FMH 1

U.S.
DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE/ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
OFFICE OF THE FEDERAL COORDINATOR FOR

METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES AND SUPPORTING RESEARCH
FEDERAL METEOROLOGICAL HANDBOOK No. 1
Surface Weather
Observations
and Reports
FCM-H1-1995
Washington, D.C.
December 1995
FEDERAL COORDINATOR
FOR
METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES AND
SUPPORTING RESEARCH
8455 COLESVILLE ROAD, SUITE 1500

SILVER SPRING, MARYLAND 20910
FEDERAL METEOROLOGICAL HANDBOOK

NUMBER 1
SURFACE WEATHER OBSERVATIONS AND REPORTS
FCM-H1-1995
Washington, D.C.
December 1995
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose
Federal Meteorological Handbook No.1, Surface Weather Observations and Reports (FMH-1) defines the
observing, reporting, and coding standards for surface based meteorological reports. These standards are
applicable to all Federal agency programs. These standards do not inhibit agencies from doing more than
is specified.
1.2 Applicability of Standards
Standards described in this Handbook are applicable only if a station has the capability to comply. The
phrase "at designated stations" refers to observing stations instructed by their responsible agency to perform
a specified task. These specified tasks shall be performed in accordance with the standards described in this
Handbook.
This Handbook is applicable to stations taking the following types of observations:
a. Automated - automated surface weather observing systems that prepare the meteorological reports
for transmission without a certified weather observer.
b. Augmented - automated surface weather observing systems that prepare the meteorological reports
for transmission with certified weather observers signed-on to the system to add information to the
observation.
c. Manual - certified weather observers are responsible for the meteorological observations.
1.3 Relation to Other Handbooks and Manuals
Individual agencies shall issue their own manuals defining their observing procedures which implement the
FMH-1 standards. Such manuals shall complement, not change, the standards contained in FMH-1. Most
observing standards described in this Handbook also apply to synoptic surface observations which have
coding and reporting procedures described in Federal Meteorological Handbook No.2, Surface Synoptic
Codes (FMH-2). FMH-1 is consistent with agreements and publications of the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO), the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), specifically WMO No. 306 -
Manual on Codes, and ICAO Annex 3 - Meteorological Services for International Air Navigation, and civil
as well as military weather services.
1.4 Format of This Handbook
Chapter 1 presents an introductory overview of surface weather observations.
Chapter 2 discusses the surface weather observation program, types of observations, criteria for specials,
general observing standards, and dissemination.
Chapter 3 presents the certification and quality control standards. It discusses certification of observers and
quality control performed on-site, and at remote locations.
Chapter 4 defines the requirements for maintaining records of surface weather data. It discusses the types
of records, preparation and maintenance of the Station Information File, types of storage, and procedures
for maintaining records of surface weather data.

Chapters 5 through 11 focus on a specific element (e.g., Visibility is an element) and all the associated
parameters (e.g., Prevailing Visibility and Sector Visibility are visibility parameters) of that element that
appear in the weather report. The elements are: Wind (Chapter 5), Visibility (Chapter 6), Runway Visual
Range (Chapter 7), Present Weather (Chapter 8), Sky Condition (Chapter 9), Temperature and Dew Point
(Chapter 10), and Pressure (Chapter 11). Each chapter contains a similar format: a brief overview of the
chapter, a section that describes parameters, and a section that defines further the observing and reporting
standards for the reports. Each chapter also contains a Summary Table that offers an abridged listing of
standards described in the chapter. By design, these summary tables do not contain all of the details found
in the text. Therefore, these tables should only be used as an overview of the standards contained in the
chapter.
Chapter 12 defines the coding procedures for reports in the METAR/SPECI format.
Appendix A is a Glossary.
Appendix B is a list of Abbreviations and Acronyms.
Appendix C lists Sensor Standards.
Appendix D contains Runway Visual Range Tables.
Throughout this Handbook, the following definitions apply:
a. "shall" indicates a standard is mandatory.
b. "should" indicates a standard is recommended.
c. "may" indicates a standard is optional.
d. "will" indicates futurity; it is not a requirement to be applied to standards.
1.5 Changes to The Handbook
Changes, additions, deletions, and corrections will be issued, as necessary. These changes shall be issued
only by the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology (OFCM) after consultation and coordination
with the Working Group for Surface Observations (WG/SO).
1.6 Agency Procedures and Procedural Changes
Agencies shall issue manuals and directives to provide more detailed instructions and training to their
personnel and users (see paragraph 1.3). Copies of these procedures shall be provided to the reference
library (see paragraph 1.7). Agencies may also issue changes to their procedures as follows:
a. Routine procedural changes that are in conformance with FMH-1 may be issued by an agency at any
time without coordination with the WG/SO.
b. Procedural changes not in conformance with FMH-1 shall be coordinated with the WG/SO when time
allows. However, when necessary to meet urgent requirements, procedural changes not in conformance
with FMH-1 may be issued by an agency without coordination with the WG/SO. Copies of changes
shall be forwarded to the WG/SO for coordination and appropriate action.
1.7 Reference Library
The WG/SO shall maintain a record and library of agency procedures, changes, and supplements issued by
all participating agencies. The WG/SO shall establish a procedure for making these procedures, changes,
and supplements available to users.

1.8 Unforeseen Requirements
No set of instructions can cover all possibilities in weather observing. Observers must use their own
judgment, adhering as closely as possible to this Handbook and agency operating procedures, to describe
phenomena not adequately covered by specific instructions. If the observer believes Handbook procedures
require change or clarification, suggested changes should be sent through normal administrative channels
to the headquarters of the appropriate organization.
1.9 Other Questions and Suggestions Regarding FMH-1
Questions or suggestions about the content or organization of this Handbook should be directed to:
Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology
8455 Colesville Road, Suite 1500
Silver Spring, MD 20910
Telephone: Commercial (301) 427-2002
FAX (301) 427-2007
DSN 851-1460

CHAPTER 2
SURFACE WEATHER OBSERVATION PROGRAM
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2.3 Surface Weather Observation Program
The Departments of Commerce (DOC), Defense (DOD), and Transportation (DOT) have established
networks of stations that collectively provide the meteorological data used by the public and private sectors.
As the Nation’s primary civil meteorological agency, the DOC’s National Weather Service (NWS) has the
responsibility for observing, analyzing and forecasting weather conditions. DOD organizational elements
within the U. S. Air Force (Major Commands), Marine Corps, and Navy (Naval Meteorology and
Oceanography Command (NAVMETOCCOM)) take weather observations to support DOD operations
worldwide. In addition to taking observations, the DOT’s Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), as the
agency responsible for safe operation of aircraft and efficient use of the Nation’s airspace system, has the
role of establishing requirements for, and disseminating aviation weather data to airspace users.
In addition to the observations taken by the above Federal agencies, observations are taken by commercial
airline companies, private individuals, and local and state government agencies. These non-Federal
locations are established and operated under the guidance of the NWS, in cooperation with the FAA.
2.4 Aviation Weather Observing Locations
There shall not be more than one official observation for a specific location at any one time. For
meteorological observations, the observing location is defined as the point or points at which the various
elements of the observation are evaluated. At a large airport, the locations may be defined as follows:
a. For clouds, surface visibility, and weather, the observing location may be at the touchdown area of the
primary runway.
b. For tower visibility, the observing location shall be the Airport Traffic Control Tower (ATCT).
c. For temperature, dew point, and wind, the observing location may be the center of the runway complex.
d. For the location, type, and frequency of lightning (see paragraph 12.7.1.j(2)), the observing location
may be the Airport Location Point (ALP) .
Specific details on the siting of observing equipment can be found in the Station Information File (see
paragraph 4.3.1).

