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Article 60

Multicultural Counseling Competencies:

Extending Multicultural Training Paradigms Toward Globalization
Saundra Tomlinson-Clarke

Tomlinson-Clarke, Saundra M., is an Associate Professor in the Department of

Educational Psychology at Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey. Her
research focuses on multicultural training models designed to foster cultural
competencies and international counseling.
Abstract
Current multicultural training models may be limited in helping counselors to
acquire cultural competencies needed for effective interventions with culturally
diverse clients in global communities. In preparing counselors to meet the
challenges of diverse societies in the 21st century, multi-dimensional
multicultural training models and attributes of cultural competence are examined.
Sequential coursework and experiences that assist trainees in developing a deeper
understanding of self in relation to global communities are recommended.

More than three decades ago, a call to the counseling profession identified the
need to prepare culturally competent helping professionals to meet the challenges of a
multicultural and diverse American society (Sue et al., 1982). Multicultural counseling
competencies were defined, revised, and operationalized with goals of training
multiculturally skilled counselors who are able to provide ethical and effective
counseling interventions to culturally diverse clients (Arredondo et al., 1996; Pedersen,
1994; Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis, 1992). Conceptualized within the historical and
sociopolitical context of the United States, multiculturalism referred to race, ethnicity,
and culture, focusing on four racial-ethnic minority groups (Asian, Black /African,
Latino/Hispanic, Native American and groups who have historically resided in the
continental United States and its territories) while diversity referred to dimensions of
personal identity and individual differences (Arredondo & Glauner, 1992; Arredondo et
al., 1996). The attributes of cultural competence were identified using a tripartite model:
(1) awareness of one’s own personal beliefs, values, biases, and attitudes, (2) awareness
and knowledge of the worldview of culturally diverse individuals and groups, and (3)
utilization of culturally appropriate intervention skills and strategies (Sue & Sue, 2013).
A model of personal identity operationalized dimensions of human differences, in
addition to the complexities of diversity and shared identity (Arredondo & Glauner,
1992). The components of cultural competence and dimensions of personal identity
provided frameworks for developing the goals and strategies for counselor cultural
competency-based training (Arredondo & Arciniega, 2001).
Ideas and Research You Can Use: VISTAS 2013

In the early 1990’s, Sue et al. (1992) called attention to the diversification of
America, as evidenced by a growing multiracial, multicultural, and multilingual U.S.
society. Recent reports continue to show an increasingly diverse U. S. population, with
Hispanics and Asians having the highest rate of growth when compared to African
Americans, Native Americans, and Whites (U. S. Census Bureau, 2011). Immigrants are
estimated to comprise 12% of the U.S. population (Sue & Sue, 2013). Consistent with the
nation’s growing and changing racial-ethnic diversity was a decrease in the monolingual
English-speaking White population (Portman, 2009). Reflecting the 21st century
demographic profile of the United States, Sue and Sue’s (2013) text, Counseling the
Culturally Diverse: Theory and Practice (6th edition) included chapters on the four
American minority groups (African American, American Indians/Alaska Natives, Asian
Americans/Pacific Islanders, and Latinos) as well as chapters focused on counseling
practice with Arab and Muslim Americans, Jewish Americans, immigrants and refugees,
LGBT individuals, the elderly and individuals with disabilities. Furthermore, increasing
interactions across national borders have resulted in the globalization of the counseling
profession and an interconnectedness of human, environmental, and technological
concerns affecting people worldwide (Gerstein, Heppner, Ægisdóttir, Leung, &
Norsworthy, 2009).
Given the realities of an interdependent and changing world, counselors may be
limited in their ability to provide effective interventions that extend to culturally diverse
populations in global communities. Glockshuber (2005) reported that counselors
experienced difficulty in perceiving multicultural diversity within a global context.
Multicultural training and the development of multicultural competencies typically have
been conceptualized from U. S. national perspectives (Leong & Ponterotto, 2003). In
advancing globalization of the counseling profession, the generalizability of national
models must be examined and the discussion must include global perspectives that extend
beyond national borders (Leung, 2003). Therefore, the purpose of this research is
threefold. Firstly, attributes of multicultural competence are examined within the context
of the globalization of the counseling profession. Secondly, multi-dimensional,
developmental multicultural training models designed to prepare helping professionals to
work with culturally diverse clients in global communities are discussed. Thirdly,
attributes of cultural competence that increase counselors’ abilities to work effectively
with culturally diverse clients living in the U.S. and globally are explored.

