positioning.
3. Poor quality or inadequate amount of available
bone.
Fig. 13-61
A, Virtual implant-supported abutments designed on the com-
puter screen. B, Titanium abutments fabricated through the
use of computer-assisted design/computer-assisted machining
(CAD/CAM) technology.
A B
MAINTENANCE
The goal of implant maintenance is to eradicate
microbial populations affecting the prosthesis. Fig. 13-62
Although dental implants may be more resistant To monitor implant bone loss, radiographs should be evaluated
than natural teeth to the effects of bacterial plaque, once a year. A, Post placement. B, One year follow-up.
4. Initial instability of the implant. SUMMARY

5. Compromised healing phase.
6. Inadequate fit of the prosthesis. Implant-supported prostheses, involving cylindrical
7. Improper design of the prosthesis (e.g., excessive osseous integrated fixtures placed by a two-stage sur-
cantilever, poor access for hygiene). gical technique, should be considered in the treat-
8. Excessive occlusal forces. ment of any partially edentulous patient. They are a
9. Deficient fit of abutment components (e.g., gaps reliable solution to many situations that are difficult
that allow bacterial colonization). to treat by conventional measures: the patient who
10. Inadequate oral hygiene. cannot wear removable appliances, the patient with
11. Systemic influence (e.g., tobacco use, diabetes). a long edentulous span or other circumstance (e.g.,
The restorative dentist should pay particular short roots) that diminishes the prognosis for a fixed
attention to the fit of the prosthesis, the access for dental prosthesis, and the patient with a single
hygiene, and the presence of excessive occlusal missing tooth but sound adjacent teeth.
forces. If bone loss reaches 25% to 30%, revision Success with implant prosthodontics requires
surgery should be considered. the same attention to detail and careful planning as
conventional fixed prosthodontics. Often a team
approach is recommended, in which a surgeon
Prosthetic Failure places the implant and a restorative dentist designs
Additional implant prosthetic complications the prosthesis. The crucial stage is optimum place-
include fracture of the implant components or of the ment of the implant or implants. The surgeon’s main
prosthesis. Fracture of implant components is concern is that it be well within the available bone
usually attributed to fatigue from biomechanical and away from vital structures (e.g., the inferior
overload (Fig. 13-63). Failure of the implant pros-
thesis is usually traceable to less than ideal labora-
tory procedures or prosthesis design (Figs. 13-64
and 13-65).
A
Fig. 13-64
Porcelain fracture on an implant prosthesis with inadequate
metal support.
Fig. 13-63 Fig. 13-65