Manual and augmented weather observations may also contain information on phenomena occurring at other
than the station. In these cases, the point(s) where the phenomenon occurs is not considered to be an
additional observing location.
2.5 Types of Reports
2.5.1 Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR)
METAR is the primary observation code used in the United States to satisfy requirements for reporting
surface meteorological data. METAR contains a report of wind, visibility, runway visual range, present
weather, sky condition, temperature, dew point, and altimeter setting collectively referred to as "the body
of the report". In addition, coded and/or plain language information which elaborates on data in the body
of the report may be appended to the METAR. This significant information can be found in the section
referred to as "Remarks". The contents of the remarks will vary according to the type of weather station.
At designated stations, the METAR may be abridged to include one or more of the above elements.
2.5.2 Aviation Selected Special Weather Report (SPECI)
SPECI is an unscheduled report taken when any of the criteria given in paragraph 2.5.2.a have been
observed. SPECI shall contain all data elements found in a METAR plus additional plain language
information which elaborates on data in the body of the report. All SPECIs shall be made as soon as
possible after the relevant criteria are observed.
a. Criteria for SPECI
(1) WIND SHIFT. Wind direction changes by 45 degrees or more in less than 15 minutes and the
wind speed is 10 knots or more throughout the wind shift.
(2) VISIBILITY. Surface visibility as reported in the body of the report decreases to less than, or
if below, increases to equal or exceed:
(a) 3 miles.
(b) 2 miles.
(c) 1 mile.
(d) The lowest standard instrument approach procedure minimum as published in the
National Ocean Service (NOS) U.S. Terminal Procedures. If none published, use
1/2 mile.
(3) RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (RVR). The highest value from the designated RVR runway
decreases to less than, or if below, increases to equal or exceed 2,400 feet during the preceding
10 minutes. U.S. military stations may not report a SPECI based on RVR.
(4) TORNADO, FUNNEL CLOUD, OR WATERSPOUT.
(a) is observed.
(b) disappears from sight, or ends.
(5) THUNDERSTORM.
(a) begins (a SPECI is not required to report the beginning of a new thunderstorm if one is
currently reported).
(b) ends.
(GFGTCN/GVGQTQNQIKECN*CPFDQQM0Q &GEGODGT

(6) PRECIPITATION.
(a) hail begins or ends.
(b) freezing precipitation begins, ends, or changes intensity.
(c) ice pellets begin, end, or change intensity.
(7) SQUALLS. When squalls occur.
(8) CEILING. The ceiling (rounded off to reportable values) forms or dissipates below, decreases
to less than, or if below, increases to equal or exceed:
(a) 3,000 feet.
(b) 1,500 feet.
(c) 1,000 feet.
(d) 500 feet.
(e) The lowest standard instrument approach procedure minimum as published in the
National Ocean Service (NOS) U.S. Terminal Procedures. If none published, use
200 feet.
(9) SKY CONDITION. A layer of clouds or obscurations aloft is present below 1,000 feet and no
layer aloft was reported below 1,000 feet in the preceding METAR or SPECI.
(10) VOLCANIC ERUPTION. When an eruption is first noted.
(11) AIRCRAFT MISHAP. Upon notification of an Aircraft Mishap unless there has been an
intervening observation.
(12) MISCELLANEOUS. Any other meteorological situation designated by the responsible
agency, or which, in the opinion of the observer, is critical.
b. The SPECI criteria are only applicable to stations that have the capability of evaluating the event. For
example, visually evaluated elements, such as a tornado, are not applicable to non-staffed automated
stations.
2.6 Observing Standards Applicable to All Stations
2.6.1 Use of Certified Observers. All personnel performing an observation function shall be certified
in accordance with paragraph 3.3.1. Certification may be limited in accordance with observer
responsibilities.
2.6.2 Backup. Backup refers to a method, in accordance with agency procedures, for providing
meteorological reports, parts of reports, documentation, or communication of reports when the primary
method is unavailable.
2.6.3 Rounding Figures. Except where otherwise designated in this Handbook, the rounding of numbers
shall be accomplished as follows: If the fractional part of a positive number to be dropped is equal to or
greater than one-half, the preceding digit shall be increased by one. If the fractional part of a negative
number to be dropped is greater than one-half, the preceding digit shall be decreased by one. In all other
cases, the preceding digit shall remain unchanged. For example, 1.5 becomes 2, -1.5 becomes -1, 1.3
becomes 1, and -2.6 becomes -3.
2.6.4 Time Used in Reports. With the exception of designated stations which shall transmit reports in
accordance with agency instructions, METAR shall be transmitted at fixed intervals with SPECI transmitted
when any of the criteria in paragraph 2.5.2.a occurs or is noted. Each station’s schedule for transmitting
reports shall be included in the Station Information File (see paragraph 4.3.1).

a. Accuracy of Time in Reports. A procedure shall be established to assure that the accuracy of the
timing device used to establish times in the observation program are within ±1 minute of the U.S.
Naval Observatory time.
b. Scheduled Time of Report. The scheduled time of the METAR shall be the Coordinated Universal
Time (UTC) a METAR is required to be available for transmission.
c. Actual Date and Time of Observation. The actual date and time of METAR shall be the time the
last element of the observation was observed. The actual time of a SPECI shall be the time the criteria
for the SPECI was met or noted.
d. Time Disseminated in Observations. All times disseminated in observations shall reference the 24-
hour UTC clock, e.g., 1:47 A.M. shall be referred to as 0147 and 1:47 P.M. as 1347. The times 0000
and 2359 shall indicate the beginning and ending of the day, respectively.
e. Date and Time Entered in Observations. All dates and times entered in observations shall be with
reference to the 24-hour clock. The times that are disseminated as part of the observation shall be
entered in UTC. However, at the discretion of the responsible agency, those times used to otherwise
document the observation or other related observational data may be either Local Standard Time (LST)
or UTC. The time standard selected shall be clearly indicated on all records; if LST is used, the
number of hours used to convert to UTC shall also be indicated.
2.6.5 Sensor Siting Standards. All installations of sensors shall be in accordance with the latest Federal
Standard for Siting Meteorological Sensors at Airports published by the OFCM. Presently installed sensors
may be operated at their present location. However, if they must be relocated, the Federal standards shall
be followed.
2.6.6 Algorithms Used by Automated Stations. Automated stations shall use algorithms that conform
with the latest Federal Standard Algorithms for Automated Weather Observing Systems published by the
OFCM. These algorithms do not apply to previously authorized systems, which may continue to operate
until replaced or modified.
2.7 Recency of Observed Elements
2.7.1 Recency of Observed Elements at Automated Stations. Individual elements entered in an
observation shall, as closely as possible, reflect conditions existing at the actual time of observation. For
those elements that the human observer evaluates using spatial averaging techniques (e.g., sky cover and
visibility), the automated station substitutes time averaging of sensor data. Therefore, in an automated
observation, sky condition shall be an evaluation of sensor data gathered during the 30-minute period ending
at the actual time of the observation. All other elements evaluated shall be based on sensor data that is
within 10 minutes or less of the actual time of the observation.
2.7.2 Recency of Observed Elements at Manual Stations. Individual elements entered in an observation
shall, as closely as possible, reflect conditions existing at the actual time of observation. Elements entered
shall have been observed within 15 minutes of the actual time of the observation. Gusts and squalls shall
be reported if observed within 10 minutes of the actual time of the observation. Observation of elements
shall be made as close to the scheduled time of the observation as possible to meet filing deadlines, but in
no case shall these observations be started more than 15 minutes before the scheduled time.

