Reinforced Concrete Road Bridges

Prof. Nirjhar Dhang

Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur

Lecture-1
Overview

1 Introduction

2 Summary

3 References
Introduction
Introduction

A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles without

closing the way underneath such as a body of water, valley, or road,
for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle.
Natural bridge, Andaman

Natural bridge, Andaman. This was never in use

Introduction (contd ...)

A bridge is a key element in a transportation system for three reasons:

It likely controls the capacity.
It is the highest cost per kilometer.
If the bridge fails, the system fails.
Pamban Bridge, Ramaswaram, 1914
Howrah Bridge, Kolkata, 1943
Mahatma Gandhi Setu,Patna, 1982
Vidyasagar Setu, Kolkata, 1992
Stamps on bridges in India

The bridges mentioned here are not related to the present topic,
but are shown here as postal stamps are published by India Post
Introduction (contd ...)

The bridge controls both the volume and weight of the traffic carried.
If the width of a bridge is insufficient to carry the number of
lanes required to handle the traffic volume, the bridge will be a
constriction to the traffic flow.
If the strength of a bridge is deficient and unable to carry heavy
trucks, load limits will be posted and truck traffic will be
rerouted.
Introduction (contd ...)

Bridges are expensive.

The typical cost per kilometer of a bridge is many times that of
the approach roadways.
This is a major investment and must be carefully planned for
best use of the limited funds available for a transportation
system.
Introduction (contd ...)

If the bridge fails, the system fails.

When a bridge is removed from service and not replaced, the
transportation system may be restricted in its function.
Traffic may be detoured over routes not designed to handle the
increase in volume.
Users of the system experience increased travel times and fuel
expenses.
Normalcy does not return until the bridge is repaired or replaced.
Introduction (contd ...)

A bridge is a key element in a transportation system.

Balance must be achieved between handling future traffic volume
and loads and the cost of a heavier and wider bridge structure.
Strength is always a foremost consideration but so should
measures to prevent deterioration.
The designer of new bridges has control over these parameters
and must make wise decisions so that capacity and cost are in
balance, and safety is not compromised.
Introduction (contd ...)

Bridges can be classified in many ways

Classification of bridges will be discussed in the next lecture
For learning purpose, it will be appropriate to classify as:
Superstructures
Reinforced concrete bridges
Prestressed concrete bridges
Steel bridges
Steel-concrete composite bridges
Cable supported bridges
Bearings
Substructures
Foundations
Road vehicles
Bridge deck
Bridge deck

Bridge Deck: The load bearing floor of a bridge which carries and
spreads the loads to the main beams. It is either of reinforced
concrete., pre-stressed concrete, welded steel etc.
Bridge deck

Bridge Deck: The load bearing floor of a bridge which carries and
spreads the loads to the main beams. It is either of reinforced
concrete., pre-stressed concrete, welded steel etc.
Summary
Summary

Bridge Engineering, in general, is discussed here

References
References

Design of Highway Bridges : An LRFD Approach, Second

Edition, Richard M. Barker and Jay A. Puckett, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc, 2007
Thank you
Reinforced Concrete Road Bridges

Prof. Nirjhar Dhang

Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur

Lecture-2
Overview

1 Classification of bridges

2 Summary

3 References
Classification of bridges
Road vehicles
Bridge deck
Bridge deck

Bridge Deck: The load bearing floor of a bridge which carries and
spreads the loads to the main beams. It is either of reinforced
concrete., pre-stressed concrete, welded steel etc.
Bridge deck

Bridge Deck: The load bearing floor of a bridge which carries and
spreads the loads to the main beams. It is either of reinforced
concrete., pre-stressed concrete, welded steel etc.
Classification of bridges

Bridges can be classified in different ways:

Materials
Usage
Span
Structural Form
Classification of bridges

Materials
Concrete
Steel
Wood
Hybrid
Stone/brick
Classification of bridges

Usage
Pedestrian
Highway
Rail
Classification of bridges

Span
Short
Mediam
Large
Long
Classification of bridges

Structural Form
Slab
Girder
Truss
Arch
Suspension
Cable stayed
Classification of bridges

Span
Short
Mediam
Large
Long
Classification of bridges

Small span bridges (upto 15m)

