Scramjet

Scramjet
A scramjet (supersonic combusting ramjet) is a variant of a ramjet airbreathing jet engine in

which combustion takes place in supersonic airflow. As in ramjets, a scramjet relies on high
vehicle speed to compress the incoming air forcefully before combustion (hence ramjet), but
whilst a ramjet decelerates the air to subsonic velocities before combustion, the airflow in a
scramjet is supersonic throughout the entire engine. That allows the scramjet to operate
efficiently at extremely high speeds.
Basic principles
Scramjets are designed to operate in the hypersonic flight regime, beyond the reach of
turbojet engines, and, along with ramjets, fill the gap between the high efficiency of turbojets
and the high speed of rocket engines. Turbomachinery-based engines, while highly efficient
at subsonic speeds, become increasingly inefficient at transonic speeds, as the compressor
rotors found in turbojet engines require subsonic speeds to operate. While the flow from
transonic to low supersonic speeds can be decelerated to these conditions, doing so at
supersonic speeds results in a tremendous increase in temperature and a loss in the total
pressure of the flow. Around Mach 3–4, turbomachinery is no longer useful, and ram-style
compression becomes the preferred method.[28]
Scramjet engines operate on the same principles as ramjets, but do not decelerate the flow to
subsonic velocities. Rather, a scramjet combustor is supersonic: the inlet decelerates the flow
to a lower Mach number for combustion, after which it is accelerated to an even higher Mach
number through the nozzle. By limiting the amount of deceleration, temperatures within the
engine are kept at a tolerable level, from both a material and combustive standpoint. Even so,
current scramjet technology requires the use of high-energy fuels and active cooling schemes
to maintain sustained operation, often using hydrogen and regenerative cooling techniques.[29]
Theory
All scramjet engines have an intake which compresses the incoming air, fuel injectors, a
combustion chamber, and a divergent thrust nozzle. Sometimes engines also include a region
which acts as a flame holder, although the high stagnation temperatures mean that an area of
focused waves may be used, rather than a discrete engine part as seen in turbine engines.
Other engines use pyrophoric fuel additives, such as silane, to avoid flameout. An isolator
between the inlet and combustion chamber is often included to improve the homogeneity of
the flow in the combustor and to extend the operating range of the engine.
A scramjet is reminiscent of a ramjet. In a typical ramjet, the supersonic inflow of the engine
is decelerated at the inlet to subsonic speeds and then reaccelerated through a nozzle to
supersonic speeds to produce thrust. This deceleration, which is produced by a normal shock,
creates a total pressure loss which limits the upper operating point of a ramjet engine.
For a scramjet, the kinetic energy of the freestream air entering the scramjet engine is largely
comparable to the energy released by the reaction of the oxygen content of the air with a fuel
(e.g. hydrogen). Thus the heat released from combustion at Mach 25 is around 10% of the
total enthalpy of the working fluid. Depending on the fuel, the kinetic energy of the air and
the potential combustion heat release will be equal at around Mach 8. Thus the design of a
scramjet engine is as much about minimizing drag as maximizing thrust.
This high speed makes the control of the flow within the combustion chamber more difficult.
Since the flow is supersonic, no downstream influence propagates within the freestream of
the combustion chamber. Throttling of the entrance to the thrust nozzle is not a usable control
technique. In effect, a block of gas entering the combustion chamber must mix with fuel and
have sufficient time for initiation and reaction, all the while traveling supersonically through
the combustion chamber, before the burned gas is expanded through the thrust nozzle. This
places stringent requirements on the pressure and temperature of the flow, and requires that
the fuel injection and mixing be extremely efficient. Usable dynamic pressures lie in the
range 20 to 200 kilopascals (2.9 to 29.0 psi), where
where
q is the dynamic pressure of the gas

ρ (rho) is the density of the gas
v is the velocity of the gas
To keep the combustion rate of the fuel constant, the pressure and temperature in the engine
must also be constant. This is problematic because the airflow control systems that would
facilitate this are not physically possible in a scramjet launch vehicle due to the large speed
and altitude range involved, meaning that it must travel at an altitude specific to its speed.
Because air density reduces at higher altitudes, a scramjet must climb at a specific rate as it
accelerates to maintain a constant air pressure at the intake. This optimal climb/descent
profile is called a "constant dynamic pressure path". It is thought that scramjets might be
operable up to an altitude of 75 km.[30]
Fuel injection and management is also potentially complex. One possibility would be that the
fuel be pressurized to 100 bar by a turbo pump, heated by the fuselage, sent through the
turbine and accelerated to higher speeds than the air by a nozzle. The air and fuel stream are
crossed in a comb like structure, which generates a large interface. Turbulence due to the
higher speed of the fuel leads to additional mixing. Complex fuels like kerosene need a long
engine to complete combustion.
The minimum Mach number at which a scramjet can operate is limited by the fact that the
compressed flow must be hot enough to burn the fuel, and have pressure high enough that the
reaction be finished before the air moves out the back of the engine. Additionally, in order to
be called a scramjet, the compressed flow must still be supersonic after combustion. Here two
limits must be observed: First, since when a supersonic flow is compressed it slows down, the
level of compression must be low enough (or the initial speed high enough) not to slow the
gas below Mach 1. If the gas within a scramjet goes below Mach 1 the engine will "choke",
transitioning to subsonic flow in the combustion chamber. Additionally, the sudden increase
in pressure and temperature in the engine can lead to an acceleration of the combustion,
leading to the combustion chamber exploding.
Second, the heating of the gas by combustion causes the speed of sound in the gas to increase
(and the Mach number to decrease) even though the gas is still travelling at the same speed.
Forcing the speed of air flow in the combustion chamber under Mach 1 in this way is called
"thermal choking". It is clear that a pure scramjet can operate at Mach numbers of 6-8,[31] but
in the lower limit, it depends on the definition of a scramjet. There are engine designs where
a ramjet transforms into a scramjet over the Mach 3-6 range, known as dual-mode
scramjets.[32] In this range however, the engine is still receiving significant thrust from
subsonic combustion of the ramjet type.
Advantages and disadvantages of scramjets

Advantages
1. Does not have to carry oxygen

2. No rotating parts makes it easier to manufacture than a turbojet
3. Has a higher specific impulse (change in momentum per unit of propellant) than a
rocket engine; could provide between 1000 and 4000 seconds, while a rocket typically
provides around 450 seconds or less.
4. Higher speed could mean cheaper access to outer space in the future
Disadvantages
1. Difficult / expensive testing and development

2. Very high initial propulsion requirements

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Scramjet

A scramjet (supersonic combusting ramjet) is a variant of a ramjet airbreathing jet engine in

q is the dynamic pressure of the gas

Advantages and disadvantages of scramjets

1. Does not have to carry oxygen

1. Difficult / expensive testing and development

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