A and B, Fractured abutment and retaining screws on a metal- Cantilever fracture on a metal-resin prosthesis. The prosthesis
resin implant-supported prosthesis. can be retrieved easily for a laser-welded repair.
?
STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the history and scientific basis for osseous integration.
2. Discuss the indications and contraindications for implant-supported fixed dental prostheses.
3. For planning treatment with the replacement of a congenitally missing lateral incisor by an implant restora-
tion, describe the necessary minimum bone dimensions vertically, horizontally, and between roots. Also
describe the guidelines used to position the implant in the appropriate anteroposterior and superoinferior
location.
4. Describe the technique used to replicate the intraoral location of an implant on the laboratory cast.
5. List and describe the various types of abutments used for implant restorations. When is each type recom-
mended? Why?
6. Describe some common problems with implant restorations and recommend methods to manage them.
dental canal). The restorative dentist’s main concern abutment clamp \a-bŭt¢ment klămp\ (1998): any device
is that the positioning and angulation of each fixture used for positioning a dental implant abutment upon the
allow optimum occlusion, esthetics, and tissue dental implant body
health, as well as minimum stresses at the implant- abutment driver n (2005): any hand instrument usually
bone interface. Information obtained from a clinical specifically made to assist in insertion and securing of a
examination, radiographs, and a diagnostic waxing dental implant abutment to the superior portion of a
on articulated casts is crucial for planning. Surgery dental implant
is guided by a template made from the diagnostic
waxing. abutment healing cap n (2005): any temporary cover
Depending on the implant site, a two-stage surgi- used to provide a seal over the superior portion of a
cal technique requires 3 to 6 months for bone to heal dental implant; most such covers are metallic and are
against the implant. In a second surgery, the implant intended for interim usage following exposure of the
is uncovered and implant abutments are screwed dental implants superior surface
into place. Subsequently, a screw-retained prosthesis abutment post n (2005): that component of a dental
is fabricated to restore function and appearance. implant abutment which extends into the internal struc-
Several implant systems are available, each with a ture of a dental implant and is used to provide retention
variety of components for restorative management and/or stability to the dental implant abutment
(e.g., an antirotational feature incorporated in an
abutment screw n (1998): that component which secures
implant for single tooth replacement).
the dental implant abutment to the dental implant body.
Problems unique to implant prosthodontics
See also ATTACHMENT SCREW
include screw loosening and bone loss from prema-
ture loading or repeated overloading. Occlusal con- al·ve·o·lar \ăl-vē¢a-ler\ adj (1799): that part of the jaws
siderations, prosthesis fit, plaque control, and where the teeth arise
follow-up care are all primary concerns to the pro- alveolar augmentation \ăl-vē¢a-ler ôg¢mĕn-tā¢shun\: any
fessionals who deal with implants and convention- surgical procedure employed to alter the contour of the
ally supported prostheses. residual alveolar ridge
an·a·log \ăn¢a-lôg, -lŏg\ n (1826): 1: in dentistry, something
GLOSSARY* that is analogous in part or whole to something else; i.e.,
abutment analog n (2005): a replica of the superior a replica of a portion of an implant abutment made of
portion of a dental implant. Usually used to provide an brass, aluminum, steel, or plastic 2: an organ similar in
exact form of the dental implant abutment within the function to an organ of another animal or plant but with
dental laboratory during fabrication of a prothesis sup- different structure and origin—spelled also analogue
ported in part or whole by the dental implant angulated abutment \ăng¢gya-lāt¢ı̆d a-bŭt¢ment\ (1998):
any endosteal dental implant abutment which alters the
long axis angulation between the dental implant and the
angulated dental implant abutment—syn ANGLED
*Reprinted in part from The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry, Vol. 94, No. 1, ABUTMENT
The Glossary of Prosthodontic Terms, 8th Edition, pp. 10–81, © 2005,
with permission from The Editorial Council of The Journal of Prosthetic anti-rotation \ăn¢tē-rō-tā¢shun\ (1998): a structural
Dentistry. feature of some endosteal dental implant components
that prevents relative rotation of fastened parts. This houette or geometrical form (i.e., fin, screw, cylinder,
feature may exist between a dental implant body and the blade, basket, root form, etc.) generally dental implants
dental implant abutment, and/or the dental implant are classified based on their anchorage component as it