Culvert Bridge
Slab Bridge
T-Beam Bridge
Wood Beam Bridge
Precast Concrete Box Beam Bridge
Precast Concrete I-Girder Bridge
Rolled Steel Beam Bridge
Classification of bridges

Medium span bridges (upto 50m)

Pre-cast Concrete Box Beam bridge
Pre-cast Concrete I-Girder bridge
Composite Rolled Steel Beam Bridge
Composite Steel Plate Girder Bridge
Cast-in-place RCC Box Girder Bridge
Cast-in-place Post-Tensioned Concrete Box Girder bridge
Composite Steel Box Girder bridge bridge
Classification of bridges

Large span bridges (50m to 150m)

Composite Steel Plate Girder Bridge
Cast-in-place Post-Tensioned concrete Box Girder
Post-Tensioned Concrete Segmental Construction
Concrete Arch and Steel Arch
Classification of bridges

Long span bridges (over 150m)

Cable Stayed Bridge
Suspension Bridge
Classification of bridges

Span can be considered as a general guideline to select the type

of bridges
Short span (upto 10m)
Small span (10m to 20m)
Medium span (20m to 50m)
Large span (50m to 150m)
Long span (over 150m)
Classification of bridges

Bridges are also classified as

Minor bridge (upto 60m)
Major bridge (over 60m)
Classification according to structural arrangement

Bridge Deck: The load bearing floor of a bridge which carries and
spreads the loads to the main beams. It is either of reinforced
concrete., pre-stressed concrete, welded steel etc.
Classification according to structural arrangement

The classification of the bridge types can also be according to

the location of the main structure elements relative to the
surface on which the user travels, as follows:
Main structure below the deck line
Main structure above the deck line
Main structure coincides with the deck line
Classification according to structural arrangement

Main structure below the deck line

Masonry arch
Concrete arch
Inclined leg frame arch
Rigid frame arch
Classification according to structural arrangement

Main structure above the deck line

Suspension bridges
Cable stayed bridges
Through truss bridges
Classification according to structural arrangement

Main structure coincides with the deck line

Slab bridge
T-beam bridge
I-girder bridge
Steel plate girder
Steel box
Bridge deck

Bridge Deck: The load bearing floor of a bridge which carries and
spreads the loads to the main beams. It is either of reinforced
concrete., pre-stressed concrete, welded steel etc.
Bridge deck

Bridge Deck: The load bearing floor of a bridge which carries and
spreads the loads to the main beams. It is either of reinforced
concrete., pre-stressed concrete, welded steel etc.
Reinforced Concrete Road Bridges

Considering the duration of the present course, reinforced

concrete road bridges will be discussed
The following bridges will be studied in the present course
Solid slab bridges
RCC T Beam bridges
Summary
Summary

Bridges are classified according to materials, usage, span and

structural forms.
References
References

Design of Highway Bridges : An LRFD Approach, Second

Edition, Richard M. Barker and Jay A. Puckett, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc, 2007
Thank you
Reinforced Concrete Road Bridges

Prof. Nirjhar Dhang

Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur

Lecture-3
General Features of Design

and

Vehicle Loading
 Deck
Carrigeway, footpath and crash barrier
Standard specifications and code of practice
For road bridges

IRC 5
Section I : General features of design

IRC 6
Section II : Loads and Stresses

Published by

Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi

Bridge Types – Simply Supported
S
i
n
• Solid Slab Bridge
g
• RCC T Beam
Number of lanes
S
i
n
• Single lane
g
• Double lane

• Triple Lane
Width of carriageway and footpath

Clause 112 of IRC 5

Deck
112.1. For high level bridges constructed for
the use of road traffic only,

the width of carriageway shall not be less than

4.25 m for a single lane bridge and

7.5 m for a two-lane bridge and

shall be increased by 3.5 m for every additional

lane of traffic for a multiple lane bridge.
112.1. (contd..)

Road bridges shall provide for either one lane,

two lanes or multiple of two lanes.

Three-lane bridges with two directional traffic

shall not be constructed.
112.1. (contd..)

If a median/central verge is constructed in a

wide bridge thus providing two separate
carriageways, the carriageway on each side
of the verge shall provide for at least two lanes
of traffic and width thereof shall individually
comply wit the minimum requirements
stipulated above.

