Instrumentation & Control: Larsen & Toubro Limited Epc Power Training Manual
Instrumentation & Control: Larsen & Toubro Limited Epc Power Training Manual
Instrumentation & Control: Larsen & Toubro Limited Epc Power Training Manual
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CONTENTS
Temperature Measurement
Pressure Measurement
Flow Measurement
Level Measurement
Control Panel – Indicators, Recorders
Final Control Elements – Actuators
Final Control Elements – Control Valve
Final Control Elements – Accessories
Automatic Process Control
Protection and Interlocks
Annunciation System
Analysers
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Temperature Measurement
Temperature is an indication of the degree of hotness of the body. Depending on the
property of the material under consideration temperature is also an indication of heat
(energy) content. Temperature measurement and control is important both from the
point of safe operation and quality of final product.
Thermocouples
Thermocouple is the simplest and most commonly used device for temperature
measurement.
A thermocouple is a system composed of two homogenous wires, dissimilar in
chemical composition, which are soldered or welded or fused at one end, forming a
closed circuit when the free ends are connected to an instrument such as
millivoltmeter.
The joined ends of a thermocouple form a junction called the hot junction, or
measuring junction. The other ends of the wires which are connected to a measuring
instrument form the cold junction, or reference junction. Simply stated, the voltage
produced by heating the measuring junction varies with the difference in
temperature between the measuring junction and the reference junction. This
property is called the SEEBECK EFFECT. Thermocouple must be selected on the basis
of the temperature to be measured and the atmosphere surrounding the couple.
Table-1 gives the upper temperature limits for the various thermocouples.
Extension Wires
The measuring instrument may be at a considerable distance from the hot junction.
For most accurate measurement, the wires from thermocouple to the instrument are
of same material as the thermocouple wires. These are called extension wires. Fig. 2
shows a thermocouple circuit using extension wires.
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Fig.2 Fig.3
If A & B are dissimilar metals, Thermocouple with extension wires
Current will flow through the
Junctions kept at Temp. T1 & T2
(T1 > T2)
Compensation Wires
For some types of thermocouples, e.g. Platinum – Rhodium or Chromel – Alumel,
long extension wires would be very costly. To overcome this, extension wires of
cheaper materials which have similar thermoelectric properties to those of actual
thermocouple, are commonly used. These are called compensation wires. This is
permitted by The Law of Intermediate Metals which states that the use of a third
metal in a thermocouple circuit does not affect the voltage as long as the junctions of
the third metal with the thermocouple metals are at the same temperature.
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The Law of Intermediate Temperature states that the sum of the voltages generated
by two thermocouples (Fig.6) one with its reference junction at 32°F and its
measuring junction at a higher temperature (A°F), and the other thermocouple with
its reference junction at A°F and its measuring junction at a still higher temperature
(B°F) is equal to the voltage generated by one thermocouple with its reference
junction at 32°F and its measuring junction at B°F. Thus a reference junction at a
fixed temperature can be established and circuits provided to compensate the
indication by an amount equal to the reference junction temperature. This is done in
Cold Junction Compensating Box (CJCB).
Fig. 5 Fig. 6
The law of intermediate temperatures A practical thermocouple
Once a CJCB is used, further wiring is not critical and can use ordinary copper wires.
For a typical RTD of type Pt100, Platinum is the material of the resistance and it is =
100 ohms at 0 deg C. It increases by 3.958 ohms for every 100 degree increase in
temp, i.e. at 200 deg C the RTD resistance iscome 103.958 ohms.
Construction
Fig.7 shows a typical RTD.
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Wheatstone Bridge
Fig. 8 shows a simple Wheatstone Bridge Circuit.
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As the temperature of the resistance bulb Rt. Rises, its resistance rises. Because of
this, the bridge is unbalanced. This unbalance is detected by the millivoltmeter,
causing it to give a temperature indication. Use of regulated power supply is
absolutely necessary because the bridge must operate under standard conditions of
current if correct voltages are to be developed at each of the various resistors.
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T/C RTD
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Capillary lengths may exceed 30 m permitting the dial to be remote from the bulb.
On the other hand, the dial may be rigidly connected to the bulb.
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Pressure Measurement
Pressure Measurement Scales
The difference between the gauge pressure scale and the absolute pressure scale is
the location of the zero point. On the gauge pressure scale, the zero point is at
atmospheric pressure. On the absolute pressure scale, the zero point is at the
absolute zero pressure point.
The vacuum scale has its zero at atmospheric pressure and its maximum point at the
absolute zero pressure point. Thus, the vacuum scale is used to indicate negative
gauge pressure.
The measurement of atmospheric pressure is essential to the establishment of the
gauge pressure scale and the vacuum scale. Atmospheric pressure is the pressure
exerted by the air surrounding the earth. This pressure varies with the altitude since
the air nearer the earth is compressed by the air above. At sea level, the
atmospheric pressure is 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi).
Complete vacuum or absence of matter is defined as 0 mm Hg. 1 Atmosphere is 14.7
psi or 760 mm Hg. Pressure below 760 mm Hg. Are negative pressures or vacuum.
Pressure above 760 mm Hg. Are positive pressures.
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The various commonly used sensors and their span limitations are:
The Bourdon in a pressure gauge is a C-shaped flattened or oval tube, bent into an
arc of about 250°. One end of the tube is fixed on to a fitting where the pressure to
be measured is admitted and the other end is sealed/brazed.
When the applied internal pressure is increased, the two ends of the tube are forced
apart as a result of increase of the radius of the curvature of the tube.
The movement or lift of the closed end of the Bourdon tube resulting from internal
pressure change is converted into rotary motion by means of a sector-and-pinion
arrangement. A pointer carried on the extension of the pinion moves on a calibrated
dial.
The material of the tube should be (1) hard enough to withstand the pressure
without any part of it being stressed above the limit of proportionality, (2) stable
enough to retain its calibration indefinitely, (3) immune to corrosion from the fluid
inside it or the atmosphere around it and (4) easy to fabricate.
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the thin connecting tube and the Bourdon tube is completely filled with a seal fluid –
Silicone oil is commonly used as seal fluid.
It is also possible to have a long flexible capillary between the diaphragm and
Bourdon Tube.
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The bellows is a thin-walled tube in a corrugated shape. One end of the bellows is
completely sealed and the other end soldered/brazed to a fixture with an opening to
apply the pressure or vacuum.