abutment and dental implant abutment element(s) relates to the bone that provides support and stability.
Thus, there are three basic types of dental implants:
attachment screw (1998): any component used to secure
eposteal dental implants, endosteal dental implants, and
a fixed dental prosthesis to the dental implant abutment.
transosteal dental implants. Some dental implants
See also ABUTMENT SCREW
possess both eposteal and endosteal components (by
aug·men·ta·tion \ôg¢mĕn-tā¢shun\ n (14c): to increase in design or subsequent anchorage change); the decision as
size beyond the existing size. In alveolar ridge augmen- to what anchorage system provides the most support at
tation, bone grafts or alloplastic materials are used to initial placement determines which category is used to
increase the size of an atrophic alveolar ridge best describe the dental implant; the dental implant(s)
provide bony support via the dental implant attachment
basal bone \bā¢sak bōn\: the osseous tissue of the while the dental implant abutment(s) connect the dental
mandible and maxillae exclusive of the alveolar process implant to the dental prosthesis—see also DENTAL
basket endosteal dental implant \băs¢kı̆t ĕn¢da-stēl¢ IMPLANT ABUTMENT, ENDOSTEAL DENTAL IMPLANT,
dĕn¢tl ı̆m-plănt\: a perforated, cylindric, endosteal EPOSTEAL DENTAL IMPLANT, TRANSOSTEAL DENTAL
dental implant, the implant body of which is designed in IMPLANT—comp MUCOSAL INSERT
the form of single, double, and/or triple contiguous dental implant abutment \ı̆m¢plănt¢ a-bŭt¢ment\: the
cylinder(s) portion of a dental implant that serves to support and/or
can·cel·lous bone \kăn-sĕl¢us, kăn¢se-lus bōn\ (1836): the retain any fixed or removable dental prosthesis—usage:
reticular, spongy or lattice-like portion of the bone; the frequently dental implant abutments, especially those
spongy bone tissue located in the medulla of the bone; used with endosteal dental implants, are changed to
this bone is composed of a variable trabecular network alter abutment design or use before a definitive dental
containing interstitial tissue that may be hematopoietic prosthesis is fabricated. Such a preliminary abutment is
termed an interim (dental implant) abutment. The abut-
CAT: acronym for Computerized Axial Tomography ment chosen to support the definitive prosthesis is
termed a definitive (dental implant) abutment. Dental
cephalometric radiograph \sĕf¢a-lo-mĕt¢rı̆k rā¢dē-ō-grăf¢\:
implant abutments frequently are described by their
a standardized radiograph of the skull
form (i.e., cylindrical, barrel), material (i.e., ceramic, tita-
clamping force: the compressive force which a fastener nium, zirconia ceramic), or special design factors (i.e.,
exerts on a bolted joint. The stability of a bolted joint internal hex lock, external hex lock, spline)
depends upon the maintenance of the clamping force
dental implant attachment \ı̆m¢plănt¢ a-tăch¢ment\: 1.
computerized tomography \kom-pyōō¢ta-rı̄zd tō-mŏg¢ra- the biochemical/mechanical interconnection between
fē\: (CT) the technique by which multidirectional x-ray the dental implant and the tissues to which it is attached
transmission data through a body is mathematically 2. slang expression for the means of retention of the
reconstructed by a computer to form an electrical cross- dental implant abutment to the dental implant
sectional representation of a patient’s anatomy. CT is dental implant analog: a replica of the entire dental
used as an acronym to designate any technical field asso- implant, not intended for human implantation
ciated with these techniques
dental implant loading: the process of placing axial or tan-
cortical bone \kôr¢tı̆-kal\: the peripheral layer of compact gential force on a dental implant usually associated with
osseous tissue the intentional exposure of the dental implant either at
dental implant \dĕn¢tl ı̆m-plănt\: 1. a prosthetic device the time of initial surgical placement of the dental
made of alloplastic material(s) implanted into the oral implant or subsequent surgical exposure. Such forces
tissues beneath the mucosal or/and periosteal layer, and may come from any of a variety of sources including
on/or within the bone to provide retention and support intentional or/and unintentional occlusal loading, unin-
for a fixed or removable dental prosthesis; a substance tentional forces from the tongue or other oral tissues,
that is placed into or/and upon the jaw bone to support food bolus, as well as alveolar/osseous deformation.
a fixed or removable dental prosthesis 2. the portion of Generally application of intentional occlusal forces may
an implant that provides support for the dental implant be termed immediate loading, progressive loading, or
abutment(s) through adaptation upon (eposteal), within delayed loading—see AXIAL LOADING
(endosteal), or through (transosteal) the bone—usage: dental implant system \ı̆m¢plănt sı̆s¢tem\ (1993): dental
