The study of leaf arrangements, or phyllotaxy, considers not only the descriptive classification of leaf arrangements

but also theories regarding the cause of such arrangements.

The function of the arrangement of leaves (phyllotaxy) is to increase a plant’s ability to carry on photosynthesis by
positioning the leaves in such away as tomaximize the surface area available to intercept sunlight. Leaves may be
either caulescent (on obvious stems) or acaulescent (with no obvious stems).

Flowering plants have three basic types of arrangements: alternate spiral; opposite; and whorled or verticillate. The
alternate spiral arrangement is generally considered to be the most primitive condition, with the opposite and
whorled conditions being derived by suppression of internode development.

There are two major hypotheses regarding the processes governing these basic arrangements. The field hypothesis of
phyllotaxy posits that, as leaf primordia (newleaf cells) are created by the plant, a zone that inhibits the growth of
other primordia is laid down around it, and not until the shoot tip has grown beyond that zone can a new leaf
primordium be laid down. The first available space hypothesis posits that new leaves grow as soon as the plant shoot
has grown out far enough to allow space for them.

The various types of leaf arrangements are usually one of the easiest vegetative characteristics to use in helping to
identify vascular plants. This is especially true when leaf arrangement is combined with other characteristics, such
as the presence or absence of petioles or the quality of being sessile or nonsessile. Other characteristics include the
shape of the leaves and the appearance of the margins, bases, and apices types.

Alternate

Alternately arranged leaves produce one leaf per node. These leavesmay be on alternate sides of the stem (2-ranked
or distichous), on one side of the stem (1-ranked or secund), or in a spiral around the stem. If 2-ranked leaves
overlap, as in some oncidium orchids and iris species, then they are referred to as equitant.

Leaves of members of the grass family (Poaceae) are distichous and alternate. Their leaves differ from most other
vascular plant leaves in that they normally consist of a split tubular sheath that surrounds the stem and more or less
linear blades held at right angles to the stem. They also have a small, tonguelike structure (ligule) at the junction of
the sheath and blade, although in some species it may be obsolete.

Spiral

Spiral arrangements involve alternately arranged leaves in which each succeeding stem node and attached leaf is
rotated slightly from the nodes below and above it. If the spiral is to the right, it is referred to as dextrorse; if to the
left, it is referred to as sinistrorse.

Opposite

When two leaves occur at one node, the arrangement is called opposite. Oppositely arranged leaves may be either 2-
ranked, as in Mexican heather (Cuphea hyssopifolia) in the henna family (Lythraceae), or 4-ranked or decussate, in
which each succeeding pair of leaves is at right angles to the pairs above and below them. Decussate arrangement of
leaves is characteristic of the mint family (Lamiaceae), themaple family (Aceraceae), and some members of the
milkweed family (Asclepiadaceae), such as Asclepias viridis.
Whorled or Verticillate

When three or more leaves occur at one node, a whorled or verticillate arrangement is produced. The genera Galium
and Sherardia in the madder family (Rubiaceae) are characterized by whorled leaves, as is also Isotria in the orchid
family (Orchidaceae).

Rosette

Rosettes, often referred to as basal rosettes, occur in acaulescent plants, such as the common dandelion (Taraxacum
officinalis) in the sunflower/aster family (Asteraceae). Acaulescent plants do have a stem, but the internodes are
greatly contracted, and the leaves have a spiral alternate arrangement.

Many biennial plants, such as carrots (Daucus carota) and poison hemlock (Coniummaculatum) in the carrot family
(Apiaceae), will produce a basal rosette during the first year of growth, followed by the production of a flowering
stem with alternate leaves the second year.

Perfoliate

A leaf or a pair of connately fused leaves with the stem going through the center are referred to as perfoliate. Montia
perfoliata and Bupleurum rotundifolium are examples of the perfoliate condition derived from a single leaf.

Silphium perfoliatum is a good example of the basal connate fusion of leaves to achieve the perfoliate condition.
The upper cauline leaves of henbit (Lamium amplexicaule) in the mint family (Lamiaceae) are sessile and clasping
the stem but are not actually fused.