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when used in two, it is called a “Capsule”. The vertical deflection of stack for a
pressure differential applied is many times that of a single diaphragm. The linear
movement of the diaphragm or stack is converted via a regular sector and pinion
arrangement to move an indicator pointer against a scale like in an ordinary pressure
gauge.
The material of construction of the same is beryllium copper, phosphor bronze,
nickel, silver, special steel etc.
Pressure Switches
Pressure switches consist of one of the sensing elements used in a Gauge. However,
instead of Sector and Pinion, pointer and scale, a set of miniature micro switches is
provided. As pressure rises or falls to set pressure value, the micro-switch actuates.
Pressure Transmitters
A Pressure Transmitter converts a pressure change into a signal which can be
transmitted to locations away from the point of measurement.
The transmitter consists of one of the sensing elements used in a gauge. The motion
generated by the element is Converted by a transducer into a signal. Depending
upon the type of signal generated, following major types of Pressure Transmitters
are commonly used:
Electronic
Electronic transmitters commonly used can be of following types:
Fig. 20
The moving-contact type of resistance A strain gage consists of a wire grid
transducer is not sensitive to every small bonded to an impregnated paper or
pressure change as the strain gage. ceramic backing.
i) Potentiometric:
Utilises direction mechanical or servo operated linkages to position a wiper on a
resistor. AC or DC excitation can be applied.
Limitations:
Vibration-sensitive; has noise pick-up and slow response.
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Flow Measurement
Head Meters
The majority of industrial flow measurements of liquids, vapour, gases use head
meters.
The basic principle of head meters is the Bernoulli’s theorem. This states that the
total energy of a fluid flowing through a pipe is constant.
Total energy or Head = Pressure Head + Velocity Head
Fig. 23
Maximum pressure in the orifice plate installation is at A; minimum pressure is at B.
Because of loss of pressure across the plate, downstream pressure rises only as high
as point C.
A head meter consists of a restriction in the pipe line. Fig. 23 shows a typical orifice
plate restriction and the flow profile. At the restriction, the flow velocity increases. By
Bernoulli’s Principle, there is a consequent drop of pressure. The variation of
pressure is as shown in the above figure. The narrowest flow profile (Point-B) is the
point of highest velocity and lowest pressure and is called Vena Contracta point. The
pressure differential between points A and B changes with the fluid flow rate.
If q = Fluid flow rate
h = Differential pressure across restriction
c = Constant
Then q = c x square root of h
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Orifice:
The typical orifice plates are shown in Fig. 24. The sharp edge orifice is the most
widely employed flow metering element mainly because of its simplicity, its low cost
and availability of adequate data for calculation of correct size. It is easier to install
and to replace. The orifice plate inserted in the pipe line causes an increase in the
flow velocity at Vena Contracta point and a corresponding decrease in the pressure.
The orifice plate inserted in the line is basically a thin plate of metal with a circular
opening. The pressure tappings for flow rate measurements can be taken out by a
variety of methods. For pipe sizes (pipe dia D) of 5 cm or greater in diameter, the
usual practice is to locate tappings at distance D and D/2 in the upstream and
downstream respectively.
The orifice plate is not so accurate as either the venture or flow nozzle and does not
have a good pressure recovery. It cannot be used with high (d/D) ratios. The orifice
plate is subject to erosion and damage, but its easy replacement offsets this
drawback. Hence it is the most widely used type of primary flow element.
Fig. 24
Orifice plate with D and D/2 tappings (Extracts from B.S. 1042: Part 1: 1964)
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Venturi Tube:
Typical venturi tube is shown in Fig.25. The basic design of a venture tube comprises
of three sections, viz, the converging conical section at the upstream, cylindrical
throat, and the diverging recovery outlet cone at the downstream. The inlet cone
tapers down from the pipe area to the throat section of a smaller area to produce the
necessary increase in velocity and decrease in pressure. The cylindrical throat
provides a point of measurement of this decrease in pressure where the flow rate is
steady. The diverging outlet cone expands from the throat to the pipe area resulting
in pressure recovery. Pressure measurements are carried out at the upstream
entrance to the cone and at the throat. Tappings take the shape of annular
chambers, and the inside surfaces are smoothly machined with holes drilled around
the circumference at regular intervals. This enables the pressure to be averaged
before transmission to the measuring instruments.
Fig. 25
Venturi tube (Extracts from B.S. 1042: Part 1: 1964)
Flow Nozzles:
A typical flow nozzle is shown in Fig. 26.
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Flow nozzles combine the simplicity of the orifice plate with the low losses of the
venture tube with a curved form of approach, giving a gradual change of sectional
area, having the same order of discharge co-efficient. However, the absence of the
down-steam expansion cone brings the pressure loss to the same order as that for
an orifice plate. At high velocity flows, the performance is better than the orifice
device. The curved profile of the nozzle renders its usefulness whenever fluids with
suspended solid matter are encountered.
a) Orifice plates are distinguished by their usual simplicity of design, low cost of
manufacture, Dimensional gauges suffice to check the accuracy of manufacture,
while templates are used to check nozzles resulting in higher manufacturing cost.
b) In orifice plates, the flowing liquid is throttled by the sharp edged orifice and in
nozzles the liquid is guided by the cylindrical outlet portion, as that the liquid
issues from it in a shape of jet of circular cross-section, hence the capacity of a
nozzle for given area ratio in a pipe is more.
c) The disturbance arising after the construction is greater in orifice plates than in
nozzles, which has an adverse influence on the correctness of pressure reception
and the magnitude of the energy losses.
d) Characteristics of orifice plates, changes more quickly with time than that of
nozzle. Since even slight damage to the throttling edge, sensibly changes the
accuracy of indication of orifice plates.
Pitot Tube:
Another primary flow element used to produce a differential is the pitot tube. In its
simplest form, the pitot tube consists of a tube with a small opening at the
measuring end. This small hole faces the flowing fluid. Refer Fig. 27 for principle of
measurement using pitot tube. When the fluid contacts the pitot tube, the fluid
velocity is zero and the pressure is at a maximum. This small hole, or “impact
opening” as it is called, provides the higher pressure for differential pressure
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measurement. While the pitot tube provides the higher pressure for differential
pressure measurement, an ordinary pressure tap provides the lower pressure
reading.
The pitot tube actually measures the velocity of fluid flow and not rate of flow.