2.8 Dissemination
For purposes of this Handbook, dissemination is the act of delivering a completed report to users.
2.8.1 Types of Dissemination. There are two general types of dissemination:
a. Local -- The transmission or delivery of a weather report to individual or groups of users in the
service area of the weather station.
b. Long-line -- The transmission of a weather report beyond the service area of the weather station.
2.8.2 Dissemination Requirements. All reports shall be given local dissemination. At designated
stations, reports shall be given long-line dissemination. When reports are corrected, the corrected reports
shall be given the same dissemination as the reports being corrected.
2.8.3 Dissemination Priority. If reports cannot be disseminated simultaneously, local and long-line, they
should be disseminated first to the local airport traffic control users. Further dissemination priorities shall
be defined by the responsible agencies.
2.8.4 Corrections to Transmitted Data. Corrections shall be disseminated, as soon as possible,
whenever an error is detected in a transmitted report. However, if the erroneous data has been superseded
by a later report (with the same or more complete dissemination), it shall not be necessary to transmit the
corrected report. Corrections transmitted shall consist of the entire corrected report. The original date and
time of the report shall be used as the date and time in the corrected report.
2.9 Report Filing Time
SPECIs shall be completed and transmitted, as soon as possible. Agencies shall establish filing deadlines
for all METARs; the filing deadlines shall be no sooner than necessary to assure the availability of the report
at its scheduled time. METARs shall not be transmitted sooner than 10 minutes before their scheduled time.
2.10 Delayed Reports
When transmission of an observation is delayed until time for the next regularly scheduled report, only the
latest report shall be transmitted. In the record of observations, the remark FIBI (Filed But Impractical to
Transmit) shall be appended in parentheses to the report that was not transmitted to indicate the report was
not transmitted. The remark FIBI shall not be included in any local dissemination of the report.
When a SPECI is not transmitted long-line, the later SPECI shall be transmitted long-line only when the
overall change between the last transmitted report and the current report satisfies the criteria for a SPECI.
If the SPECI is not transmitted long-line, the remark FIBI shall be appended to the report in the record of
observations. The SPECI shall be disseminated locally.
Reports of Volcanic Eruption shall be disseminated, by any means possible, regardless of the delay.

CHAPTER 3
CERTIFICATION AND QUALITY CONTROL
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D 2QUV&KUUGOKPCVKQP3WCNKV[%QPVTQN#NNUWTHCEGYGCVJGTTGRQTVUUJCNNDGEJGEMGFCVVJGUKVGHQT
GTTQTUCHVGTFKUUGOKPCVKQPCPFRTKQTVQVJGPGZVYGCVJGTTGRQTV+HRQUUKDNGVJGFKUUGOKPCVGFTGRQTV
UJCNN DGEQORCTGFYKVJVJGQTKIKPCNTGRQTVVQXGTKH[VJCVPQGTTQTUYGTGIGPGTCVGFFWTKPIVJG
FKUUGOKPCVKQPRTQEGUU
3WCNKV[%QPVTQN2GTHQTOGFCV%GPVTCN.QECVKQPU

+PUQHCTCURQUUKDNGCNNCIGPEKGUUJQWNFKORNGOGPVSWCNKV[EQPVTQNEJGEMKPICVCEGPVTCNNQECVKQPQPC
VKOGN[DCUKU#IGPEKGUUJCNNFGXKUGCOGVJQFVQRTQXKFGHGGFDCEMVQVJGQDUGTXGTKPVJGECUGQHGTTQTU
FGVGEVGFKPOCPWCNYGCVJGTTGRQTVU

%WUVQOGT(GGFDCEM

#IGPEKGUUJCNNGPEQWTCIGEWUVQOGTUVQEQOOGPVQPVJGRGTHQTOCPEGQHVJGKTQDUGTXKPIRTQITCOU+PVJKU
EQPVGZVEWUVQOGTUCTGCP[QPGWVKNK\KPIVJGFCVCHTQOVJGRTQITCOU

+VKUTGEQOOGPFGFVJCVCNNRWDNKEKUUWCPEGUQHKPHQTOCVKQPQPVJGQDUGTXKPIU[UVGOUKPENWFGCPCFFTGUU
QHVJGQHHKEGFGUKIPCVGFVQRTQEGUUEWUVQOGTHGGFDCEM

CHAPTER 4
OBSERVATIONAL RECORDS
)GPGTCN

#NN OGVGQTQNQIKECN FCVC EQNNGEVGF CU RCTV QH VJG UWTHCEG YGCVJGT QDUGTXCVKQP RTQITCO CTG XCNWCDNG
KPHQTOCVKQP%QPUGSWGPVN[VJGUGFCVCTGSWKTGTGVGPVKQPUVQTCIGCPFCTEJKXCN

5EQRG

6JKU EJCRVGT RTGUETKDGU VJG OKPKOWO UVCPFCTFU HQT OCKPVCKPKPI C TGEQTF QH VJG QRGTCVKQPCN UVCVWU QH
YGCVJGTTGRQTVKPIUVCVKQPUCPFOCKPVCKPKPITGEQTFUQHUWTHCEGYGCVJGTTGRQTVU$GECWUGQHVJGNCUVKPI
XCNWGQHCNNVJGFCVCEQNNGEVGFKPVJGUWTHCEGYGCVJGTTGRQTVKPIRTQITCOCIGPEKGUCTGGPEQWTCIGFVQFGXKUG
OGVJQFUVQUVQTGCUOWEJQHVJGFCVCCURQUUKDNGYKVJKPVJGKTRJ[UKECNCPFHKPCPEKCNEQPUVTCKPVU$GECWUG
QHVJGIGPGTCNN[EQOOQPKPVGTGUVKPJKUVQTKECNCPFCTEJKXGFFCVCCIGPEKGUUJCNNRTQXKFGTGEQTFUVQVJG
0CVKQPCN%NKOCVKE&CVC%GPVGT
0%&%

6[RGUQH4GEQTFU

5VCVKQP+PHQTOCVKQP(KNG'CEJCIGPE[UJCNNGUVCDNKUJC5VCVKQP+PHQTOCVKQP(KNGHQTGCEJUVCVKQP
WPFGTVJGKTLWTKUFKEVKQP6JGHKNGUJCNNDGCTGEQTFQHEJCTCEVGTKUVKEUQHGCEJUVCVKQP6CDNGRTGUGPVU
CNKUVQHFCVCTGSWKTGFHTQOOQUVUVCVKQPU%QRKGUQHCNN5VCVKQP+PHQTOCVKQP(KNGUUJCNNDGCXCKNCDNGWRQP
TGSWGUVHTQOVJGTGURQPUKDNGCIGPE[YJGPPGGFGFVQKPVGTRTGVYGCVJGTTGEQTFUHTQOCRCTVKEWNCTUVCVKQP

Table 4-1. Content of Station Information File
Physical Characteristics
5VCVKQP0COG .CVKVWFG.QPIKVWFG 6[RGQH5VCVKQP
#KTRQTV0COG %NKOCVQNQIKECN'NGXCVKQP &GUETKRVKQPQH
5VCVKQP+FGPVKHKGT (KGNF'NGXCVKQP 5KIPKHKECPV
9/1+PFGZ0WODGT )TQWPF'NGXCVKQP 6QRQITCRJ[
6KOG<QPG 5VCVKQP'NGXCVKQP
Observation Schedule
6[RGUQH 5EJGFWNGHQT *QWTUQH1RGTCVKQP
4GRQTVU 4GRQTVU
Observation Program
'NGOGPVU1DUGTXGF 52'%+
.QPI.KPG%QOOWPK 6TCPUOKVVGF
;0
ECVKQPU%KTEWKVU
Sensor Data
5[UVGO%QPHKIWTCVKQP .QECVKQPQH5GPUQTU 0QPUVCPFCTFUGPUQT
6[RGUQH5GPUQTU UKVKPI