Multicultural Counseling Training

Cultural competency standards approved by the Association of Multicultural

Counseling and Development in 1991 and adopted by Association of Counseling and
Development (now American Counseling Association) have continued to provide
guidelines for multicultural counselor training as well as the criteria by which
multicultural training outcomes are assessed. Multicultural coursework is required in
Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP)
accredited counselor education programs (CACREP Standards, 2009) and American
Psychological Association (APA) accredited psychology programs (APA, 2003).
Although approaches have varied from program to program, counselor trainees
completing pretest and posttest measures reported increased cultural awareness, cultural

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knowledge, and culturally responsive skills after multicultural training (D’Andrea,

Daniels, & Heck, 1991; Tomlinson-Clarke, 2000; Yutrzenka, 1995). Self-reported
quantitative measures were primarily used to assess the three attributes of cultural
competence (D’Andrea, Daniels, & Heck, 1991; LaFromboise, Coleman, & Hernandez,
1991; Ponterotto, 1997; Sodowsky, Taffe, Gutkin, & Wise, 1994). In a more recent study,
(Castillo, Brossart, Reyes, Conoley, & Phoummarath, 2007) first year counseling
graduate students’ cultural self-awareness significantly increased and implicit racial
prejudice decreased after taking a multicultural course, and cultural knowledge and skills
increased for students completing multicultural counseling and counseling foundations
courses.
Although research has tended to support the efficacy of multicultural training, few
studies have examined the effectiveness of multicultural counseling competencies in
helping counselors to use acquired cultural awareness and cultural knowledge in
conceptualizing client concerns and in developing culturally responsive interventions
(Dickson & Shumway, 2011; Worthington, Soth-McNett, & Moreno, 2007). Also,
students’ racial-ethnic backgrounds and experiences may influence multicultural training
outcomes. Although multicultural training experiences improved multicultural
competencies and cognitive racial attitudes among Hispanic counseling students, their
affective racial attitudes were not changed (Ginger, Argus-Calvo, & Tafoya, 2010). More
training increased White counseling students’ multicultural awareness but did not
increase racial-ethnic minority students’ multicultural awareness (Chao, Wei, Good, &
Flores, 2011). Current multicultural training approaches may not provide trainees with
adequate prompts to encourage the process of exploration and growth toward increased
cultural competence. Multicultural training may need to be differentiated based on
trainees’ racial-ethnic backgrounds and experiences in order to increase counselors’
multicultural competencies (Chao, 2013). Consequently, the effectiveness of
multicultural training in preparing counseling professionals for the challenges of the 21st
century and beyond has been questioned (Ahmed, Wilson, Henriksen, & Jones, 2011;
Toporek & Reza, 2001).

Multi-dimensional, Developmental Multicultural Approaches

Current multicultural training models may “oversimplify the complexities

involved in multicultural interactions” (Dickson & Jepsen, 2007, p. 47). Pernell-Arnold,
Finley, Sands, Bourjolly, and Stanhope (2012) advocated for a shift from being culturally
encapsulated (Wrenn, 1962; 1985) to a multiperspective or a multicultural worldview.
Due to the complex process of developing cultural competence, multicultural researchers
concluded that multi-dimensional (Glockshuber, 2005) or multi-faceted (Dickson &
Shumway, 2011) models may be needed. Multicultural learning experiences that are
developmental and build upon levels of counselor competence are more likely to achieve
learning objectives that extend to global communities. Sequential experiences that build
upon trainees' current levels of cultural competence provide a foundation for developing
comprehensive approaches to cultural competency-based training. Also, the importance
of multiple training formats has been emphasized (Sevig & Etzkorn, 2001). Experiential
learning complements didactic instruction, providing opportunities for direct lived
realities that encourage self-reflection and growth toward cultural competence.