The width of central/verge/median, when

provided, shall not be less than 1.2 metres.
In addition, cross-sections of 2-lane and multi-
lane bridges shall satisfy the following :

i) For all minor bridges of total length upto 60

m, width between the outermost faces of the
bridge shall be equal to the full roadway width of
the approaches subject to a minimum of 10 m
for hill roads/other district roads and 12 m for
other cases.
ii) For two lane bridges having total length
more than 60 metres in non-urban situations,
the width of the bridge shall provide for
7.5 m carriageway plus a minimum of l.5 m wide
footpath on either side, wherever required.

iii) For two lane bridges having total length

more than 60 m in urban situations, the overall
width between the outermost faces of the bridge
shall be equal to the full roadway width of the
approaches.
.
iv) For multi-lane bridges, in both urban and
non-urban situations, the overall width between
the outermost faces of the bridge shall be the
same as the full roadway width of the
approaches. Wherever footpaths are provided,
their width shall not be less than 1.5 m. The
width of the median in the bridge portion shall be
kept same as that in the approaches.
.
v) For bridges on expressways,
the provisions in sub-clause (iv) shall be
satisfied and the carriageway width shall not be
less than the width of carriageway in the
approaches plus hard shoulders.
IRC Loading

IRC 6 : 2014

Class A Loading – Wheeled Vehicle

IRC 70R Loading – Tracked Vehicle

IRC 70R Loading – Wheeled Vehicle

 IRC 70R Wheeled Vehicle

17t 17t 17t 17t 12t 12t 8t

1370 3050 1370 2130 1520 3960

610
910
 IRC 70R Wheeled Vehicle

17t 17t 17t 17t 12t 12t 8t

1370 3050 1370 2130 1520 3960

910 20t 610

20t 20t

1220 1220 1830 1220 1830

Max. Single Axle Load Max. Bogie Load

 810
410
610 Maximum Tyre Pressure =5.273 kg/sqm

2790
410 380
L Type

610
2790

M Type
510

230
250
510

2790

N Type
 IRC 70R Wheeled Vehicle

17t 17t 17t 17t 12t 12t 8t

1370 3050 1370 2130 1520 3960

610
910

L type 2790
The nose to tail spacing between two successive vehicles shall not be less than 30m
 IRC 70R Wheeled Vehicle

17t 17t 17t 17t 12t 12t 8t

1370 3050 1370 2130 1520 3960

910 610

M type 2790
 IRC 70R Wheeled Vehicle

17t 17t 17t 17t 12t 12t 8t

1370 3050 1370 2130 1520 3960

910 610

2790
N type
 IRC 70R Tracked Vehicle
35T 35T

840 840
4570
2900

The nose to tail spacing between successive vehicles shall not be less than 90m
 70R Loading

1) The nose to tail spacing between two

successive vehicles shall not be less than
90 m for tracked vehicle and 30 m for
wheeled vehicle.
2) For multi-lane bridges and culverts, each
Class 7OR loading shall be considered to
occupy two lanes and no other vehicle shall
be allowed in these two lanes.

The passing/crossing vehicle can only be

allowed on lanes other than these two lanes.
Load combination is shown in Table 2 of
IRC:6-2014.
3) The maximum loads for the wheeled
vehicle shall be 20 tonne for a single axle or
40 tonne for a bogie of two axles spaced not
more than 1.22 m centres.
4) Class 7OR loading is applicable only for
bridges having carriageway width of 5.3 m
and above (i.e. 1.2 x 2 + 2.9 = 5.3). The
minimum clearance between the road face of
the kerb and the outer edge of the wheel or
track, ·c·, shall be 1.2 m.
5) The minimum clearance between the
outer edge of wheel or track of passing or
crossing vehicles for multilane bridge shall
be 1.2 m. Vehicles passing or crossing can
be either same class or different class,
Tracked or Wheeled.
 IRC Class A Wheeled Vehicle

6.8t 6.8t 6.8t 6.8t 11.4t 11.4t 2.7t 2.7t

3000 3000 3000 4300 1200 3200 1100

900 600

L type 2300
The nose to tail spacing between two successive vehicles shall not be less than 18.5m
 Class A Loading
1) The nose to tail distance between
successive trains shall not be less than
18.5 m.