Pitot tubes are used mainly for the measurement of air/gas velocity in ducts by the
traverse method. The operating principle of a pitot tube is based on the fact that,
when a solid body is kept centrally and stationary in a pipe line with air/gas flowing
the velocity of the fluid starts diminishing due to the presence of the body, till it is
reduced to zero directly in front of the body. Thus the velocity head is converted into
an impact pressure. When inserted into a duct with the tip facing directly into the
flow it will enable air velocity at that point to be determined by connecting the static
pressure and total pressure tapping to the manometer. The manometer gives
difference between the static pressure and the impact pressure which is proportional
to the flow rate.
The expression 100000 / (100000 + Ps) is a correction for the static pressure in the
duct and may normally be ignored if Ps is less than 2500 Pa.
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Pressure measuring tapping points are provided on the pipe across the restriction.
Fig. 28 shows correct location of tapping points. These are then piped (called impulse
pipes) to the transmitter which is commonly provided with a MANIFOLD VALVE. A
typical MANIFOLD VALVE is shown in Fig. 29.
For liquid and steam services, the transmitter should be located at an elevation lower
than the tapping point to prevent air locking in the impulse pipes. For gas services,
the transmitter should be located at an elevation above the tapping point to prevent
condensate-blocking of impulse pipes.
The type of meter selected is governed by the operating conditions, the kind of fluid,
materials in suspension, electrical resistivity, boiling point, piping conditions,
allowable pressure drop and the volume of the flow.
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Flow Transmitter:
Flow transmitters are basically differential pressure transmitters which measure
differential pressure and transmit a proportional electric signal of 4-20 mA D.C. The
transmitter operate as a part of two wire system. They receive power (+24 V D.C.)
from the same pair of wires over which the output signal is transmitted. The span of
the transmitter is adjustable.
The transmitter has a built in Square Root Extractor and hence the output electrical
signal is linear with relaxation to flow. It is also quite common to use a DP
Transmitter without extractor; in this case, the electrical signal would NOT be linear
with flow and for getting linear scale on the final flow indicator, a separate square
root extractor is used.
Rotameter:
Fig. 30 – Rotameter
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In the rotameter, which is the most common form of variable area meter, the float
travels in a tapered tube. The metering area is the annular area (in the form of a
ring) between the float and the tube.
The rotameter is chiefly used as an indicating device, although it is possible to obtain
remote indication by attaching to the float different types of followers that will vary
an electrical quantity such as resistance.
Level Measurement
Gauge Glass
A typical gauge glass is shown in Fig. 31.
This consists of a graduated glass tube mounted on the side of the vessel. As the
level of the liquid in the vessel changes, so does the level of the liquid in the glass
tube. Measurement is a simple matter of reading the position of liquid level on the
scale of the sight glass tube.
Fig. 31
Reflex Type Gauge Glass:
For high pressure, high temperature applications such as boiler drum, Reflex type
gauge is used. This has a flat, thick glass slab through which water level is seen.
Special optical properties of the surface design of glass piece create a sharp line of
demarcation of liquid level. A typical Reflex type gauge is shown in the above figure.
Float Type:
A typical Float type level indication is shown in Fig.32. It is used in open, non-
pressurised tanks.
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The primary device is a float that by reason of its buoyancy will follow the changing
level of the liquid, and a mechanism that will transfer the float action to pointer. The
float is a hollow metal sphere; but cylinder-shaped ceramic floats and disc-shaped
floats of synthetic materials are also used.
The float is usually attached to a cable, which is wound around a pulley or drum to
which the indicating pointer is attached. The movement of the float is thus
transferred to the pointer, which indicates the liquid level on an appropriate scale.
Fig. 32 – The buoyancy of the float permits it to be immersed in the liquid, and its movement is
transmitted to the indicator as it follows the changing liquid level.
Displacer Type:
A typical Displacer Type Level Transmitter is shown in Fig.33.
In accordance with the Archimedes Buoyancy Law, the apparent weight of the displacer
body changes in proportion to the weight of liquid which it displaces.
The transmitter converts this change in apparent weight into a pneumatic output signal.
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Pressure Type:
A typical arrangement using a Pressure Gauge for level indication is shown in Fig.34.
this too is useful for non-pressurized tanks.
Any rise in the level causes an increase of pressure, which can be measured by the
gauge. The gauge scale is marked in units of level measurement (feet or inches). A
pressure transmitter can be used in place of pressure gauge to get remote indication.
Fig. 34 – As the tank fills, the pressure of the liquid naturally increases. This increase of
pressure can be read on the gage in feet and inches of level.
Fig. 35 – Liquid level in an enclosed vessel measured using differential pressure manometer.
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Connections are made to the vessel at top and bottom, and to the two columns of
the differential pressure meter. The top connection is made to the low pressure
column of the meter, and the bottom connection to the high pressure column. In this
way the pressure in the vessel is balanced out, since it is fed to both columns of the
meter. The difference in pressure detected by the meter will then only be due to the
changing level of the liquid.
Fig. 36 shows the typical arrangement used for Boiler Drum Level Measurement.
A DP Transmitter is used to send the signal for remote level indication.
Level Switches:
Level switches are devices which give an alarm/interlock contact output when level
rises/falls to pre-set levels. The most commonly used level switches are described
below:
Float Type:
These consist of a hollow metallic float, spherical or cylindrical in shape, to which is
attached a rod having a permanent magnet at the other end. This assembly is
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exposed to the tank fluid. On the other side of barrier plate or tube, are located a set
of magnetically operated microswitches. As the float moves with changing level, the
magnet at the other end of the rod comes close to the microswitches, actuating them
when level reaches the set value.
Fig. 37 shows a typical float operated level switch.
Displacer Type:
Fig. 38 shows a typical displacer type level switch. These switches operate on the
BUOYANCY Principle.
Displacer operated level switch have displacers (heavier than the liquid) suspended
with the help of a wire rope. The displacers, due to the weight, keep a spring in the
spring housing in compressed state. When liquid level rises, the effective weight of
displacers becomes much less due to buoyancy and the spring compression reduces.
This causes a magnetic sleeve to move up inside the sleeve pipe. The sleeve attracts
a magnet located outside the sleeve pipe. When the magnet moves in, it tilts the
switch mechanism, operating one/two switches mounted on it. When liquid level
goes down again the sleeve goes down and the magnet, operated by return spring,
goes back to original position thereby re-operating the switches.
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In modern power stations, electronic instruments are used for all measurements. The
usual signal ranges for various measurements are as follows:
Temperature : Thermocouple : DC Mv
: RTD : Resistance
The signals from all these instruments are sent to control panel by means of wires.