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Dickson and Shumway (2011) presented an integrative framework for delivering

effective multicultural training identifying three essential components: 1) a culturally
sensitive program environment, 2) traditional, participatory, and experiential instructional
strategies, and 3) multicultural clinical instruction (p. 2). Sequential experiences
involving both didactic and experiential course work provide opportunities for acquiring
and utilizing attributes of cultural competence. Exposure to a variety of multicultural
training experiences as well as differentiated training provides continual opportunities for
self-reflection and growth. Furthermore, transformative multicultural learning
environments are characterized by learning experiences that directly challenge
assumptions and beliefs about self within the social-political context of culturally diverse
others (Clarke & Tomlinson-Clarke, 2009).

Attributes of Cultural Competence

Attitudes/Beliefs and Cultural Awareness

Conceptualizing multicultural training models from a global perspective,
Glockshuber (2011) and Minami (2008) considered attitudes/beliefs to be a critical
component in a model of counselor cultural competence. According to Minami (2008)
“Developing awareness is necessary, but not sufficient to develop MCC” (p. 42). An
attitudinal component of cultural competence is viewed as separate and distinct from
cultural awareness. Attitudes/beliefs were assumed to involve explicit and implicit
affective, cognitive, and behavioral evaluative responses that influenced interactions with
culturally diverse others. High attitude competency was associated with a constructive
racial-ethnic attitude. Glockshuber (2011) found that counselors’ self-evaluated cultural
competence was directly related to their cultural attitudes/beliefs. Minami (2008)
concluded that attitudes/beliefs should be a separate attribute of in a model of cultural
competence. On the other hand, Sue and Sue (2013) conceptualized attitudes/beliefs as
social conditioning that required self-examination of attitudes and feelings associated
with cultural differences. Hence, the importance of attitudes/beliefs can not be
underestimated and is particularly relevant in considering the dynamics of counselor-
client relationships when working across cultures. Assisting counselors to become self-
aware and to examine their cultural attitudes/beliefs is an important attribute in
developing cultural competence and increasing counselor effectiveness with culturally
diverse clients.

Cultural Knowledge
Sue and Sue (2013) define cultural knowledge as understanding and sharing the
world view of clients through cognitive empathy rather than affective empathy (p. 48).
Limited cultural knowledge resulted in a reliance on stereotyped generalizations about
racial-cultural groups that increased the likelihood of inappropriate decision-making
(Tomlinson-Clarke, 2000). Tomlinson-Clarke and Clarke (2013) found that direct
ongoing cross-cultural interactions facilitated cultural knowledge and cultural empathy,
enabling helping professionals to connect with cultural diverse others, understand and
appreciate the uniqueness of their daily lives and to recognize universal commonalities
(etic) that existed between them. Inherent in this level of knowledge is an understanding
of the social and political context in which clients live their lives.

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The knowledge component in a model of cultural competence might be expanded

based on the work of Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, and Tarule (1986). Belenky et al.’s
theory focused on women’s ways of knowing, and is used in proposing a developmental
process for acquiring cultural knowledge as an attribute of cultural competence.
1. Silence is characterized by a tendency to adhere to stereotypes with difficulty
defining self. This may be a common experience for a new graduate student or a
student who has not been exposed to cultural diversity.
2. Received Knowing is a result of listening to the voices of others. This may be the
experience of a trainee beginning their first multicultural didactic course with
little or no prior multicultural experience.
3. Subjective Knowing results when one follows self and does not feel obligated to
listen to others. This may be the experience of a trainee who begins to challenge
cultural biases and assumptions through critical self-examination.
4. Procedural Knowing consists of connected knowing that is grounded in first-hand
experience and empathy or Separate Knowing that relies on reason rather than
feelings. This may reflect the experiences of practicum or interns working in
culturally diverse settings who are attempting to understand the experiences of
culturally diverse clients.
5. Constructed Knowing involves integrating self and reason within a global
perspective. This way of knowing may reflect the experiences advanced students
or graduates with direct and on-going cross-cultural experiences and interactions
with culturally diverse others. Constructed Knowing implies critical self reflection
as part of understanding the relation of self to others in the world.