2) For single lane bridges having carriageway

width less than 5.3 m, one lane of Class A
shall be considered to occupy 2.3 m.
Remaining width of carriageway shall be
loaded with 500 Kg/m2 , as shown in Table
2 of IRC:6-2014.
3) For multi-lane bridges each Class A
loading shall be considered to occupy
single lane for design purpose.

Live load combinations as given in Table 2 of

IRC 6 shall be followed.
4) The ground contact area of the wheels
shall be as under:

Axle load (tonne) Ground contact area

B (mm) W (mm)
11.4 250 500
6.5 200 380
2.7 150 200
Impact Factor
Summary
• General features of design are discussed

• Vehicle loadings considered for design

are also discussed
References
Standard specifications and code of practice
For road bridges

IRC 5
Section I : General features of design

IRC 6
Section II : Loads and Stresses

Published by

Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi

Thank you
Reinforced Concrete Road Bridges

Prof. Nirjhar Dhang

Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur

Lecture-4
Overview

1 IRC Loading

2 Summary

3 References
IRC Loading
Simply supported beam

Figure 1: Simply supported beam

Simply supported beam with IRC Class A loading

Figure 2: Simply supported beam with IRC Class A loading

Simply supported beam with IRC 70R loading

Figure 3: Simply supported beam with IRC Class A loading

Road vehicles
Deck
IRC Class A loading
IRC Class A loading
IRC Class A loading
Summary
Summary

Bending moments and shear forces, for a simply supported

beam, are computed for IRC loading, Class A and 70R.
References
References

Standard specifications and code of practice for road bridges

IRC 5 Section I : General features of design, 1998
IRC 6 Section II : Loads and Stresses, 2014
Published by Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi
Thank you
Reinforced Concrete Road Bridges

Prof. Nirjhar Dhang

Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur

Lecture-5
Design codes
Overview

1 Structural Safety

2 Calibration of partial safety factors

3 Procedure for calibration of partial safety factors

4 Example : calibration of partial safety factors

5 Summary
Structural Safety
Structural Safety

Structural safety appears in different forms when criteria for

design are stated in codes and specifications.
The most commonly encountered criteria for design are :
Allowable stress design(ASD)
Ultimate strength design(USD)
Load and resistance factor design(LRFD)
Structural Safety(contd...)

Allowable stress design(ASD)

Structural members are designed such that the computed
elastic stress is less than or equal to a fraction of a limiting
value such as the yield stress of the material
The computed elastic stress is obtained from an analysis of
the structure using specified design loads.
Structural Safety(contd...)

Ultimate strength design(USD)

Design loads are increased by a factor
The computed strength of a structural member is reduced
by a factor
The computed strength of a structural member is based on
ultimate behaviour
An elastic analysis is used to obtain the member forces

Vu ≤ φVn (1)

where φ is a strength reduction factor, Vn is the nominal

shear strength of the beam and Vu is the factored shear
force at the section under consideration
Structural Safety(contd...)

Load and resistance factor design(LRFD)

This method has been introduced by the American Institute
of Steel Construction(AISC).
It is characterized by an expression of the form
X
γi Qi ≤ φRn (2)

where γi is the load factor for the ith load effect, Qi is the
ith load effect, φ is a resistance factor, and Rn is the
nominal resistance(strength).
A similar method is used in the AASHTO specification
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges
Reliability Index

The reliability index, β, for a linear limit state function,

g = R − Q is
µR − µQ
β=q (3)
σR2 + σQ2
Calibration of partial safety factors
Calibration of partial safety factors

µQ

Figure 1: Relationships among nominal load, mean load and factored load
Calibration of partial safety factors

µR

Figure 2: Relationships among nominal resistance, mean resistance and

factored resistance
Calibration of partial safety factors

µQ µR

Figure 3: Relationships among nominal, mean and factored load and

resistance
Calibration of partial safety factors(contd...)

In load and resistance factor design (LRFD) or limit state design

(LSD), load components are multiplied by load factors and
resistance is multiplied by a resistance factor.
The basic form of the LRFD equation is
X
φR ≥ γi Qi (4)
where γi is a load factor applied to load components (or load
effect) Qi and φ is a resistance factor applied to the
resistance(measure of load carrying capacity) R.
Calibration of partial safety factors(contd...)