C /CKPVGPCPEGQH5VCVKQP+PHQTOCVKQP(KNG6JG5VCVKQP+PHQTOCVKQP(KNGUJQWNFDGETGCVGFQPQT
DGHQTGVJGFCVGQHUVCVKQPGUVCDNKUJOGPVVQGPUWTGVJGVKOGN[PQVKHKECVKQPQHVJGUVCVKQP UGZKUVGPEG
6JGHKNGUJCNNDGWRFCVGFYJGPCP[FCVCKP6CDNGQTKPVJGHKNGEJCPIGUQTVJGUVCVKQPENQUGU
PQVKPIVJGFCVGYJGPGCEJEJCPIGKUKORNGOGPVGF%QTTGEVKQPUVQGTTQPGQWUUVCVKQPKPHQTOCVKQP
UJCNNDGPQVGFCUUWEJCNQPIYKVJVJGJKUVQTKECNGZVGPVQHVJGGTTQT#IGPEKGUUJCNNGUVCDNKUJ
RTQEGFWTGUVQGPUWTGVJGXCNKFKV[QHVJGKTUVCVKQPU 5VCVKQP+PHQTOCVKQP(KNGU+VKUTGEQOOGPFGF
VJCVVJGEQPVGPVQHVJGOQUVTGEGPVHKNGDGTGXKGYGFCURCTVQHGCEJUVCVKQPKPURGEVKQP

D 5VCVKQP+PHQTOCVKQP(KNGCV0%&%#EQR[QHVJG5VCVKQP+PHQTOCVKQP(KNGHQTGCEJQDUGTXKPI
NQECVKQPUJCNNDGUGPVVQVJGCIGPE[ITQWRTGRTGUGPVCVKXGU
01##750CX[CPF75#KT
(QTEGCVVJG(GFGTCN%NKOCVG%QORNGZ#UJGXKNNG0QTVJ%CTQNKPCCPFOCFGCXCKNCDNGVQVJG
&1%01##0%&%#EQR[QHVJGHKNGUJCNNDGUGPVYJGPCUVCVKQPKUGUVCDNKUJGFYJGPCP[FCVC
NKUVGFKP6CDNGQTKPVJGHKNGEJCPIGUQTKUEQTTGEVGFCPFYJGPCUVCVKQPENQUGU6JKUHKNGUJCNN
DGEQOGCRCTVQHVJCVUVCVKQP UCTEJKXGFTGEQTF

4GVGPVKQPQH5VCVKQP1DUGTXCVKQPCN4GEQTFU5VCVKQPQDUGTXCVKQPCNTGEQTFUKPENWFGTGIWNCTN[
QDUGTXGFOGVGQTQNQIKECNFCVCHTQOOCPWCNUVCVKQPUCPFCWVQOCVGFU[UVGOU'CEJCIGPE[UJCNNFGHKPG
RTQEGFWTGUHQTTGVCKPKPICNNQDUGTXCVKQPCNTGEQTFUKPCEEQTFCPEGYKVJCIGPE[FCVCTGVGPVKQPCPFCTEJKXCN
UEJGFWNGUWPFGTIGPGTCN/'6#452'%+IWKFGNKPGU

C 5JQTVVGTO5VQTCIG5VQTCIGQHQDUGTXCVKQPCNTGEQTFUHQTQTOQTGFC[UKUTGSWKTGFVQCUUKUVKP
UGPUQTU[UVGOOCKPVGPCPEGCPFXGTKHKECVKQPQHUGPUQTU[UVGOTGEQTFUKPVJGGXGPVQHCPCKTETCHV
OKUJCR

D .QPIVGTO4GVGPVKQP'CEJCIGPE[UJCNNGUVCDNKUJRTQEGFWTGUVQRTQXKFGNQPIVGTOTGVGPVKQPQH
CNN QDUGTXCVKQPCN TGEQTFU HQT [GCTU VQ UCVKUH[ TGSWKTGOGPVU HQT NQECN UVWFKGU CPF VQ UWRRQTV
NKVKICVKQP

E #TEJKXG 6JG &1%01##0%&% KU TGURQPUKDNG HQT CTEJKXKPI QDUGTXCVKQPCN TGEQTFU CU
PGEGUUCT[ VQ UCVKUH[ TGSWKTGOGPVU VQ OQPKVQT VJG 0CVKQP U ENKOCVG #IGPEKGU UJCNN KPENWFG
RTQEGFWTGUVQGPUWTGVJGFGNKXGT[QHQDUGTXCVKQPCNTGEQTFUVQVJGCIGPE[ITQWRTGRTGUGPVCVKXGU

01##750CX[CPF75#KT(QTEGCVVJG(GFGTCN%NKOCVG%QORNGZ

5VCVKQP5[UVGO5GPUQT%QPHKIWTCVKQP4GEQTFU'CEJCIGPE[UJCNNOCKPVCKPKPHQTOCVKQPCDQWV
EJCPIGU KP VJG EQPHKIWTCVKQP QH GCEJ UVCVKQP U U[UVGOUUGPUQTU CPF KP VJGKT QRGTCVKQPCN UVCVWU 6JKU
KPHQTOCVKQPOC[DGEQNNGEVGFCURCTVQHVJG5VCVKQP+PHQTOCVKQP(KNGQTVJG5VCVKQP1DUGTXCVKQPCN4GEQTFU
CPFCUUWEJOCKPVCKPGFTGVCKPGFCPFCTEJKXGFCUQWVNKPGFKPVJGRTGEGFKPI5GEVKQPU

CHAPTER 5
WIND
5.1 General
Wind shall be measured in terms of velocity, a vector that includes direction and speed.
5.2 Scope
This chapter prescribes the standards for observing and reporting wind data.
5.3 Wind Parameters
As used in this chapter, wind is the horizontal motion of the air past a given point and includes:
a. Direction. The direction, in tens of degrees, from which the wind is blowing.
b. Speed. The rate, in knots, at which the wind passes a given point.
c. Gusts. The description of the variability of the wind speed.
d. Peak wind speed. The maximum instantaneous wind speed measured.
e. Wind Shift. A change in wind direction.
5.4 Wind Observing Standards
Wind direction, speed, and gusts shall be determined at all stations. All other wind related parameters shall
be determined at designated stations.
5.4.1 Wind Direction. The wind direction shall be determined by averaging the direction over a 2-minute
period. When the wind direction sensor(s) is out of service, at designated stations, the direction may be
estimated by observing the wind cone or tee, movement of twigs, leaves, smoke, etc., or by facing into the
wind in an unsheltered area.
5.4.2 Variable Wind Direction. The wind direction may be considered variable if, during the 2-minute
evaluation period, the wind speed is 6 knots or less. Also, the wind direction shall be considered variable
if, during the 2-minute evaluation period, it varies by 60 degrees or more when the average wind speed is
greater than 6 knots.
5.4.3 Wind Speed. The wind speed shall be determined by averaging the speed over a 2-minute period.
At designated stations, Table 5-1 shall be used to estimate wind speeds when instruments are out of service
or the wind speed is below the starting speed of the anemometer in use.
5.4.4 Wind Gust. The wind speed data for the most recent 10 minutes shall be examined to evaluate the
occurrence of gusts. Gusts are indicated by rapid fluctuations in wind speed with a variation of 10 knots or
more between peaks and lulls. The speed of a gust shall be the maximum instantaneous wind speed.
5.4.5 Peak Wind Speed. Peak wind data shall be determined with wind speed recorders. The peak wind
speed shall be the maximum instantaneous speed measured since the last routine METAR.