On the control panel, these wires are connected to Electronic Indicators and/or
Recorders. These Indicators/Recorders are provided with scales marked in process
units (e.g. 0 to 600 deg. C) so that actual value of the measured parameter can be
read directly.
Discussed below are the most commonly used types of Indicators/Records for
process measurements:
Indicators:
Moving Coil Indicators:
Fig. 39 shows the principle of a permanent magnet type moving coil instrument.
A light rectangular coil is pivoted so that its sides lie in the air gaps between the two
poles of a permanent magnet and a soft-iron cylinder. When current passes through
the coil a deflecting torque is produced owing to the reaction between the magnetic
field of the permanent magnet and the magnetic field of the coil. Moving-coil
instruments are spring-controlled. Two phosphorbronze hair springs are used, these
also serve as leads to the moving coil.
Moving coil indicators can accept DC voltage or current and provide very good
linearity of scale with DC signals. They are thus suitable for use with all electronic
transmitters for pressure, flow and level measurements. They are also suitable for
thermocouple signals and with some additional circuitry for Wheatstone Bridge, can
also be used for RTDs.
Recorders:
Most of the recorders in use at present are the STRIP CHART type, where the chart
paper is a roll of paper which can serve for up to 1 month. Circular chart recorders,
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where the chart is circular in shape and is to be replaced daily, are progressively
being discontinued except for field mounted recorders in process industry. Fig.41
shows a typical circular chart recorder.
Described below are the two common types of strip-chart recorders. Both essentially
work on the same principle as the servo type indicator described earlier.
Fig. 40 Three pen strip chart recorder Fig. 41 Three pen circular chart recorder
(Vertical Scales (SIEMENS)
Fig. 40 shows a typical 3 pen recorder with pen movement along vertical scales (one
for each pen) and chart movement from left to right single or 3 Pen recorder with
pen 3 Pen recorder with pen movement along horizontal scales (one for each pen)
and chart movement from top to bottom are also available. Fig. 41 shows the
schematic diagram of the recorder. Each pen is driven by its own motor, wheel, wire,
rope etc. Each motor is driven by one parameter input through its own amplifier. A
common chart drive motor drives the chart. Adjustable chart speeds are available,
though 20 mm/hr is the commonly preferred speed.
Actuators
Valve actuator is a device which is used to close/open (trip) or control (modulate)
the valve used on a pipe line carrying liquid or gas. This eliminates the manual
operation and replaces by a power driven unit. There are three types of actuators,
viz.,
i) Pneumatic actuators
ii) Electric actuators
iii) Hydraulic actuators
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In the spring and diaphragm actuator, variable air pressure is applied to a flexible
diaphragm to oppose a spring. The combination of diaphragm and spring forces acts
on the stem to balance the fluid forces on the valve.
The pneumatic actuator consists essentially of two diaphragm cases, the diaphragm
and the springs. Actuators with hand wheel drive are fitted additionally with a hand-
wheel mounted on diaphragm case or side mounted on the yoke of the valve. The
hand-operate actuator is a spindle drive with hand wheel, the valve position is
secured by a locking device.
Operation:
The signal pressure produces a force on the diaphragm surface which is balanced by
the actuator spring. Since the travel is proportional to the signal pressure, the
number of springs and the spring pre-tension define the signal pressure range and
the nominal pressure.
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PARTS REFERENCE
Ref.No Part Name Computer Ref. Part Name Computer Ref. N Part Name
Abbrev. No. Abbrev.
*15 Gasket (packing bo GASKET *32 Packing PACKING 45 Cap Screw
(diaph case)
17 Yoke YOKE 33 Spring Seat (upper) USPR ST 46 Nut (diaph
case)
18 Cap Screw (L case CAP SCR 34 Spring Seat (lower) LSPR ST 56 Travel
yoke) Indicator
Scale
*19 Gasket (L case GASKET 35 Pipe Plug PIP PLG 57 Machine
yoke) Screw
20 Packing Nut PKG NUT 36 Spring Adjustor SPR ADJ 70 Ball and
Retainer
21 Snap Ring SNP RNG 37 Bushing (spri BUSHING 71 Spring
adjustor) Barrel
22 Actuator Spring ACT SPR *39 Diaphragm DIAPHRM 72 Spring
Barrel Cap
22A Actuator Spring ACT SPR 40 Diaphragm Plate DPH PLT 73 Ball Bearing
Race
26 Actuator Stem ACT STM 41 Diaphragm Washer DPH WSH 74 Cap Screw
(SBL to UD
CSE)
30 Nut (actuator stem NUT 43 Upper Diaphragm Case U D CSE A Air
Connection
31 Packing Box PKG BOX 44 Lower Diaphragm Case L D CSE
In case of air failure, the valve opens or closes fully depending on the type, due to
the action of the spring.
The direction of the stroke of the actuator stem depends upon the location of the
springs and of the actuator air connection.
The substantially smaller leakage rate a valve with a cylinder actuator has, results
from much larger seat load due to higher thrust potential of the cylinder actuator. In
the case of the cylinder actuator, the forces which provide seat load are the spring
and the air supply times the cylinder area, with a diaphragm only the spring provides
seat load. In addition to these forces, another one is the force exerted by the fluid.
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In the case of the cylinder actuator the flow can be used to assist in closing and with
a diaphragm the flow must oppose the spring.
The spring and diaphragm combination in a diaphragm operator lacks the stiffness of
a double acting cylinder actuator. As a result, flow must be from under the plug of
the valve to prevent the plug from being sucked into the seat when throttling in a
partially open position. In the cylinder type, since there is air pressure on both sides
of the piston, any tendency for the plug to be drawn into the seat is overcome by a
build up of pressure under the piston. When the plug is in a partially open position
the piston is close to the bottom of the cylinder and has a very small volume
underneath it. Any movement of the plug tending towards the seat results in a very
large decrease in the already small volume underneath the piston. Since the amount
of air under the piston does not change, the pressure goes up substantially
preventing any movement of the plug.
Cylinder actuators are much easier to set up and calibrate. Because the springs
function is to provide action on air supply failure, it does not require a bench set. The
spring in a diaphragm in addition to providing the range must also be set specifically
for the valve size and pressure conditions. Because of the bench set, a diaphragm
never provides full closed position at 3 psi instrument signal or full open at a 15 psi
signal. A positioner helps overcome this problem but results in a necessity to
calibrate both the positioner and the spring in the diaphragm. In a cylinder actuator,
there is a direct relationship between valve position and the instrument signal it is
calibrated for.