The basic form of the LRFD equation is

X
φR ≥ γi Qi (5)
In words, the equation says that the capacity of the structural
member (modified by the factor φ) must be larger than the total
effect of all the loads acting on the member.
Calibration of partial safety factors(contd...)

Forward problem: To determine β given a limit state function

(or performance function) and the mean and variance (or
standard deviation or coefficient of variation) for each of the
random variables used in the limit state function.
Inverse problem: A target β is specified and it is then necessary
to determine the required mean values of the resistance and
loads to achieve the target.
This means that we need to find the design point {z ∗ }
corresponding to the target β.
Calibration of partial safety factors(contd...)

Assume that the design points {z ∗ } (in reduced coordinates)

corresponding to a target β is known. To get the corresponding
design point {x ∗ } in original coordinates, the following relation
is used for each variable.
xi∗ = µxi + zi∗ σxi (6)
Since the design point must be on the failure boundary, the limit
state function must satisfy
g(x1∗ , x2∗ , ..., xi∗ ) = 0 (7)
For design purposes, it is necessary to relate each design point
value xi∗ to a value of the variable used in design (e.g. a nominal
design value specified by the code).
Calibration of partial safety factors(contd...)

If the nominal design value of Xi is denoted by xei , then the

partial safety factor γi is defined as
xi∗
γi = (8)
xei
The partial safety factor is nothing more than a scaling factor
that allows the designer to convert a nominal design value of a
variable to the value needed to satisfy the limit state function for
a target β.
g(x1∗ , x2∗ , ..., xi∗ ) = 0 (9)
Procedure for calibration of partial safety
factors
Procedure for calibration of partial safety factors

Formulate the limit state function and the design equation

Determine the probability distributions and appropriate
parameters for as many of the random variables
Xi (i = 1, 2, ..., n) as possible
It is assumed that the coefficient of variation or standard
deviation is known for all random variables
Procedure for calibration of partial safety
factors(contd...)

There can be at most only two unknown mean values in the

analysis
Typically, one unknown mean value corresponds to the resistance
variable, and the other unknown mean value corresponds to a
load variable
For the first iteration, the limit state function g=0 is evaluated
at the mean values to get a relationship between the two
unknown means
Procedure for calibration of partial safety
factors(contd...)

Obtain an initial design point {xi∗ } by assuming values for n-1 of

the random variables Xi .
Note : mean values are often a reasonable initial choice
Solve the limit state equation g = 0 to obtain a value for the
remaining variable. This ensures that the trial design point is on
the failure boundary
Procedure for calibration of partial safety
factors(contd...)

For each of the design point values xi∗ corresponding to a

nonnormal distribution, determine the equivalent normal mean
µexi and standard deviation σxei
If one or more xi∗ values correspond to a normal distribution,
then the equivalent normal parameters are simply the actual
parameters. Since some of the mean values are not known in
advance, it may not always be possible to carry out this step
Procedure for calibration of partial safety
factors(contd...)

Determine the partial derivatives of the limit state function with

respect to the reduced variables
 



G1 


G2

 

∂g

 

{G} = . where Gi = − (10)
  ∂Zi



 . 



Gn

 

Procedure for calibration of partial safety
factors(contd...)

Consider the column vector {α} using

[ρ]{G}
{α} = q (11)
{G}T [ρ]{G}
where [ρ] is the matrix of correlation coefficients,
Procedure for calibration of partial safety
factors(contd...)

Determine a design point in reduced variates for n-1 of the

variables using
zi∗ = αi βtarget (12)
where βtarget is the target reliability to be found.
Design the corresponding design point values in original
coordinates for the n-1 values using
xi∗ = µexi + zi∗ σxei (13)
Procedure for calibration of partial safety
factors(contd...)

Determine the value of the remaining random variable (i.e.the

one not found in previous steps) by solving the limit state
function g=0.
Update the relationship between the two unknown mean
values(if applicable).
xi∗ µx + zi∗ σxi
γi = = i = 1 + zi∗ Vxi = 1 + αi βVxi (14)
µxi µxi
xi∗
Therefore, µxi = (15)
1 + αi βVxi
Procedure for calibration of partial safety
factors(contd...)

Repeat steps until {α} converges.