Table 5-1. Estimating Wind Speed
Knots Specification Knots Specification

Large branches in motion; whistling
<1 Calm; smoke rises vertically. 22-27 heard in overhead wires; umbrellas
used with difficulty.
Whole trees in motion;
Direction of wind shown by smoke
1-3 28-33 inconvenience felt walking against
drift not by wind vanes.
wind.
Wind felt on face; leaves rustle; Breaks twigs off trees; impedes
4-6 34-40
vanes moved by wind. progress.
Leaves and small twigs in constant
7-10 41-47 Slight structural damage occurs.
motion; wind extends light flag.
Raises dust, loose paper; small Trees uprooted; considerable damage
11-16 48-55
branches moved. occurs.
Small trees in leaf begin to sway;
17-21 crested wavelets form on inland 56-71 Widespread damage.
waters.
5.4.6 Wind Shifts. Wind data shall be examined to determine the occurrence of a wind shift. A wind shift
is indicated by a change in wind direction of 45 degrees or more in less than 15 minutes with sustained
winds of 10 knots or more throughout the wind shift.
5.4.7 Wind Sensor Range, Accuracy, and Resolution. The required range, accuracy, and resolution for
wind sensors are listed in Appendix C.
5.5 Wind Reporting Standards
5.5.1 Units of Measure and Resolution for Wind. Wind direction and speed shall be reported in the
body of all observations. Direction shall be reported in tens of degrees with reference to true north and speed
shall be reported in knots (see paragraph 12.6.5).
5.5.2 Calm Winds. When no motion of air is detected, the wind shall be reported as calm (see paragraph
12.6.5.d).
5.5.3 Variable Wind Direction. When the wind direction is variable, a variable wind entry shall be
reported as part of the wind group in the body of the report (see paragraphs 12.6.5.b and 12.6.5.c).
5.5.4 Wind Gust. When a gust is detected within 10 minutes of the actual time of the observation, the
maximum instantaneous speed shall be reported (see paragraph 12.6.5.a).
5.5.5 Peak Wind Data. The peak wind shall be reported in the remarks section whenever the maximum
instantaneous speed in knots (since the last METAR) is greater than 25 knots (see paragraph 12.7.1.d).
5.5.6 Wind Shifts. The wind shift and the time of occurrence shall be reported in the remarks section (see
paragraph 12.7.1.e).

5.6 Summary of Wind Observing and Reporting Standards
Table 5-2 summarizes the wind observing and reporting standards.
Table 5-2. Summary of Wind Observing and Reporting Standards
Parameter Observing and Reporting Standard

2-minute average in 10 degree increments with respect to true north is
Wind direction
reported.
Wind speed 2-minute average speed in knots is reported.
The maximum instantaneous speed in knots in the past 10 minutes is
Wind gust
reported.
The maximum instantaneous speed in knots (since the last scheduled
Peak wind
report) shall be reported whenever the speed is greater than 25 knots.
Wind shifts Wind shift and the time the shift occurred is reported.

CHAPTER 6
VISIBILITY
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Table 6-1. Reportable Visibility Values
Source of Visibility Report
Automated Manual
a 5/8
M1/4 2 9 0 1 5/8 4 12
1/4 2 1/2 10 1/16 3/4 1 3/4 5 13
1/2 3 1/8 7/8 1 7/8 6 14
3/4 4 3/16 1 2 7 15
1 5 1/4 1 1/8 2 1/4 8 20
a 5/16
1 1/4 6 1 1/4 2 1/2 9 25
1 1/2 7 3/8 1 3/8 2 3/4 10 30
1 3/4 8a 1/2 1 1/2 3 11 35b
a. These values may not be reported by some automated stations.
b. Further values in increments of 5 statute miles may be reported, i.e., 40,
45, 50, etc.
6.6 Summary of Visibility Observing and Reporting Standards

Table 6-2 summarizes the applicability of visibility standards.
Table 6-2. Summary of Visibility Observing and Reporting Standards and

Procedures
Type of Station
Visibility
Automated Manual
Represents 10-minutes of sensor Visual evaluation of
Surface
outputs. visibility around the horizon.
Reported when the prevailing visibility varies by 1/2 mile or more and the
Variable
visibility is less than 3 miles.
Reported at stations with an
Tower Augmented.
ATCT.
Sector Not reported. Reported at all stations.

CHAPTER 7
RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE

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CHAPTER 8
PRESENT WEATHER
8.1 General
Present weather includes precipitation, obscurations, well-developed dust/sand whirls, squalls, tornadic
activity, sandstorms, and duststorms. Present weather may be evaluated instrumentally, manually, or
through a combination of instrumental and manual methods.
8.2 Scope
This chapter prescribes the standards for observing and reporting present weather. The types of present
weather reported vary according to the type of station defined by the responsible agency.
8.3 Present Weather Parameters
8.3.1 Precipitation. Precipitation is any of the forms of water particles, whether liquid or solid, that fall
from the atmosphere and reach the ground. The types of precipitation are:
a. Drizzle. Fairly uniform precipitation composed exclusively of fine drops with diameters of less than
0.02 inch (0.5 mm) very close together. Drizzle appears to float while following air currents,
although unlike fog droplets, it falls to the ground.
b. Rain. Precipitation, either in the form of drops larger than 0.02 inch (0.5 mm), or smaller drops
which, in contrast to drizzle, are widely separated.
c. Snow. Precipitation of snow crystals, mostly branched in the form of six-pointed stars.
d. Snow Grains. Precipitation of very small, white, and opaque grains of ice.
e. Ice Crystals (Diamond Dust). A fall of unbranched (snow crystals are branched) ice crystals in the
form of needles, columns, or plates.
f. Ice Pellets. Precipitation of transparent or translucent pellets of ice, which are round or irregular,
rarely conical, and which have a diameter of 0.2 inch (5 mm), or less. There are two main types:
(1) Hard grains of ice consisting of frozen raindrops, or largely melted and refrozen snowflakes.
(2) Pellets of snow encased in a thin layer of ice which have formed from the freezing, either of
droplets intercepted by the pellets, or of water resulting from the partial melting of the pellets.
g. Hail. Precipitation in the form of small balls or other pieces of ice falling separately or frozen together
in irregular lumps.
h. Small Hail and/or Snow Pellets. Precipitation of white, opaque grains of ice. The grains are round
or sometimes conical. Diameters range from about 0.08 to 0.2 inch (2 to 5 mm).
i. Unknown Precipitation. Precipitation type that is reported if the automated station detects the
occurrence of precipitation but the precipitation discriminator cannot recognize the type.
8.3.2 Obscurations. Any phenomenon in the atmosphere, other than precipitation, that reduces the
horizontal visibility.
a. Mist. A visible aggregate of minute water particles suspended in the atmosphere that reduces
visibility to less than 7 statute miles but greater than or equal to 5/8 statute miles.
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b. Fog. A visible aggregate of minute water particles (droplets) which are based at the Earth’s surface
and reduces horizontal visibility to less than 5/8 statute mile and, unlike drizzle, it does not fall to the
ground.
c. Smoke. A suspension in the air of small particles produced by combustion. A transition to haze may
occur when smoke particles have traveled great distances (25 to 100 miles or more) and when the
larger particles have settled out and the remaining particles have become widely scattered through the
atmosphere.
d. Volcanic Ash. Fine particles of rock powder that originate from a volcano and that may remain
suspended in the atmosphere for long periods.
e. Widespread Dust. Fine particles of earth or other matter raised or suspended in the air by the wind
that may have occurred at or far away from the station which may restrict horizontal visibility.
f. Sand. Sand particles raised by the wind to a height sufficient to reduce horizontal visibility.
g. Haze. A suspension in the air of extremely small, dry particles invisible to the naked eye and
sufficiently numerous to give the air an opalescent appearance.
h. Spray. An ensemble of water droplets torn by the wind from the surface of an extensive body of
water, generally from the crests of waves, and carried up a short distance into the air.
8.3.3 Other Weather Phenomena
a. Well-developed Dust/Sand Whirl. An ensemble of particles of dust or sand, sometimes
accompanied by small litter, raised from the ground in the form of a whirling column of varying
height with a small diameter and an approximately vertical axis.
b. Squall. A strong wind characterized by a sudden onset in which the wind speed increases at least
16 knots and is sustained at 22 knots or more for at least one minute (see paragraph 12.6.8.e.(1)).
c. Funnel Cloud (Tornadic Activity)
(1) Tornado. A violent, rotating column of air touching the ground.
(2) Funnel Cloud. A violent, rotating column of air which does not touch the surface.
(3) Waterspout. A violent, rotating column of air that forms over a body of water, and touches
the water surface.
d. Sandstorm. Particles of sand carried aloft by a strong wind. The sand particles are mostly confined
to the lowest ten feet, and rarely rise more than fifty feet above the ground.
e. Duststorm. A severe weather condition characterized by strong winds and dust-filled air over an
extensive area.
8.4 Present Weather Observing Standards
8.4.1 Qualifiers. Present weather qualifiers fall into two categories: intensity or proximity and
descriptors. Qualifiers may be used in various combinations to describe weather phenomena.
a. Intensity/Proximity. The intensity qualifiers are: light, moderate, and heavy. The proximity
qualifier is vicinity.