Coniferous Leaves

The leaves of most conifers have developed with the need to minimize water loss while maximizing photosynthesis
under relatively cold and dry (physiological drought) conditions where water is often not easily obtained. Needle-
like leaves arranged in close, regularly spaced secund (one-sided, like a comb) divisions are referred to as pectinate
or comblike.

Acicular leaves arranged in bundles or fascicles are typical of pines and spruces. In pines each fascicle is composed
of two, three, four, five, six, seven, or eight divisions of needles, which form a more or less cylindrical shape if
pushed together. The fascicles are spirally arranged on the tree branches.

In eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana), the leaves are reduced to minute scales, which have an opposite
decussate arrangement, giving the appearance of 4-ranks. The scales are imbricate or overlapping, much like
shingles on a roof.

The leaves of the yew (Taxus) are sharp-pointed, flattened, and narrowly lance-shaped. They are spirally arranged
on the branches but almost always give the appearance of being 2-ranked.

This is also true for the dawn redwood (Metasequoia) and bald cypress (Taxodium distichum), both of which are
deciduous in the fall, dropping entire branchlets with the attached leaves. Yew podocarpus (Podocarpus
macrophylla) in the podocarpus family (Podocarpaceae), on the other hand, has a obvious spiral arrangement of the
leaves.
Inflorescence
The term “inflorescence” refers to the arrangement of flowers on a floral axis. Most schemes that define
inflorescence types separate solitary flowers from flower clusters and stipulate that an inflorescence is a cluster of
two or more flowers.

It is not always easy to distinguish between solitary flowers and an inflorescence. An examination of the
evolutionary development of the flower and the inflorescence provides some insight into the problem. It generally is
accepted that the flower arose as a modified stem tip that bore male and female reproductive structures at its apex.

These reproductive structures became the pistils and stamen of the flower. Leaves that immediately subtended the
reproductive structures became the sterile parts of the flower (petals and sepals) and are typically more leaflike as
distance from the apex increases.

If leaves subtending the flower are much smaller or distinctly different from regular leaves, they are referred to as
bracts. If a second, considerably smaller set is present, its component parts are termed bracteoles. The determination
of whether subtending leaflike structures are leaves or bracts may establish a flower as solitary or as part of an
inflorescence.

Inflorescence Types

Parameters used to classify basic inflorescence types include

1. number and position of flowers

2. sequence of flower development, and
3. the nature of inflorescence branching.

Because the inflorescence type of a given species may result from evolutionary reduction, classification schemes are
typically artificial and do not reflect evolutionary significance. The form of an inflorescence, however, is determined
largely by two patterns of development.

If the growing tip of the stem (apical meristem) continues to grow and produce new flowers as it elongates, the
inflorescence is said to be indeterminate. Araceme (defined below) is a typical indeterminate inflorescence. If the
apical meristem quickly matures into a flower, it can no longer grow in length, and the inflorescence exhibits a
limited growth pattern.

This type of inflorescence is said to be determinate and is best represented by a cyme (defined below). The
following descriptions of inflorescence types represent most of the basic types. Any vascular plant taxonomy text
will provide a more comprehensive list.

Indeterminate Inflorescences

A catkin (also known as an ament) is a spikelike inflorescence. Dissection may reveal the presence of minute, and
possibly branched, pedicels. The flowers are typically unisexual and are hidden by bracts. This inflorescence is
typical of trees such as oaks, hickories, and birches.

A corymb is a flat-or rounded-top inflorescence. The pedicels of flowers are attached along the length of the
peduncle. Corymbs may be simple or compound. Examples include hydrangea and hawthorn.

A head, or capitulum, is a tight cluster of sessile flowers (flowers with no pedicel) borne on a flattened or short
stemtip (receptacle). Heads are a diagnostic feature of the sunflower family (Asteraceae), examples of which are
daisies, chrysanthemums, and sunflowers.
A panicle has a branched floral axis (rachis), which may re-branch prior to bearing flower pedicels (described some
times as a compound raceme).