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Electric Actuators:
Generally the electric actuators are of a reduction gear box coupled with electric
motor type and these are used for operating sluice, globe, gate, butterfly valve etc.
For motor actuators braking is required to stop the motor at the desired valve
position.
The torque switch provided in the valve opening direction works as a back-up
protection in case the limit switch in operating direction fails or the valve gets struck
due to some obstruction thereby increasing the actuator output torque beyond the
preset value.
Thus the torque switches in either direction stop the valve movement in case the
preset torque is exceeded, thereby avoiding costly damages to the valve.
Hydraulic Actuator
Description:
The hydraulic linear unit is used to actuate valves with straight-line stem motion.
These units are specially used to actuate valves that require a force of a few tons to
change their position. The main components of the system are oil pump-motor set, a
fine filter, a pressure relay, an overflow valve, an electromagnetically operated two-
position distributor, non-return valve, emergency control set, shut-off valve,
intermediate plate and a thermometer.
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The position of the actuator is changed by the distributor when the unit is under
automatic control. A control signal is applied to the distributor electromagnet, from
the flow measuring system. When there is no signal, oil is delivered to the upper
chamber of the actuator, opening the valve. When there is a pump pressure failure,
the hydraulically operated distributor shuts off the actuator from the supply system.
A change of the control signal from state 0 to 1, the oil is delivered to the lower
chamber, thus closing the valve.
When the oil pressure drops below the adjusted valve, the oil supply to the actuator
is cut off by the hydraulically-operated directional control valve. When the unit is
under manual control mode, the change in actuator position is achieved by means of
hydraulically-operated distributor and manually controlled distributor. According to
the position of the distributor slide, oil from the hydro accumulator under nitrogen
pressure is delivered to either of the chambers of the actuator, making it shift.
The manual distributor is used for controlling the actuator in the event of block
failure. The remote controllers provided controls the valve by energising the solenoid
valves.
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Globe Valve:
The most common valve body used for control valves is GLOBE. Moving the
stopper (plug) by direct thrust on to the orifice seating. This is the basic principle
of globe valve. Two common types of seating arrangements are used: Globe
valves are primarily used for controlling process fluids under variety of operating
conditions such as high temperature, high pressure high viscosity fluids as well as
low temperature fluids. These valves are available with unbalanced and balanced
trim.
Single Seated:
Fig. 46 shows a single seated valve. In a single seated valve there is only one
flow orifice, the plug is subjected to the total differential force across the valve
and hence if the pressure drop is large, large valve operator is required. Further,
single seated valves are sensitive to fluctuations in line pressures, which result in
fluctuating forces on the plug, and consequent deviations from control point.
Single seated valves are mainly used where low seat leakage is desired and
operating pressure is relatively low. These are unbalanced valves. The leakage
when the valve is fully closed is 0.01% of the rated CV. With soft seating, the
leakage is 0.001% of the rated valve CV.
Double Seated:
Fig. 47 shows a double seated valve. The double seated valve has got two flow
orifices and the two plugs are mounted on the same stem. Relative to the plugs,
the flow through the two orifices are in opposite directions. In double seated
valves the forces on the plugs due to differential pressure across the orifices are
balanced, so they need smaller valve operators. For the same reason of force
balance, pressure fluctuations in the line do not change the position of the plugs.
However, in the case of double seated valves, tight seating at both the seats
simultaneously cannot be obtained easily owing to manufacturing limitations. The
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seat leakage of these valves in fully closed position is 0.1% of the rated CV. With
soft seating, the leakage is 0.01% of the rated valve CV.
So far we have considered Globe type valves. 3 way valves (Fig.48) are basically
double ported globe valves and can be conveniently used either to divide the
flowing into two steams or mix two streams. The other commonly used types of
valves are Butterfly Valves, Ball Valves, Saunders Diaphragm Valve, Angle
Valves, etc.
Flow Capacity:
CV is the factor governing the size of a control valve and is dependent on the
maximum flow likely through the valve. Valve coefficient CV is the number of US
gpm of water which will pass through the given flow restriction with a pressure
drop of 1 PSI. The CV rating of a valve is always specified at full lift or in the wide
open position.
Flow Characteristics:
Valve characteristics are usually described graphically in terms of % flow vs. %
lift (or travel).
The basic types of valve characteristics are:
a) Quick Opening:
Ref. Fig. 49. The flow is linear upto about 50% valve travel and thereafter
increases rapidly.
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Fig. 49 - Quick opening globe valve with graph showing plug characteristics
The quick opening bevel or pappet is the simplest to construct and its orifice area
increases linearly with valve lift which is usually small. This type of valve is
satisfactory for use with two step controllers which require the valve to be in one
of two positions either open or shut.
b) Linear:
Ref. Fig. 50. The relationship is a straight line. For linear flow a Vee-port or a
contoured plug is used. The flow is directly proportional to the valve travel.
Change in flow rate (dQ) = K change in valve lift (dl); K = Constant
Fig. 50 – Linear globe valve with graph showing plug characteristics: At 50%
Open, there is 50% flow at 25% open, 25% flow, and so on.
c) Equal Percentage:
Ref. Fig. 51. Equal increments of travel provide equal % increments of flow.
Fig. 51 - Equal percentage globe valve with graph showing plug characteristics. Almost
constant rate of change of flow for unit changes in lift.
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The change in flow (dQ) resulting from a change in valve lift (dl) expressed as a
percentage of the initial flow is proportional to the change in valve lift.
DQ/Q = K dl
In equal percentage valves a unit change in lift will result in a change in flow that
is a fixed percentage of the flow rate at that lift.
When the control valve is installed its flow characteristics are no longer
independent of the rest of the system.
Positioner:
A pneumatic valve positioner is a device which precisely positions, with the help
of air, the moving part (or parts) of a pneumatically operated valve in accordance
with a pneumatic control signal. The pneumatic positioner has a pre-selected
relationship between the valve stem position (controlled variable) and the
controller output signal. The air pressure signal from E/P converter could be
directly connected to actuator diaphragm to operate the control valve. However,
due to friction in actuator as well as valve, precise positioning of valve for a
particular controller output is not practical. To overcome this, a positioner is
used. A positioner essentially has incorporated in it a position control loop. Its
input is the output pressure from controller. Its output is fed to the control valve
diaphragm.
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Operation:
The positioner operates on the force balance principle. The input to the positioner
is fed from pneumatic controller. The output of the positioner is the air pressure
Pst.