although dental implants may be classified by their sil- implant components that are designed to mate together.
An implant system can represent a specific concept, followed by surgical closure. For an endosteal implant,
inventor, or patent. It consists of the necessary parts and this refers to the reflection of the oral mucosa and invest-
instruments to complete the implant placement and ing tissues, preparation of the implantation site (i.e.,
abutment components removal of alveolar bone and, occasionally, tapping),
placement of the dental implant body, and surgical
emergence angle \ı̆-mûr¢jens ăng¢gel\ (1993): the angle
closure of the overlying investing soft tissues—comp
of the dental implants’ transitional contour as deter-
SECOND STAGE DENTAL IMPLANT SURGERY
mined by the relation of the surface of the abutment to
the long axis of the implant body 2
fix·ture \fı̆ks¢chur\ substand (1982): an endosteal dental
implant—see ENDOSTEAL DENTAL IMPLANT, DENTAL
endosteal dental implant \ĕn-dŏs¢tē-l dĕn¢tl ı̆m-plănt¢\: a
IMPLANT
device placed into the alveolar and/or basal bone of the
mandible or maxilla and transecting only one cortical fixture cover \fı̆ks¢chur kŭv¢er\ substand (1982): the com-
plate. The endosteal dental implant is composed of an ponent placed over a dental implant during the healing
anchorage component, termed the endosteal dental phase to prevent tissue from proliferating into the inter-
implant, which, ideally, is within the bone, and a reten- nal portion of the implant body—see COVER SCREW
tive component, termed the endosteal dental implant
abutment. The dental implant abutment connects to the healing screw \hē¢lı̆ng skrōō\: the component of an
dental implant (by means of screws, thread/screw inter- endosteal dental implant system used to seal, usually on
facing, compression/luting agent etc. that can be termed an interim basis, the dental implant body during the
elements), passes through the oral mucosa, and serves to healing phase after surgical placement. The purpose of
support and/or retain the prosthesis (fixed dental pros- the healing screw is to maintain patency of the internal
thesis, removable dental prosthesis, maxillofacial pros- threaded section for subsequent attachment of the abut-
thesis). The dental implant abutment may be for interim ment during the second stage surgery
or definitive application—usage: interim abutment, defin-
hybrid prosthesis \hı̄¢brı̆d prŏs-thē¢sı̆s\: slang for a non-
itive abutment. Descriptions of the dental implant
specific term applied to any prosthesis that does not
or/and the dental implant abutment that use silhouette
follow conventional design. Frequently it is used to
or geometric forms, such as cylinder, conical, pre-angled,
describe a dental prosthesis that is composed of differ-
angled, blade, basket, or endodontic, may be used as
ent materials, types of denture teeth (porcelain, plastic,
adjectives to enhance understanding of the geometry of
composite), variable acrylic denture resins, differing
any endosteal dental implant. Also, descriptive adjec-
metals or design etc. It may refer to a fixed dental pros-
tives may be used to delineate the materials from which
theses, removable dental prostheses, or maxillofacial
they are made, ie. a ceramic dental implant abutment.
prostheses.
Interim or definitive dental implant abutments may be
composed of one or more individual component parts, 2
im·plant \ı̆m-plănt¢\ n (1809): any object or material,
each of which is termed an element. The dental implant such as an alloplastic substance or other tissue, which is
abutment element(s) usually is (are) described by means partially or completely inserted or grafted into the body
of their geometric form, function or means of adaptation, for therapeutic, diagnostic, prosthetic, or experimental
i.e., screw, coping, cylinder, lug, friction fitting, press-fit. purposes—see DENTAL IMPLANT
Hence multiple adjectives may be used to describe both
the endosteal dental implant and abutment.—see also implant prosthodontics \ı̆m¢plănt¢ prŏs¢tha-dŏn¢tı̆ks\:
BASKET E.D.I., BLADE E.D.I., DENTAL IMPLANT, the phase of prosthodontics concerning the replacement
ENDODONTIC E.D.I., EPOSTEAL D.I., SCREW E.D.I., of missing teeth and/or associated structures by restora-
TRANSOSTEAL D.I. tions that are attached to dental implants
epithelial cuff \ĕp¢a-thē¢lē-al kŭf\: a term used to describe implant substructure \ı̆m¢plănt¢ sŭb¢strŭk¢chur\ slang:
the relationship between the mucosal and the dental the metal framework of a eposteal dental implant that is
implant. The use of this term implies a close adherence, embedded beneath the soft tissues, in contact with the
but not necessarily a biochemical attachment, between bone, and stabilized by means of endosteal screws.
the implant and mucosa The periosteal tissues retain the framework to the bone.
The framework supports the prosthesis, frequently by