A raceme has pedicellate flowers borne on an elongate rachis. It is often confused with a spike when the pedicels are
small and inconspicuous. Examples include foxglove and lupine.

A spike has sessile flowers borne on a single rachis. Examples are ladies’ tresses (a type of orchid) and plantain. A
spikelet is a small spike. The flowers are inconspicuous and often hidden by a series of modified bracts. This is the
basic inflorescence unit of grasses and sedges.

A spadix is a spike with flowers embedded in a fleshy rachis. Typically, the spadix is subtended and surrounded by a
large modified bract termed a spathe. The spadix is characteristic of the arum family (Araceae), examples of which
are jack-in-the-pulpit and elephant ear.

Determinate Inflorescences

An umbel can be determinate or indeterminate, with a flat or rounded top. The pedicels of flowers are attached to a
common point on the peduncle.

Umbels may be simple or compound. Compound umbels are the typical inflorescence of most members of the carrot
family (Apiaceae). Examples include onion, carrot, and dill.

A cyme is a branching inflorescence with individual flowers at the end of each branch. A simple cyme is
determinate, with a grouping of three flowers on a peduncle. The central flower matures first. Examples include
champions and some of the anemones. A compound cyme is composed of two or more cymes together. Examples
include chickweed and phacelia.

Inflorescence Definition
Inflorescence is defined as the a cluster or group of flowers arranged on a stem which composes of a main branch or
a complicated arrangement of branches. Inflorescence is basically the part of the shoot of flowering plants where the
flowers formed are modified accordingly. An inflorescence is defined as the reproductive part of a plant which bears
a group of flowers in a specific pattern.

Inflorescence Types
Based on the arrangement of the flowers on the main axis or the peduncle and the timing of its flowering;
inflorescence can be of two types determinate and indeterminate inflorescence.

Determinate inflorescence

 In determinate inflorescence the terminal axis is with a flower. In this type of inflorescence the youngest
flowers are found on the bottom of an elongated axis or on the outside of a truncated axis.
 During the flower time, the apical meristem produces a flowering bud arresting the growth of the peduncle.
 Determinate inflorescence is seen in cymes, cymes are a flat-topped inflorescence in which the central
flowers open first flowed by the flowers on the peripheral side.

Example: Onion.
Indeterminate inflorescence

 Here the axis continues to grow. In this type of inflorescence the youngest flowers are present at the top of
an elongated axis or on the center of a truncated axis.
 Indeterminate inflorescence may be of many types like raceme, panicle, catkin, spike, carymb, umbel, head
or spadix.

Based on branching characteristic inflorescence are of two types:

 Unbranched - They are also known as simple inflorescence

 Branched - They are also known as compound inflorescence, they are branched.

There are three main types of inflorescence in flowering plants:

Simple Inflorescence / Single Terminal Flower Inflorescence

 It is a type of extreme inflorescence where there is no branching, and complete determinacy is seen.

Example: Magnolia.

Racemose Inflorescence

 It is indeterminate and unbranched type of inflorescence. In raceme type, new flowers are generated at the
tip of the inflorescence. There is no definite determination and the axis never terminates in a flower.

Example: Snapdragon.

Cymose Inflorescence

 Cyme is a determinate and branched type of inflorescence.

 In cymose inflorescence axis terminate in a flower.
 Lateral branches of the flower develop below the terminal flower, each branch ends in a flower, they also
produce lateral branches. Every axis terminates in a flower.

Example: Red campion.

Racemose Inflorescence

In racemose inflorescence the main axis shows continuous growth and it does not end with a flower. The older
flowers are present towards the base and the younger flowers are towards the apex. Sometimes the main axis
becomes shortened and the flowers become clustered. Racemose inflorescence may have elongated peduncles or
shortened peduncles. In a raceme inflorescence a flower develops at the axil between the stem and branch of each
leaf along a unbranched axis.
Example of raceme is Snapdragon.