(1) Intensity of Precipitation. When more than one form of precipitation is occurring at a time or
precipitation is occurring with an obscuration, the intensities determined shall be no greater than
that which would be determined if any forms were occurring alone.
The intensity of precipitation shall be identified as light, moderate, or heavy in accordance with
one of the following:
(a) Intensity of Rain or Ice Pellets. The intensity of rain and ice pellets shall be based on the
criteria given in Table 8-1, Table 8-2, and Table 8-3.
Table 8-1. Intensity of Rain or Ice Pellets Based on Rate-of-Fall

Intensity Criteria
Light Up to 0.10 inch per hour; maximum 0.01 inch in 6 minutes.

Moderate 0.11 inch to 0.30 inch per hour; more than 0.01 inch to 0.03 inch in 6 minutes.
Heavy More than 0.30 inch per hour; more than 0.03 inch in 6 minutes.
Table 8-2. Estimating Intensity of Rain

Intensity Criteria
From scattered drops that, regardless of duration, do not completely wet an exposed
Light
surface up to a condition where individual drops are easily seen.
Individual drops are not clearly identifiable; spray is observable just above pavements
Moderate
and other hard surfaces.
Rain seemingly falls in sheets; individual drops are not identifiable; heavy spray to
Heavy
height of several inches is observed over hard surfaces.
Table 8-3. Estimating Intensity of Ice Pellets

Intensity Criteria
Scattered pellets that do not completely cover an exposed surface regardless of duration.
Light
Visibility is not affected.
Slow accumulation on ground. Visibility reduced by ice pellets to less than 7 statute
Moderate
miles.
Rapid accumulation on ground. Visibility reduced by ice pellets to less than 3 statute
Heavy
miles.
(b) Intensity of Snow and Drizzle. The intensity of snow and drizzle shall be based on the
reported surface visibility in accordance with Table 8-4 when occurring alone.
Table 8-4. Intensity of Snow or Drizzle Based on Visibility

Intensity Criteria
Light Visibility > 1/2 mile.

Moderate Visibility > 1/4 mile but # 1/2 mile.
Heavy Visibility # 1/4 mile.

(2) Proximity. Unless otherwise directed elsewhere in this Handbook, weather phenomena
occurring beyond the point of observation (between 5 and 10 statute miles) shall be reported as
(in the) vicinity.
b. Descriptors. Descriptors are qualifiers which further amplify weather phenomena and are used with
certain types of precipitation and obscurations. The descriptor qualifiers are: shallow, partial, patches,
low drifting, blowing, shower(s), thunderstorm, and freezing.
(1) Shallow. The descriptor shallow shall only be used to further describe fog that has little vertical
extent (less than 6 feet).
(2) Partial and Patches. The descriptors partial and patches shall only be used to further describe
fog that has little vertical extent (normally greater than or equal to 6 feet but less than 20 feet),
and reduces horizontal visibility, but to a lesser extent vertically. The stars may often be seen
by night and the sun by day.
(3) Low Drifting. When dust, sand, or snow is raised by the wind to less than 6 feet, "low drifting"
shall be used to further describe the weather phenomenon.
(4) Blowing. When dust, sand, snow, and/or spray is raised by the wind to a height of 6 feet or
more, "blowing" shall be used to further describe the weather phenomenon.
(5) Shower(s). Precipitation characterized by the suddenness with which they start and stop, by the
rapid changes of intensity, and usually by rapid changes in the appearance of the sky.
(6) Thunderstorm. A local storm produced by a cumulonimbus cloud that is accompanied by
lightning and/or thunder.
(7) Freezing. When fog is occurring and the temperature is below 0EC, "freezing" shall be used
to further describe the phenomena. When drizzle and/or rain freezes upon impact and forms a
glaze on the ground or other exposed objects, "freezing" shall be used to further describe the
precipitation.
8.4.2 Weather Phenomena. Weather phenomena fall into three categories: precipitation, obscurations,
and other phenomena. The three categories of weather phenomena shall be combined with the qualifiers
listed in the preceding paragraphs, to identify present weather that is occurring.
8.5 Present Weather Reporting Standards
Present weather is reported when it is occurring at, or in the vicinity of, the station and at the time of
observation. Unless directed elsewhere in the Handbook, the location of weather phenomena shall be
reported as:
ó "occurring at the station" when within 5 statute miles of the point(s) of observation.
ó "in the vicinity of the station" when between 5 and 10 statute miles of the point(s) of observation.
ó "distant from the station" when beyond 10 statute miles of the point(s) of observation.
With the exception of volcanic ash, low drifting dust, low drifting sand, low drifting snow, shallow fog,
partial fog, and patches (of) fog, obscurations are reported only when the prevailing visibility is less than
7 statute miles or considered operationally significant. Volcanic ash shall always be reported when
observed.

When more than one type of present weather are reported at the same time, present weather shall be reported
in the following order:
ó Tornadic activity--Tornado, Funnel Cloud, or Waterspout.
ó Thunderstorm(s) with or without associated precipitation.
ó Present weather in order of decreasing dominance, i.e., the most dominant type is reported first.
ó Left-to-right in Table 8-5 (Columns 1 through 5).
The reporting notations given in Table 8-5 shall be used to report present weather. (For definitions of
present weather, refer to Appendix A - Glossary).
8.5.1 Precipitation. Precipitation shall be reported when occurring at the point of observation.
Precipitation not occurring at the point of observation but within 10 statute miles shall be reported as
showers in the vicinity.
a. Liquid Precipitation
(1) Drizzle. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.c(1), and 12.7.1.k).
(2) Rain. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.c(1), and 12.7.1.k).
(3) Rainshower(s). (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.b(3), 12.6.8.c(1), and 12.7.1.k).
b. Freezing Precipitation
(1) Freezing Rain. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.b(5), 12.6.8.c(1), 12.7.1.k).
(2) Freezing Drizzle. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.b(5), 12.6.8.c(1), and 12.7.1.k).
c. Solid Precipitation
(1) Snow. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.c(1), 12.7.1.k).
(2) Snowshower(s). (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.b(3), 12.6.8.c(1), and 12.7.1.k).
(3) Blowing Snow. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.b(2), and 12.6.8.c(1)).
(4) Low Drifting Snow. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.b(2), and 12.6.8.c(1)).
(5) Snow Grains. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.c(1), 12.7.1.k).
(6) Ice Crystals. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.a(1), 12.6.8.c(1), and 12.7.1.k).
(7) Ice Pellets. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.c(1) and 12.7.1.k).
Ice Pellet shower(s). (see paragraphs 12.6.8.b(3), 12.6.8.c(1), and 12.7.1.k).
(8) Hail. Hail shall be reported, at designated stations. (see paragraph 12.7.1.k and 12.7.1.n).
Hail shower(s). (see paragraphs 12.6.8.b(3), 12.6.8.c(1), 12.7.1.k, and 12.7.1.n).
(9) Small Hail and/or Snow Pellets. (see paragraphs 12.6.8.c(1)).
Small Hail and/or Snow Pellets Shower(s). (see paragraphs 12.6.8.b(3), 12.6.8.c(1), and
12.7.1.n).
d. Unknown Precipitation. Unknown precipitation shall only be reported by automated stations to
indicate precipitation of unknown type when the automated system cannot identify the precipitation
with any greater precision (see paragraph 12.6.8.c(2)).