For every position of the control valve there is a corresponding torsion of the
measuring spring (3). Whenever the actuator or control valve stem plate (20)
and the pin (1.1) move, the lever (1) and other transfer elements (2.1, 2.2, 3.1)
cause the spring (3) to rotate and the spring torsion is altered. The input Pe
produces a force on the diaphragm (4) which is balanced by the torsion load of
the spring (3). If the input signal Pe changes, then the feeler pin (5.1) moves, the
flapper plate (6) follows this motion and influences the nozzle (7).
The supply air is connected to the pneumatic amplifier (8) and flows through the
throttle (9) and the nozzle (7) against the flapper plate (6). A change in either
the signal input or the actuator position causes a pressure change before and
after the amplifier. The output pressure Pst, controlled by the amplifier (8), flows
through the adjustable volume throttle (10) to the pneumatic actuator.
Adjustable needle valves (9, 10) are used for optimization and stabilization of the
position-control-loop.
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The filter should be installed in a line in such a way that it cannot be by-passed.
If the filter is by-passed, the working devices may be damaged. The filter should
be large enough in capacity to handle the required flow of air.
Maintenance:
a) The foreign matter and water collected under the participation should be
drained periodically by opening the drain valve. The pressure existing inside
the container blows out the filtered water condensate and the solid particles.
b) The filter element should be cleaned by blowing compressed air into it in the
reverse direction.
Pressure Regulator:
The pressure regulator is sometimes called a reducing or regulating valve. The
regulator provides a constant set pressure at the outlet of the regulator. This
setting may range from ‘O’ to full line pressure. Regulators can be either the
diaphragm type or the piston type.
In the diaphragm type regulator, the adjusting screw is used to set the value for
a given pressure at the reduced (output) side. After the valve has been set for a
given pressure, the lock nut should be tightened to prevent a change setting.
In the piston-type regulator, the spring acts on the top side of the piston which
consists of the piston cup and a metal backing disk. The force of the spring can
be changed by means of the adjusting screw. The regulator body acts as a
cylinder for movement of the piston.
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Although the functions are simple, time lags in each operation increase the
difficulty of control. Time lags are caused by (1) Capacitance (2) Resistance (3)
Transportation time (4) Dead time due to friction, inertia etc.
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Modes of Control:
The mode of control is the manner in which a control system makes corrections
relative to deviations. Following modes are commonly used:
a) On – Off Control
b) Proportional Control
c) Reset Control (Integral)
d) Rate Control (Derivative)
On-Off Control:
In this type of control action the signal to actuating element is either open (OFF)
or closed (ON). Let us consider the example of level control in Fig. 107. Let us
assume the level is controlled by opening the inlet valve fully, whenever the level
drops below the desired level of time lags in the system the level will continue to
rise for some time even after the valve is closed, and will continue to fall for
some time even after the valve is opened. Since an exact correction is never
applied, no stable balance condition of inflow and outflow of water is achieved
and the level cycles up and down as shown in Fig.58.
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Proportional Control:
Proportional action allows the final element to take intermediate positions between
ON and OFF. This permits the final element to vary the amount of energy to the
process,
depending upon how much the value of the measured variable has shifted from
the desired value. It is important to note that in proportional action there is a
particular position of the final element for each unit of departure of the measured
variable from the set point.
A controller with proportional action gives a change in the output signal (V) which
is proportional to the deviation (e)
V = -K2 e
Where K2 is the gain of controller as % change in valve position per % change in
deviation.
Proportional Band:
The change in deviation in % full scale which causes full valve travel is called
proportional band.
From the eq. V = -K2 e we see that when
E = 100/K2% we will have V = 100% and hence proportional
Band = 100/K2% or proportional band = (100/Gain)%
Offset:
There is only one valve opening for each load condition that will give no
deviation. Suppose to start with we had one set of load conditions and the valve
opening was adjusted so as to get zero error under these conditions of load.
Assume now the demand is suddenly changed and that it requires a valve
opening corresponding to an output V2 if error is to be zero. As soon as the
demand changes, error attains its maximum value and the controller starts giving
an increased output to reduce the error. As the error goes on reducing, the
controller output also increases. It is easy to see that the error cannot be
completely eliminated, for we have seen that when the error is zero, the
controller can given an output V1 only, but the process requires an output V2 if
the error is to become zero. Thus the controller output actually settles down at
V3, in between V1 and V2, and in this position, there is a residual error in the
controlled variable which will give rise to a controller output V3. This residual
error is controlled variable is known as the OFF-SET. Ref. Fig. 59.
Fig. 59 – Off-set
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Reset Control:
In this mode the position of the final control element is changed at a rate which
is proportional to deviation. Thus as long as deviation continues, the valve motion
continues. This mode is also called integral mode. If the response of the final
control element is not quick and the time lags in the process and control loop are
not small, exact correction may not be applied at the correct time, thus causing a
stability problem. For this reason this mode is rarely used alone. However, it
plays an important part when used in conjunction with proportional action, in
eliminating offset.
Reset Rate:
To explain the meaning of reset rate, let us assume that a constant deviation is
somehow maintained. Then the components of the proportional action and the
integral action can be represented as shown in Fig. 61. Here x is the amount of
correction generated by proportional action. The integral action takes a time y to
generate a correction equal to x, the proportional contribution. Also in every time
interval of y the integral action adds an amount x to correction. In other words, the
integral action repeats the proportional action at the rate of 1/y per unit time. This
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The equation for proportional plus reset mode can be written as:
V = (K1 ∫ e dt + K2e)
Rate Control:
In all of the modes considered so far a sudden large change of load will cause
oscillations in the controlled variable. When the load change is high, the deviation
of the controlled variable is also high, and due to proportional action the control
valve goes to one extreme position immediately. It is kept in this extreme
position for quite some time, because it takes time for deviation to decrease
because of process time lags. Actually the deviation continues to increase for
some time and then only begins to decrease. In the meantime because of the
large duration of the deviation, the reset action has built up a large correction.
Hence even when the deviation becomes zero, equilibrium conditions do not exist
and the controlled variable overshoots beyond the set-point and now the
deviation in opposite direction increases to a large value. Then the reverse
sequence of operations takes place and thus the controlled variable oscillates for
a considerable amount of time before it settles down at the desired value. It is
desirable to have an action which will partially compensate the over-correction
due to reset, when the deviation begins to decrease, and the controlled variable
approaches the set point. By this we can reduce overshoots. The action used is
the Rate action, and this gives a controller output which is proportional to the
rate of change of controlled variable (i.e. rate of change of deviation). The
equation can be written as V = - K3 de/dt.