Simple Raceme
Simple raceme has long peduncle and bears on a number of pedicellate flowers in acropetal succession.

Example: Crotalaria, Erythrina.

Panicle
Panicle is a branched raceme. The peduncle produces a number of branches in acropetal succession. On these
branches pedicellate flowers are produced in acropetal succession.
Example: Mango.

Spike
Spike inflorescence has a long peduncle which bears a number of sessile flowers in acropetal succession. Example:
Amaranthus.

Catkin
Catkin is a type of spike inflorescence with a pendulous peduncle. The flowers in this type of inflorescene are
generally unisexual.
Example: Acalypha, Mulberry.

Spadix
Spadix is a type of spike with a fleshy peduncle. The flowers are usually unisexual. The spadix inflorescence is
always accompanied by a big bract called spathe, which almost covers the spadix.
Example: Aroids.

Corymb
Corymb is a racemose inflorescence with a slightly shortened axis. The older flowers have the longer and the
younger flowers have the shorter pedicels. As a result of this flowers the carymb inflorescence are found more or
less at the same level of arrangement.
Example: Caesalpinia.

Umbel
Umbel is also a type of racemose inflorescence whose main axis is shortened and at the tip bears a whorl of bracts.
All the flowers are at the same level and they show centripetal arrangement.

When the peduncle of this type of inflorescence is unbranched and bears a cluster of flowers showing centripetal
arrangement, this kind of inflorescence is called simple umbel.
Example: Hydrocotyle.
Compound umbel is where the peduncle is branched from the tip of each branch a luster of flowers is produced in an
umbellate manner called a compound umbel.
Example: Coriander, carrot.
Cymose Inflorescence
In the cymose inflorescence the main axis ends of the flower ends in a flower as the peduncle stops growing. The
flowers in cyme show basipetal succession. The oldest flower is the apex and the youngest flower of the
inflorescence is at the base of the inflorescence. The flower are arranged in centrifugal manner, and the oldest flower
is at the center and the young flowers are towards the margin.

There are different types of cymose inflorescence:

Dicahsium or Simple Cyme

Dichasium is a determinate inflorescence with a terminal flower that opens first and two opposite flowers below it.

Compound Dichasium or Compound Cyme

Sometimes it is also called cyme , it is a branched cyme, determinate with each ultimate unit three flowered.

Monochasial cyme
Monochasial cyme bears a terminal flower with one flower below. The branches may repeat may times to give a
long coiled inflorescence also known as helicoid cyme. Branch of this inflorescence can go in different directions.

Forage crops are grass and legume plant species that are grown for livestock feed as well as
land Conservation and reclamation. It is the vegetative portion of the plant, mainly leaves and
stems, which is consumed by livestock. Forage is plant material (mainly plant leaves and stems) eaten
by grazing livestock.[1] Historically, the term forage has meant only plants eaten by the animals directly
as pasture,crop residue, or immature cereal crops, but it is also used more loosely to include similar plants cut
for fodder and carried to the animals, especially as hay or silage.[2] The termforage fish refers to
small schooling fish that are preyed on by larger aquatic animals.[3]

While the term forage has a broad definition, the term forage crop is used to define crops, annual or biennial,
which are grown to be utilized by grazing or harvesting as a whole crop.[4]

Field crops are defined as crops that feed animals, such as corn, small grains, soybeans and hay.
The field crop definition could also include cover crops.

Nou 1 field crop -

n . a crop (other than fruits or vegetables) that is grown for agricultural purposes; "cotton, hay, and grain are fi
eld crops"
crop - a cultivated plant that is grown commercially on a large scale
field corn - corn grown primarily for animal feed or market grain
The roots of a plant are connected differently in different plant species and this is known as the root
system. There are two main types of root systems :)

Tap root system

The first root produced from a seed is called the radicle. In many dicotyledonous plants this root greatly
enlarges to become the most prominent root of the plant and is known as a tap root. Many smaller branch
roots may grow from the tap root.