first stage dental implant surgery \fûrst dĕn¢tal ı̆m-plănt means of dental implant abutments and other super-
sûr¢ja-rē\: the initial surgical procedure in dental structure components
implant placement. For eposteal dental implants, this
refers to the reflection of the oral mucosa, the impres- implant surgery \ı̆m¢plănt¢ sûr¢ja-rē\ (1993): the phase of
sion made of the surgically exposed bone and usually an implant dentistry concerning the selection, planning,
interocclusal record made to fabricate the implant body and placement of the implant body and abutment
im·plan·tol·o·gy \ı̆m¢plăn-tŏl¢a-gē\ obs: a term historically rouge \rōōzh\ n (1753): a compound composed of ferric
conceived as the study or science of placing and oxide and binders used for imparting a high luster to a
restoring dental implants—see IMPLANT DENTISTRY, polished surface, glass, metal, or gems
IMPLANT SURGERY, IMPLANT PROSTHODONTICS
screw endosteal dental implant \skrōō ı̆n-dŏs-tē-al dĕn¢tl
impression coping \ı̆m-prĕsh¢an kō¢pı̆ng\ (1998): 1. that ı̆m-plănt¢\: 1: any dental implant whose configuration
component of a dental implant system used to provide resembles a screw 2: any screw-shaped dental implant;
a spatial relationship of an endosteal dental implant to it may be hollow or solid, and usually consists of the
the alveolar ridge and adjacent dentition or other struc- dental implant abutment and the dental implant
tures. Impression copings can be retained in the impres-
sion or may require a transfer (termed an impression second stage dental implant surgery \sĕk¢and stăj dĕn¢tl
transfer prodecure) from intraoral usage to the impression ı̆m-plănt sûr¢ja-rē\: 1: for eposteal dental implant
after attaching the analog or replicas 2. any device that surgery, the term refers to the procedure involving place-
registers the position of the dental implant or dental ment of the eposteal framework fabricated after the first
implant abutment relative to adjacent structures; most stage implant surgery 2: for endosteal dental implant
such devices are indexed to assure reproducible three surgery, after surgical reflection, the occlusal aspect of
dimensional location the dental implant is exposed, the cover screw is
removed, and either the interim or definitive dental
mandibular nerve \măn-dı̆b¢ya-lar nûrv\: the third divi- implant abutment is placed. After this, the investing
sion of the trigeminal nerve that leaves the skull through tissues are (when needed) sutured
the foremen ovale and provides motor innervation to the
muscles of mastication, to the tensor veli palatini m., the su·per·struc·ture \sōō¢par-strŭk¢chur\ n: the superior part
tensor tympani m., the anterior belly of the digastric m., of a multiple layer prosthesis that includes the replace-
and the mylohyoid m. It also provides the general ment teeth and associated structures
sensory innervation to the mandibular teeth and gingi- surgical splint \sûr¢jı̆-kal splı̆nt\: any supplementary pros-
vae, the floor of the mouth, the epithelium of the ante- thesis designed to utilize existing teeth and/or alveolar
rior two thirds of the tongue, and the skin of the lower processes as points of anchorage to assist in stabilization
portion of the face and immobilization of broken bones during healing.
maxillary sinus \măk¢sa-lĕr¢ē sı̄¢nas\: the anatomic It is used to re-establish, as much as possible, normal
space located superior to the posterior maxillary occlusal relationships, during the process of immobiliza-
alveolus tion. Frequently, existing prostheses (i.e. a patient’s com-
plete dentures) can be modified to serve as a surgical
os·se·ous \ŏs¢ē-as\ adj (1707): bony splint. Frequently surgical splints have arch bars added
osseous integration \ŏs¢ē-as ı̆n¢tı̆-grā¢shun\ (1993): 1: the to facilitate intermaxillary fixation. Rubber elastics may
apparent direct attachment or connection of osseous be used to assist in this process. Circummandibular
tissue to an inert, alloplastic material without interven- eyelet hooks can be utilized for enhanced stabilization
ing connective tissue 2: the process and resultant appar- with wiring to adjacent bone—syn CAST METAL SPLINT,
ent direct connection of an exogenous material’s surface FENESTRATED SPLINT, GUNNING SPLINT, KINGSLEY
and the host bone tissues, without intervening fibrous SPLINT, LABIOLINGUAL SPLINT, MODIFIED GUNNING
connective tissue present 3: the interface between allo- SPLINT
plastic materials and bone
surgical template \sûr¢jı̆-kal tĕm¢plı̆t\: 1: a thin, transpar-
peri-implantitis \pĕr¢ı̆-ı̆m-plăn-tı̄¢tı̆s\ substand: in peri- ent form duplicating the tissue surface of a dental pros-
odontics, a term used to describe inflammation around thesis and used as a guide for surgically shaping the
a dental implant, usually the dental implant abutment; alveolar process 2: a guide used to assist in proper sur-
editorial note: suggested terminology includes gingivitis, gical placement and angulation of dental implants 3: a