Table 8-5. Notations for Reporting Present Weather1
QUALIFIER WEATHER PHENOMENA
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8.6 Summary of Weather. Table 8-6 contains a summary of the present weather observing and reporting
standards according to the type of station.
Table 8-6. Summary of Present Weather Observing and Reporting Standards
Type of Station
Present Weather
Automated Manual
Report FC, or +FC, and in remarks
TORNADO, FUNNEL CLOUD,
Funnel Cloud
Augmented at designated stations. WATERSPOUT, time of beginning and
(Tornadic Activity)
time of ending, source, location, and
direction of movement.
Report TS, time of beginning/ending,
Thunderstorms Augmented at designated stations.
location, and movement.
Report GR, time of beginning and time
Hail Augmented at designated stations of ending, estimated size of largest hail-
stone in inches preceded by "GR".
Small hail and/or snow Report GS, time of beginning and time
Augmented at designated stations.
pellets of ending.
Report BR, FG, PRFG, FU, DU, HZ,
BR, FG and HZ may be reported. SA, BLSN, BLSA, BLDU, SS, DS,
Obscurations BLPY, and VA.
Reports non-uniform weather and obsc-
N/A
urations.
Report RA, SHRA, DZ, FZRA, FZDZ,
DZ, RA, SN, and UP may be reported. SN, SHSN, SG, GS, IC, GR, PL, and
SHPL.
May be reported as FZ. Reports descriptor with precipitation.
May report the intensity of precipitation Reports the intensity of precipitation,
as light, moderate, or heavy. other than IC, GR, and GS as light,
moderate, or heavy.
Precipitation
May report hourly accumulation of liq- May report hourly accumulation of liq-
uid precipitation. uid precipitation.
May report 3-, 6-, and 24-hour May report 3-, 6-, and 24-hour
accumulation of precipitation (water accumulation of precipitation (water
equivalent of solid). equivalent of solid).
May report depth and accumulation of
N/A
solid precipitation.
N/A Reports size of GR.
Squall Report SQ. Report SQ.

CHAPTER 9
SKY CONDITION
9.1 General
Sky condition is a description of the appearance of the sky. Sky condition may be evaluated either
automatically by instrument or manually with or without instruments.
9.2 Scope
This chapter prescribes the standards for observing and reporting sky condition.
9.3 Sky Condition Parameters
Sky condition parameters are:
a. Sky cover. The amount of the celestial dome hidden by clouds and/or obscurations.
b. Summation layer amount. A categorization of the amount of sky cover at and below each reported
layer.
c. Layer height. The height of the bases of each reported layer of clouds and/or obscurations; or the
vertical visibility into an indefinite ceiling.
d. Ceiling. The lowest layer aloft reported as broken or overcast; or the vertical visibility into an
indefinite ceiling.
e. Type of clouds. The variety of clouds present.
9.4 Sky Condition Standards
9.4.1 Sky Condition Observing Standards. Sky condition shall be evaluated at all stations with this
capability. Automated stations shall have the capability to evaluate sky condition from the surface to at least
12,000 feet. Observers at manual stations shall evaluate all clouds and obscurations visible; the 12,000 foot
restriction shall not apply.
a. Layer Opacity. All cloud layers and obscurations shall be considered as opaque.
b. Surface. The surface shall be the assigned field elevation of the station. At stations where the field
elevation has not been established, the surface shall be the ground elevation at the observation site.
c. Sky Cover. Sky cover shall include any clouds or obscurations detected from the observing location.
d. Stratification of Sky Cover. Sky cover shall be separated into layers with each layer containing
clouds and/or obscurations (i.e., smoke, haze, fog, etc.) with bases at about the same height.
e. Evaluation of Interconnected Layers. Clouds formed by the horizontal extension of swelling
cumulus or cumulonimbus, that are attached to a parent cloud, shall be regarded as a separate layer
only if their bases appear horizontal and at a different level from the parent cloud. Otherwise, the
entire cloud system shall be regarded as a single layer at a height corresponding to the base of the
parent cloud.

f. Sky Condition Range, Accuracy, and Resolution. The required range, accuracy, and resolution
for sky condition is listed in Appendix C.
9.4.2 Sky Cover
a. Clear Skies. When no clouds or obscurations are observed or detected from the point of observation.
b. Layer Amounts. The amount of sky cover for each layer shall be the eighths (or oktas) of sky cover
attributable to clouds or obscurations (i.e., smoke, haze, fog, etc.) in the layer being evaluated.
c. Summation Layer Amount. The sky cover summation amount for any given layer is the sum of the
sky cover for the layer being evaluated plus the sky cover of all lower layers including obscurations.
Portions of layers aloft detected through lower layers aloft shall not increase the summation amount
of the higher layer. No layer can have a summation amount greater than 8/8ths.
d. Variable Amounts of Sky Cover. The sky cover shall be considered variable if it varies by one or
more reportable values (FEW, SCT, BKN, or OVC) during the period it is being evaluated.
9.4.3 Obscuration. The portion of sky (including higher clouds, the moon, or stars) hidden by weather
phenomena either surface-based or aloft.
9.4.4 Vertical Visibility. Vertical visibility shall be either:
a. The distance that an observer can see vertically into an indefinite ceiling;
b. The height corresponding to the top of a ceiling light projector beam;
c. The height at which a ceiling balloon completely disappears during the presence of an indefinite
ceiling; or
d. The height determined by the sensor algorithm at automated stations.
9.4.5 Ceiling. The ceiling shall be the lowest layer aloft reported as broken or overcast. If the sky is
totally obscured, the vertical visibility shall be the ceiling.
9.4.6 Significant Clouds and Cloud Types. Cloud types shall be identified in accordance with the WMO
International Cloud Atlas-Volumes I and II, the WMO Abridged International Cloud Atlas, or agency
observing aids for cloud identification. Cumulonimbus, including cumulonimbus mammatus, towering
cumulus, altocumulus castellanus, standing lenticular, or rotor clouds are significant clouds.
9.4.7 Height of Sky Cover. A ceilometer, if available, or ceiling light, or known heights of unobscured
portions of abrupt, isolated objects within 1 1/2 statute miles of a runway shall be used to measure the height
of layers aloft. Otherwise, an alternative method shall be used to estimate the heights. The height may be
estimated by using a ceiling balloon, pilot report, other agency guidelines, or observer experience.
a. Indefinite Ceiling Height (Vertical Visibility). The height into an indefinite ceiling shall be the
vertical visibility measured in hundreds of feet.
b. Height of Layers. The height of a layer shall be the height of the cloud bases or obscurations for the
layer being evaluated. Layers of clouds that are 50 feet or less above the surface shall be observed
as layers with a height of zero. When the height of a ceiling layer increases and decreases rapidly by
the amounts given in Table 9-2, during the period of evaluation, it shall be considered variable and
the ascribed height shall be the average of all the varying values. At mountain stations, clouds below
the level of the station may be observed.