Fibrous root system

In monocotyledonous plants, the radicle is short lived and is replaced by numerous roots of more or less
equal size. These roots are adventitious which means they can grow from plant organs other than roots
e.g. stems.

Different types of roots

A tree or plant's roots can have functions apart from anchoring it and absorbing water and nutrients from
the soil. There are many different types of specialised roots which have evolved in both trees and plants.
The image below shows some interesting examples. Click on it when it indicates a specialised root type
about which you want to learn more.

Rotating root types

Sometimes it is not so easy to know whether a plant structure is a root or a stem. There are some stems
which grow under the ground and there are some roots which grow above the ground.

See if you know which of these common vegetables are roots.

TYPES OF ROOTS

Roots are the principal water-absorbing organs of a plant. They are present on essentially
all vascular plants, although roots are never formed on the primitive-looking whisk
fern (Psilotum) and its closest relatives (Order Psilotales), on Wolfiella (the tiniest
duckweed), and on the plant body of certain atmospheric epiphytes, such as Spanish
moss (Tillandsia). In fact, a root, by definition, must have vascular tissues, i.e., water
conduits in xylem and sugar conduits in phloem, arranged in a particular way
("exarch"). Much thinner, threadlike rhizoids (means "root-like") are present on the
nonvascular plants, such as mosses and liverworts, and on gametophytes of vascular
plants without seeds, such as ferns, horsetails, and club mosses. Rhizoids also absorb
water but totally lack vascular tissues.

There are three primary functions of roots: (1) to anchor the plant to a substrate, (2) to
absorb water and dissolved minerals, and (3) to store food reserves. Typically we see
roots in soil, but there are specialized types of aerial roots (air roots) that enable
climbing plants and epiphytes to become attached to rocks, bark, and other nonsoil
substrates. In addition, parasitic plants may form specializedhaustorial roots that
form an attachment disc to the host during the first stage of colonization. To absorb
water and dissolved minerals, a young sector of a root commonly possesses numerous
single-celled projections called root hairs, which greatly increase the absorbing surface of
the root and achieve much greater contact with soil particles. Water uptake into the
young root is rapid because there is little resistance through the outer cell walls, and in
general these walls contain virtually no water-repellent wax (cutin). Both young and
old roots can be important repositories for carbohydrates, usually in the form of starch
grains located in root cortex, but in addition older roots may store massive quantities
of starch and even become specialized below-ground storage organs. Storage of
carbohydrates in roots and other below-ground plant organs is an important plant
strategy for surviving stress and dormancy, just as certain mammals store extra fuel as
fat for winter.

Roots may be assisted in their function by other organisms living in the substrate.
Many plants, including the majority of vascular plants and even the free-living
gamatophytes, are involved in symbiotic relationships with fungi,
called mycorrhizae. Particular soil fungi grow either on the outside or on the inside
of a root. This mycorrhizal association improves water absorption and the uptake of
certain minerals from the soil. Certain genera of plants have roots that are inoculated
with colonies of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms, especially legumes and their
associated nitrogen-fixing bacteria (rhizobial bacteria). Living in tumor-like root
nodules, nitrogen-fixing bacteria are able to convert atmosphere nitrogen gas to
ammonia, under anaerobic conditions produced by the plant cells, and then use this
fixed nitrogen to make amino acids. So, it this regard, root physiology may be
involved in a very special way to deliver nutrients to the shoot.

The radicle (note spelling) is the initial root of a plant, the one that is generally present
on the embryo within the seed. This forms the primary root of a young plant. In certain
lineages, the embryo is so tiny and immature, such as in microseeds of orchids
(Family Orchidaceae), that a radicle is not present.