Once convergence is achieved, calculate the design factors.
x∗
γi = i (16)
xei
Example : calibration of partial safety factors
Example : calibration of partial safety factors

Consider the fundamental case

g =R −Q (17)
where R is the resistance and Q is the load.
A possible design equation (in LRFD format) is
γR µR ≥ γQ µQ (18)
The nominal values are assumed to be equal to the mean values
Assume, VR as 10 percent and VQ as 12 percent
To determine the partial safety factors that must be used in
design to achieve the reliability index, βtarget =3.0
Assume that both R and Q are normally distributed and
uncorrelated
Example : calibration of partial safety
factors(contd...)

The limit state function :

g =R −Q (19)
where R is the resistance and Q is the load.
Obtain and initial design point, say r ∗ = q ∗ .
There are two variables, so we have two unknown mean values
Use limit state function at the mean values to relate the two
unknown mean values. This results, µR = µQ
Example : calibration of partial safety
factors(contd...)

Determine the {G} vector:

∂g
G1 = − σR = −σR = −VR µR = −0.1µR = −0.1µQ
∂R (20)
∂g
G2 = − σQ = σQ = VQ µQ = 0.12µQ
∂Q
Note that µR = µQ is used to evaluate G1
Example : calibration of partial safety
factors(contd...)

Calculate α. The correlation matrix [ρ] is the identity matrix. It

means that variables are uncorrelated
[ρ]{G}
{α} = q
{G}T [ρ]{G}
( )
1 −0.1µQ
=q
(−0.1µQ )2 + (0.12µQ )2 0.12µQ
( ) (21)
1 −0.1µQ
=
0.156µQ 0.12µQ
( )
−0.641
=
0.769
Example : calibration of partial safety
factors(contd...)
Determine a new design point for n-1 variables. Calculaute zQ∗ in
this way
zQ∗ = αQ βtarget = 0.769(3.0) = 2.31 (22)
Determine q ∗ using
q ∗ = µQ + zQ∗ σQ = µQ (1 + zQ∗ VQ ) = µQ (1 + 2.31(0.12)) = 1.28µQ
(23)
Determine r ∗ by solving g=0. Thus r ∗ = 1.28µQ .
Before iterating again, get an improved estimate of µR in terms
of µQ for use in calculating {G} and {α}.
r∗ 1.28µQ
µR = = = 1.58µQ (24)
(1 + αR βtarget VR ) 1 − 0.641(3.0)(0.10)
Example : calibration of partial safety
factors(contd...)

The results of subsequent iterations are shown in Table-2

Table 2 : Iteration results
Iteration number
1 2 3
r ∗ (start) µQ 1.28µQ 1.22µQ
q ∗ (start) µQ 1.28µQ 1.22µQ
µR (start) µQ 1.58µQ 1.60µQ
αR -0.641 -0.796 -0.800
αQ 0.769 0.605 0.600
∗
r (end) 1.28µQ 1.22µQ 1.22µQ
q ∗ (end) 1.28µQ 1.22µQ 1.22µQ
µR (end) 1.58µQ 1.60µQ 1.60µQ
Example : calibration of partial safety
factors(contd...)

Assuming the mean values are the nominal design values, the
design factors are
r∗ 1.22µQ
γR = = = 0.763
µR 1.60µQ
(25)
q∗ 1.22µQ
γQ = = = 1.22
µQ µQ
Assume µR = 10. From the design equation, γR µR ≥ γQ µQ , the
minimum required µR to achieve β = 3 would be
γQ µQ (1.22)(10)
µR = = = 16.0 (26)
γR 0.763
Example : calibration of partial safety
factors(contd...)
If the partial safety factors are calibrated correctly, a nominal
resistance of 16 will ensure a target β = 3 is acheieved if the
nominal loading is equal to 10.
For this simple case of a linear limit state function, it can be
checked with the following equation
µR − µQ
β=q (27)
σR2 + σQ2
Substituting all the variables determined into this expression and
noting that σR = VR µR
µR − µQ 16.0 − 10 6.0
β=q =q = = 3.0
2
σR + σQ2
[(0.1)(16.0)]2 + [(0.12)(10)]2 2.00
(28)
Summary
Summary

Basic principles of design codes are discussed.

References

Reliability of structures, A. S. Nowak and K. R. Collins,

McGraw-Hill
Thank you