acute gingivitis, chronic gingivitis since the dental implant guide used to assist in establishing the desired occlusion
abutment does not exhibit inflammation during orthognathic surgery
progressive loading \pra-grĕs¢ı̆v lō¢dı̆ng\ (1998): the transfer coping \trăns-fûr¢, trăns¢fur kō¢pı̆ng\: a metallic,
gradual increase in the application of force on a dental acrylic resin, or other covering or cap used to position a
implant whether intentionally done with a prosthesis or die in an impression
unintentionally via forces placed by adjacent anatomic
structures or parafunctional loading
transosteal dental implant \trăns¢ŏs-tē-al dĕn¢tl ı̆m-
plănt¢\: 1: a dental implant that penetrates both corti-
root fracture \rōōt frăk¢chur\: a microscopic or macro- cal plates and passes through the full thickness of the
scopic cleavage of the root in any direction alveolar bone 2: a dental implant composed of a metal
plate with retentive pins to hold it against the inferior 9. Tarnow D, et al: Vertical distance from the crest of
border of the mandible that supports transosteal pins bone to the height of the interproximal papilla
that penetrate through the full thickness of the mandible between adjacent implants. J Periodontol 74:1785,
and pass into the mouth in the parasymphyseal region— 2003.
called also staple bone implant, mandibular staple implant, 10. Elian N, et al: Realities and limitations in the
transmandibular implant management of the interdental papilla between
implants: three case reports. Pract Proced Aesthet
Dent 15:737, 2003.
REFERENCES
11. McGlumphy EA, Larsen PE: Contemporary
1. NIH Consensus Development Conference: State- implant dentistry. In Peterson LJ, et al, eds: Con-
ment on dental implants. J Dent Educ 52:824, temporary Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, 4th ed,
1988. pp 305. St. Louis, Mosby, 2003.
2. Adell R, et al: A 15-year study of osseointegrated 12. Hobo S, et al, eds: Osseointegration and Occlusal
implants in the treatment of the edentulous jaw. Int Rehabilitation. Tokyo, Quintessence Publishing,
J Oral Surg 10:387, 1981. 1990.
3. Kent J, et al: Biointegrated hydroxlapatite-coated 13. Chiche GI, Pinault A: Considerations for fabrica-
dental implants: 5-year clinical observations. J Am tion of implant-supported posterior restorations.
Dent Assoc 121:138, 1990. Int J Prosthod 4:37, 1991.
4. Lazzara RJ, et al: A prospective multicenter study 14. Hurson S: Laboratory techniques to prevent screw
evaluating loading of osseotite implants two loosening on dental implants. J Dent Technol
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Dent 10:280, 1998. 15. Weinberg LA: The biomechanics of force distribu-
5. Buser D, et al: Removal torque values of titanium tion in implant-supported prostheses. Int J Oral
implants in the maxillofacial of miniature pigs. Int Maxillofac Implants 8:19, 1993.
J Oral Maxillofac Implant 13:611, 1998. 16. Clelland N, Gilat A: The effect of abutment angu-
6. Smithloff M, Fritz ME: Use of blade implants in a lation on the stress transfer for an implant. J
selected population of partially edentulous Prosthod 1:24, 1992.
patients. J Periodontol 53:413, 1982. 17. Takayama H: Biomechanical considerations on
7. Kapur KK: VA cooperative dental implant study: osseointegrated implants. In Hobo S, et al, eds:
comparisons between fixed partial dentures sup- Osseointegrated and Occlusal Rehabilitation,
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and periodontal health between two treatment lization of osseointegrated fixtures in the partially
modalities. J Prosthet Dent 62:685, 1989. edentulous arch. Int J Oral Maxillofac Implant
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62:567, 1989.

13 Implant Supported Fixed Prostheses

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13

patient can beneﬁt from ﬁxed restorations. In addi-

T achieved with osseous integrated dental

Soft tissue Soft tissue

Box 13-2 Contraindications to Implant

The widths of the posterior mandible and maxilla Bone Sounding

Diagnostic Casts Anatomic Limitations

mandible and maxilla. The irregular anatomy of the

Anterior mandible a conventional nonimplant-supported prosthesis

Posterior mandible Medullary

LONG IMPLANT, SHORT CROWN SHORT IMPLANT, LONG CROWN

Fig. 13-15, cont’d

Single tooth implant Soft tissue contours

challenging to achieve a completely formed papilla

Standard Fixed Angled Tapered Nonsegmented

For a single tooth, the hex must

Fig. 13-28, cont’d

1 ments without breaking the stone and losing the ref-

tooth is highly recommended. If doubt remains, more

resin and teeth. It is typically supported by a

Cement-Retained versus Screw-Retained The screw-retained implant crown is fastened

Screw loosening can be

CAD/CAM Abutments and Frameworks

this has yet to be deﬁnitively proved. Until more

4. Initial instability of the implant. SUMMARY

Fig. 13-63 Fig. 13-65

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