There are several possible fates of the primary root. In gymnosperms and
dicotyledons, the primary root commonly grows to become a thick central root,
the taproot, which may or may not have thick lateral roots (branches). This
structural organization is frequently termed a taproot system, although in many old
woody plants there may be many roots that are essentially the same diameter. The
easiest designation of taproot is for something like a carrot (Daucus carota), where
the lateral (secondary) roots are very thin, so that plant indeed has a single, thick
central root. What may appear to be a taproot can also include enlarged portions of the
hypocotyl (of the seedling) or even tissues of the lower stem. In monocotyledons, the
radicle is very short-lived, and before it dies other adventitious roots have already
originated from shoot or mesocotyl tissue to become the new root system, called
a fibrous root system. Fibrous roots are typically thought of as slender, often with few
or no lateral roots. However, many monocotyledons have below-ground adventitious
roots that are thicker than a pencil, and in some the fibrous roots above-ground, such
as the prop or stilt roots of screwpines (Pandanus) and certain palms(Family Arecaceae),
can be as thick as an arm.

Adventitious roots are the ones that form from shoot tissues, not from another (parent) root. Most
commonly, adventitious roots arise out of stems, originating via cell divisions of the stem cortex
or less often from axillary buds hidden in the bark. In some plants leaves can also be encouraged
to form adventitious roots. The field of horticulture is based in large part on cloning plants from
cuttings of stems or leaves that form adventitious roots. [More examples: adventitious roots of a
palm; of a Canary Island date palm; specialized adventitious roots of an epiphytic orchid; of
an aquatic plant that has unattached roots in moving water] Certain "root crops" that botanically
are below-ground shoots, such as tubers, bulbs, rhizomes, and corms, form adventitious
roots when planted in soil. Vegetative reproduction (apomixis) of cacti and other succulent plants
is also achieved largely by rooting either stems or leaves using methods to stimulate adventitious
root formation.

Specialized Variations of Roots

 Nodal roots: adventitious roots that form characteristically in rings from stem
tissues around a node.
 Aerial roots: roots that are formed in and exposed to air, e.g., by epiphytes and
hemiepiphytes; in some species, aerial roots grow downward from the tropical tree
canopy toward the ground asextremely long, unbranched roots.
 Prop or stilt roots: adventitious roots that develop on a trunk or lower branch that begin as
aerial roots (another example; reaching for the water) but eventually grow into a substrate of
some type; these roots in some cases seem to provide mechanical support, having
either good compression or tensile properties to help support trees at their bases.
 Buttress or tabular roots: vertically flattened roots that project out of the ground
and lower trunk at the base of large trees. Models have suggested how these
buttresses provide additional tensile forces to resist uprooting of large tropical
trees.
 Contractile roots: roots that become shortened in length (shrivel or shrink in
length) and thereby draw the plant or plant part downward into the soil profile;
many examples can be found among bulbous plants.
 Pneumatophores: spongy, aerial roots of marsh or swamps, such as in mangal
(mangroves), where roots are present in waterlogged soils and cannot obtain enough
oxygen for maintaining healthy tissues. Here, pneumatophores are "breathing
 roots" that are emergent, and they have special air channels (lenticels) for gas
exchange in the atmosphere (air enters at zones called "pneumathodes") and
there is an internal pathway for getting O2 into the root and to supply
submerged roots. The aerial loop of a mangrove root is sometimes called a
"knee" or "peg root," but it is not clear that knees are necessarily breathing
roots.
 Caudex or lignotuber: a taproot that has fused with the stem may become
woody. Lignotubers often occur in seasonally dry or fire-prone habitats, and the
plants appear to use this strategy to recover from dormancy or fire.
 Haustorial root: the root of particular parasitic plants that become cemented to
the host axis via a sticky attachment disc before the root or sinker intrudes into
the tissues of the host.
 Strangling roots: the special name for roots of strangling figs (Ficus), which are
primary hemiepiphytes that begin life as tropical epiphytes in trees and send
down adventitious roots that becomerooted in the soil. The roots surround the host
trunk, eventually strangling the bark and killing the host tree.
 Root tubers: swollen portions of a root that can have buds to produce new
shoots; when broken off, these can grow into a new plant, so this is a form of
cloning. In the older literature, these were sometimes referred to as fascicled
roots.