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Main Objectives:
The Protection and Interlock systems have the following main objectives:
a) Safety of Equipment
Example: Boiler trip on very high furnace pressure prevents boiler furnace
from exploding.
b) Safety of Personnel
Example: Provision of local emergency push button for large motor driven
equipment such as ID fans.
a) AND Gate
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The standard symbol used and the truth table are shown in Fig.64. The AND Gate
gives an output only when ALL the inputs are present. Typical representation of
AND Gate using solid state circuits as well as relays are also shown in Fig. 64.
b) OR Gate
The standard symbol used and the truth table are shown in Fig. 65. The OR
Gate gives an output as long as AT LEAST ONE input is present. Typical
representation of OR Gate using solid state circuits as well as relays are also
shown in Fig. 65.
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e) Exclusive OR
The standard symbol is shown in Fig. 67.
Type:
Switch-On Delay
Function:
Output Y is immediately available when input signal A is available. If input
condition A is omitted, then the output signal Y is maintained for the period ‘t’
and is omitted thereafter. Output signal Y is not omitted if input A returns before
time ‘t’ has elapsed.
Flip-Flop (Memory)
The standard symbol used for Set-Reset Flip Flop is shown in Fig.70. The output
Q is present when the circuit is set. The output Q is present when circuit is Reset.
For setting or resetting, only a momentary pulse is required at S or R input
respectively. Once a pulse is given, for example to S input, the circuit is set even
if there is no input. This capacity to hold its position enables the circuit to be used
as a memory.
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Solid – State hard – wired interlocks came into use after the advent of reliable,
simple integrated circuits for various gates etc.
Programmable interlocks are presently increasingly being used. These are based
on microprocessors now readily available.
Safety Considerations:
Redundancy:
For critical equipment protections where failure of a single instrument could
cause serious damage, 2 out of 3 systems is used. For example, for boiler
tripping on low
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Fail Safe:
On loss of electrical power to the protection and interlock system circuits, the
equipment safety could be jeopardized. To prevent such risk, protection circuits
are so designed that on loss of electrical power, the equipment would
automatically shut down. This practice is commonly followed for boiler
protections, for example, Fig. 72 illustrates this method.
During normal operation, all tripping parameter contacts are closed, keeping
master trip relay energized.
When any parameter reaches trip value, its contact opens, causing master trip
relay to de-energise.
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Boiler trips if master trip relay de-energises. Thus, on loss of logic power supply,
master relay will de-energise, causing boiler trip.
Annunciation System
The basic annunciator system consists of multiple individual alarm points, each
connected to a trouble contact (alarm switch), a logic module and a visual
indicator (Fig. 73). The individual alarm points are operated from a common
power supply and share a number of annunciator system components including
an audible signal generator (horn), a flasher and acknowledge and test push
buttons. In normal operation the annunciator system and individual alarm points
are quiescent.
Operating Sequences:
The operation of an individual alarm point in the normal, alarm, acknowledged
and return-to-normal stages is the annunciator sequence, a wide variety of which
are available.
The most comprehensive sequences used in large annunciation systems, as in
power stations, are as shown in Table-9 and Table-10.
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Operation:
As soon as an alarm appears, the horn will ring. The operator should only press
SOUND CANCEL push button; other push buttons – ACKNOWLEDGE, RESET etc.
MUST NOT be pressed. After noting down the alarm inscription, ACKNOWLEDGE
& RESET PBs can be pressed. This should be strictly followed to avoid losing
useful information as some alarms may appear momentarily only and may clear
as soon as RESET PB is pressed.
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Analysers
Analysers in a power station are broadly classified into two groups:
a) Water & Steam Analysers
b) Flue Gas Analysers
Fig. 74 shows typical water and steam analysis measuring points in a power
station.
Sampling:
Steam and water samples drawn from high pressure/high temperature points are
brought to sample coolers where the sample is cooled to temperature acceptable
to various analysers. The pressure of the sample is reduced by Pressure Reducing
Valves. Cooled sample at low pressure is then distributed to various analysers.
Conductivity Measurement:
Electrolytic conductivity of a sample is a measure of concentration of various
charged ions in it. Presence of ions affect the ability of the solution to pass an
electrical current. Conductivity is measured by measuring resistance between a
pair of electrodes immersed in the sample. Since conductivity is inverse of
resistivity (ohm cm), it is usually expressed as:
Mho/cm or Siemens/cm. Practically, mho is too large a unit and micro mho is
more commonly used.
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A standard conductivity cell (Fig. 75) has two electrodes, each 1 sq.cm in area,
placed 1 cm apart. Such a cell is defined to have a CELL CONSTANT, K = 1.
Generally conductivity cells have areas different from 1 sq.cm. The cell constant
is the ratio of standard cell area (1 sq.cm) and area of cell under consideration,
i.e.:
pH Measurement:
Chemicals are added to the feed water to control pH and remove oxygen.
Typically pH is maintained on the alkaline side at about 8.8 – 9.5. This prevents
acidic attacks on ferrous components. Also the stable build up of the protective
magnetic layer is also dependent on the chemical condition prevailing. This pH
measurement is critical.
pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. This
means that H+ ion concentration is expressed in terms of the negative exponent
of power of 10.
Pure water dissociates into H+ and OH- ions each having a concentration of 10-7
gm/litre. A solution having a H+ ion concentration greater than 10-7 gm/litre is
called an acid. A solution having a H+ ion concentration less than 10-7 gm/litre is
called Base.
Water having H+ ion concentration of 10-7 gm/litre is neutral. For measurement,
unit is obtained by the logarithm of the above number with negative sign omitted
for easy expression, which is called pH number. Thus water is having 7pH. A
hydrogen ion concentration of 10-9 gm/litre is having a pH of 9 (Base) and of 10-5
gm/litre is having a pH of 5 (Acid). Strong acid and strong basic solution is
having 0 and 14 pH respectively.
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Silica Measurement:
The silicometer is a calorimeter in which the resultant colour of asolution to which
reagents have been added, is a measure of the concentration of silica in that
solution. The instrument automatically takes a measured quantityof the sample
water and fixed volumes of molybdate and reducing agents are successively
added, after which the mixture is stirred and the solution develops a blue colour.
This solution is then delivered to the optical comparator where the blue colour is
compared with either a Perspex blank, or, in cases where the sample is
discoloured, with the sample water itself. For calibration purposes, standard
solutions of silica can be incorporated. The whole sequence of operations is
entirely automatic. The electronic part gives a mADC signal for control panel
indication.