Cultural Skills
The ability to provide effective counseling interventions is maximized when
counselors are continually working to develop the attributes of cultural competence. Sue
and Sue (2013) discussed the implications of assuming universal applications to the
exclusions of cultural specific views when working with culturally diverse client
populations in the U.S. and globally. For example, Minami (2008) cautioned that a
counselor with high cultural awareness competency, high cultural knowledge
competency, and low attitude/belief competency will be unlikely to successfully engage
in effective cross cultural interactions or provide culturally responsive counseling. Also,
McRae and Johnson (1991) asserted that multicultural training that focused on cultural
differences limits trainees’ ability to apply acquired cultural knowledge in providing
culturally appropriate interventions to culturally diverse clients. Culture-specific
knowledge about racial-ethnic groups may be unintentionally misused and become
stereotyped generalizations. Similarly, the use of culture-general knowledge may
overlook important nuances necessary in making culturally appropriate clinical
judgments. Therefore, the ability to develop appropriate interventions strategies and
techniques are dependent on the ability to acquire and utilize cultural awareness, and
cultural knowledge (Sue & Sue, 2013).

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Ideas and Research You Can Use: VISTAS 2013

Self-Reflection

Counselor cultural competence is to know oneself cognitively and emotionally

within the context of socio-political influences (Arredondo, 1999). Innovative approaches
to cultural competency-based training seek to move trainees to a level by which they are
better able to consider differing worldviews and engage in critical reflective thinking in
making judgments about situations that may differ from their own. Rather than relying on
multicultural self-assessments as a way to measure cultural competence, critical self-
reflection promotes meaningful opportunities for self-examination and developmental
growth (Roysircar, 2004; Tomlinson-Clarke & Clarke, 2010). Griffith and Frieden (2000)
define reflective thinking as, “the active, on-going examination of the theories, beliefs,
and assumptions that contribute to counselors’ understanding of client issues” (p. 82).
The ability to develop reflective thinking about self and others is an essential skill that
promotes reflective judgment. Fitzgerald (2000) discussed cultural competence stating,
It is about developing the ability to ‘see’ a situation from multiple
perspectives and, if necessary, to reconcile them. It is about developing
multiple potential interpretations and using critical reflective thinking to
choose which alternatives are most likely to provide effective strategies
for care. It is about using such understandings to become more competent
and effective professionals. (p. 184-185)

Conclusion

In meeting the needs of a diverse nation and advancing global counseling

initiatives, there is a demand for helping professionals who are culturally aware,
culturally sensitive, and have specific cultural knowledge about individuals representing
cultural groups who may live in the United States and abroad (Nieto, 2004). Advancing
counselor competencies toward an increased level of awareness and knowledge that
extends across cultures requires a complex understanding of the dynamics of culture and
the impact of cultural practices from a sociopolitical context. A continuing challenge for
counseling professionals is to move beyond current levels of competence, and to confront
attitudes and practices, both personally and professionally, that reflect cultural bias
(Pedersen, 1987). Counselor training programs should provide multicultural training that
expands worldviews, providing cultural lenses by which counselors are better able to see
and to understand a client's worldview (Ivey, D'Andrea, Ivey, & Simek-Morgan, 2002).
Multicultural training must extend counselors’ competencies beyond pre-requisite levels
for meeting client concerns in a culturally diverse world. Whereas multicultural training
focused on first-order change may result in increased knowledge, Pernell-Arnold et al.
(2012) advocated for multicultural training models aimed at second-order change which
transforms the way in which one perceives the world and lives in the world.
Sue and Sue (2013) asserted that the journey toward counselor cultural
competence is a developmental process. Multicultural training must provide continuing
opportunities use self-reflective skills to confront bias assumptions, attitudes, beliefs, and
behaviors (Sue & Sue, 1990). Self-reflective analysis is a key component of critical
reflective thinking and reflective judgment. It is necessary to understand oneself within a
racial-cultural context in order to objectively consider multiple perspectives as part of

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effective decision-making. Critical thinking thereby leads to reflective self-analysis and

reflective judgment. Self-reflection, intergroup dialogue and openness to the experience
are essential to developing the attributes of cultural competence (Manese, Wu, &
Nepomuceno, 2001). The goal of developing self-reflective skills in multicultural training
appears to help counselors to illuminate and combat cultural bias and ethnocentric
assumptions in advancing the profession toward global initiatives (Pedersen, 2003).

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Note: This paper is part of the annual VISTAS project sponsored by the American Counseling Association.
Find more information on the project at: http://counselingoutfitters.com/vistas/VISTAS_Home.htm

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