Silica Analysers usually require air conditioned room.
Silica Analyser:
Fig. 77 shows the flow diagram of the silica analyzer
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Start / Stop operation of the BMS system shall be either from the Local Panel or
from the BMS Panel in Control Room or from the DCS console, depending upon
the selection of the mode (LOCAL MODE / REMOTE MODE / DCS MODE). The
burner combustion control is from the DCS console only with Operator’s
intervention.
The auxiliary systems e.g. water treatment plant, air compressor system,
emergency DG sets, ETP and river water intake systems are operated from PLC
based control systems located in local control rooms.
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The Operation Engineer is able to call for Plant overview, P& ID Graphics,
group display, alarm display, group trend display, loop displays in the
CRT.
2.4.1 The Gas Turbine and Steam Turbine generators is operated and monitored
through CRT based operator stations furnished with their respective Control
Systems. The HRSG, Steam water cycle system, Cycle chemical injection system,
Balance of plant (Power Block) equipment and electrical systems is operated
through CRTs furnished with the DCS.
2.4.2 The Co-ordinated Control of the plant shall be implemented in the DCS.
The load set point for gas turbine is generated in DCS after receiving the remote
set point. GT generates output based on this set point and STG generates the
balance of the required load. The DCS design includes a provision for the plant
operator to set the load set points manually through DCS when remote load set
point is not available.
2.4.3 The utility and auxiliary systems viz., WT plant, compressed air system,
emergency DG sets, Air Conditioning and Ventilation system, Effluent Treatment
Plant, are operated from PLC based control systems located in the respective
local control panels. Critical signals for Control (including Auto / Standby,
Start/Stop), and protection is hardwired from these systems to DCS. Serial links
between these auxiliary systems controls and the DCS is provided for monitoring
of major parameters from these systems.
2.4.4 The design of the control system ensures that loss of signal, loss of
excitation or failure of any component do not cause an unsafe condition including
the false trips.
2.5.1 The following major control systems are envisaged on the basis of
functional requirements.
• GTG control system
• HRSG control system including HRSG (BMS) controls
• STG control system
• BOP ( Power Block Equipment) control system
• Electrical auxiliary control systems
• Off-site package controls
system.
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• Start-up control
• Acceleration control
• Speed /load control
• Temperature control
• Automatic synchronisation
• Variable inlet guide vane control, (IGV modulated exhaust Temperature
control)
• Load shedding (islanding from the Grid) and house load operations and
reconnection to Grid thereafter.
2.6.1.2.6 Critical tripping (e.g. electronic overspeed and loss of flame failure)
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2.7.2 The steam turbine control system is located in Control Equipment Room.
The complete operation of the steam turbine is from a CRT based operator
station to be located in Control Room along side the DCS CRTs. One
dedicated Engineering Station is also located in Control Room. The
Engineering Station allows to download application programs to the
controllers, observe control value of controllers, modify on line tuning
parameter and obtain historical record.
2.7.3 STG Control system is interfaced with the Plant DCS for monitoring of
critical parameters and for co-ordination during Start-up and Shutdown.
The interface between STG control and DCS is through redundant serial
link and limited hardwired signal exchange between the STG controls and
the DCS.
• Overspeed protections
• Fundamental and thermal stress protections
• Any other additional protection as per the STG manufacturer
recommendation.
Provision is made for emergency tripping of STG from control room through push
buttons.
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2.8.5 C&I for HRSG & related auxiliary systems, providing local and remote
indication of process and
electrical parameters as required by finalised P&ID.
Following modulating control loops are provided for Balance of Plant system:
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• For rapid matching of steam and turbine metal temperatures during start-
up of the turbine.
• For serving as a pressure relief system to reduce the possibility of HRSG
safety valves opening when rapid load reduction on the steam turbine
generator occurs.
• To facilitate continuous operation of the steam turbine at part loads with
HRSG operating at 100% MCR operation.
Pressure of steam at the inlet to the Bypass pressure control valve is monitored
and compared with a desired set point in the HP main steam line, and the
controlled deviation resulting there from used to initiate control action on the
Bypass Pressure Control Valve.
Operating conditions:
During start up
HRSG is started with bypass valve in closed status and selector in auto position.
When HRSG steam attains desired preset pressure level, bypass valve starts
opening automatically (provided other conditions e.g. sufficient vacuum in
condenser are fulfilled) and dumps steam to the condenser. Initiation of opening
of steam turbine inlet valve starts when the desired pressure and temperature
parameters of the steam turbine are reached and bypass valve starts closing in
tandem.
During start up, the bypass valves operate on a pressure control mode with
variable set points to be programmed based on boiler start up curves.
STG Trip
Bypass valve opens and maintains the steam line set pressure.
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The condenser hotwell level is compared with a desired normal set point in the
DCS and control action is initiated on the makeup control valves.
In the event of hotwell level reaching very high the excess dump valve comes
into operation. The measured Hotwell level is compared with set point in the
controller and control action initiated on the excess dump control valve.
Subsequently gas is passed through knock out drums and filter separators before
proceeding to the dew point heater. Gas turbine operation is dependent on gas
temperature after dew point heater.
Gas regulator reduces and maintain the desired pressure at the outlet of pressure
and reducing and control station, consisting of acting and working monitors in
series based on the pilot valve setting the gas sensing line. The automatic switch
over is achieved by pilot setting of the slam-shut valve in case of failure of one
pressure regulator. Downstream pressure of the working monitor and the end
positions of slam shut valves is monitored.
After pressure reduction gas is passed through performance heater to raise the
gas temperature suitable for gas turbine. Feed water from IP economizer outlet is
supplied for heating purpose. Feed water outlet from the performance heater is
led to condenser through a temperature control valve. This valve regulates the
feed water flow based on the gas temperature at the performance heater outlet.
Feed water pressure is higher than the gas pressure and hence there is a
possibility of water ingress to the gas in the process. The performance heater
constitutes moisture separator, in which the liquid level is monitored.
Subsequently gas is passed through the coalescent filters for absorbing the water
content and coalescent filter acts as the final filter upstream of gas turbine.
Adequacy of pressure and temperature of gas at the outlet of the coalescent filter
is monitored in DCS and these are start permissive for the gas turbine. Water
level in the coalescent filter is monitored in DCS. and in case of very high level
the gas turbine will trip. Gas turbine inlet emergency shutdown valve
automatically opens or closes on receipt of signal from GT control system.