Table 9-1. Criteria for Variable Ceiling
Ceiling (feet) Variation (feet)
# 1,000 $200
>1,000 and #2,000 $400
>2,000 and <3,000 $500
9.5 Sky Cover Reporting Standards

9.5.1 Frequency for Sky Cover. Sky cover shall be included in all reports.
9.5.2 Layer Amount.
The amount of sky cover reported for each layer shall be based on the summation layer amount for that layer.
The amount shall be reported using the reportable contractions given in Table 9-2.
Automated stations shall report no more than three layers. The selection of layers reported shall be made
in accordance with Table 9-3. Manual stations shall report no more than six layers. If more than six layers
are observed, then use Table 9-3 to determine which layers are to be reported. Additionally, all layers with
associated cumulonimbus or towering cumulus shall be identified by appending the contractions CB and
TCU, respectively.
Sky condition shall be reported in an ascending order up to the first overcast layer. Layers above 12,000 feet
are not reported by automated sky condition sensors. At mountain stations, if the cloud layer is below
station level, the height of the layer shall be reported as ///.
Table 9-2. Reportable Contractions for Sky Cover
Summation Amount
Reportable Contraction Meaning
of Layer
VV Vertical Visibility 8/8
SKC or CLR1 Clear 0
FEW2 Few 1/8 - 2/8
SCT Scattered 3/8 - 4/8
BKN Broken 5/8 - 7/8
OVC Overcast 8/8
1. The abbreviation CLR shall be used at automated stations when no layers at or below
12,000 feet are reported; the abbreviation SKC shall be used at manual stations when no layers are
reported.
2. Any layer amount less than 1/8 is reported as FEW.

Table 9-3. Priority for Reporting Layers
Priority Layer Description

1 lowest few layer.
2 lowest broken layer.
3 overcast layer.
4 lowest scattered layer.
5 second lowest scattered layer.
6 second lowest broken layer.
7 highest broken layer.
8 highest scattered layer.
9.5.3 Units of Measure for Heights. Heights of sky cover shall be evaluated in feet above the surface.
9.5.4 Reportable Values for Sky Cover Height. The reportable values of sky cover height are hundreds
of feet. The reportable value increments are given in Table 9-4.
Table 9-4. Increments of Reportable Values of Sky Cover Height
Range of Height Values (feet) Reportable Increment (feet)
#5,000 To nearest 100
>5,000 but #10,000 To nearest 500
>10,000 To nearest 1,000
9.5.5 Layer Heights. Heights of layers shall be reported in hundreds of feet, rounded to the nearest
reportable increment. When a value falls halfway between two reportable increments, the lower value shall
be reported. When a cloud layer is 50 feet or less above the surface, the height shall be reported as 000 (see
paragraph 9.4.7.b).
9.5.6 Obscuration. When a portion of the celestial dome is obscured, the obscuration (amount of sky
cover hidden by the weather phenomena) shall be reported (see paragraph 9.4.3 and Table 9-1). The
obscuration shall also be reported as a remark (see paragraph 12.7.1.q).
9.5.7 Variable Ceiling. When the height of the ceiling layer is variable, and the ceiling layer is below
3,000 feet, a remark shall be included in the report giving the range of variability (see paragraphs 9.4.7.b and
12.7.1.p).
9.5.8 Ceiling Height at a Second Location. When automated stations use meteorological discontinuity
ceilometer(s), remarks shall be added to identify ceiling height conditions at the second location which differ
from the ceiling height in the body of the report (see paragraph 12.7.1.t).
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Table 9-5. Summary of Sky Condition Observing and Reporting Standards
Parameter Reporting Standard

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CHAPTER 10
TEMPERATURE AND DEW POINT
10.1 General
Temperature is a measure of hotness or coldness. On a daily basis, temperature is one of the most
widely monitored and disseminated weather parameters obtained from the surface observation.
10.2 Scope
This chapter prescribes the standards for observing and reporting temperature and dew point. The
chapter also defines maximum and minimum temperature and prescribes appropriate standards.
10.3 Temperature and Dew Point Parameters
a. Temperature. The degree of hotness or coldness of the ambient air as measured by any suitable
instrument.
b. Dew point. The temperature to which a given parcel of air must be cooled at constant pressure
and constant water-vapor content in order for saturation to occur.
c. Maximum temperature. The highest temperature recorded/measured during a specified time
period.
d. Minimum temperature. The lowest temperature recorded/measured during a specified time
period.
10.4 Temperature and Dew Point Observing Standards
The method of obtaining temperature and dew point varies according to the system in use at the station.
The data may be read directly from digital or analog readouts, or calculated from other measured values.
10.4.1 Temperature and Dew Point Sensor Range. The range for the temperature and dew point
sensors shall be determined by the responsible agency considering the local climatology (Appendix C).
10.4.2 Temperature. Temperature shall be determined to the nearest tenth of a degree Celsius at all
stations.
10.4.3 Dew Point. At designated stations, dew point shall be determined to the nearest tenth of a
degree Celsius with respect to water at all temperatures.
10.4.4 Maximum and Minimum Temperature. At designated stations, maximum and minimum
temperatures that occurred in the previous 6 hours shall be determined to the nearest tenth of a degree
Celsius for the 0000, 0600, 1200, and 1800 UTC observations. The maximum and minimum
temperatures for the previous 24 hours shall be determined to the nearest tenth of a degree Celsius for
the 0000 LST observation.
10.5 Temperature and Dew Point Reporting Standards
10.5.1 Resolution for Temperature and Dew Point. The reporting resolution for the temperature
and the dew point in the body of the report shall be whole degrees Celsius. The reporting resolution for
the temperature and dew point in the remarks section of the report shall be to the nearest tenth of a
degree Celsius. Dew point shall be calculated with respect to water at all temperatures.

10.5.2 Maximum and Minimum Temperatures. At designated stations, maximum and minimum
temperatures shall be reported as additive data in the 0000, 0600, 1200, and 1800 UTC and 0000 LST
observations (see paragraphs 12.7.2.e, 12.7.2.f, and 12.7.2.g).
10.5.3 Reporting Procedures. Temperature and dew point are reported in the body of the report in
accordance with paragraph 12.6.10. Temperature and dew point in the remarks section shall only be
reported in METARs (see paragraph 12.7.2.d). Maximum and minimum temperatures shall be reported
in the remarks section of the METAR in accordance with paragraphs 12.7.2.e, 12.7.2.f, and 12.7.2.g.
10.6 Summary of Temperature and Dew Point Observing and Reporting Standards
Table 10-1 summarizes the temperature and dew point observing and reporting procedures.
Table 10-1. Summary of Temperature and Dew Point Observing and Reporting
Standards
Section of Report
Parameter
Body of METAR & SPECI Remarks of METAR
Reported in whole degrees Reported to tenths of degrees
Temperature
Celsius at all stations. Celsius at designated stations.
Reported in whole degrees Reported to tenths of degrees
Dew Point
Celsius at designated stations. Celsius at designated stations.
Designated stations report at
Maximum and Minimum
0000, 0600, 1200, and
Temperatures
1800 UTC.
24-hour Maximum and Designated stations report at
Minimum Temperatures 0000 LST.

CHAPTER 11
PRESSURE
11.1 General
Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by the atmosphere at a given point. In this chapter, the term
"barometric pressure" refers to the actual pressure sensor value. The sensor value may be an altimeter
setting, station pressure, or simply a direct pressure value without applied corrections depending on the type
of sensor.
11.2 Scope
This chapter prescribes the standards for observing and reporting atmospheric pressure data.
11.3 Pressure Parameters
a. Station pressure. The atmospheric pressure at the designated station elevation.
b. Altimeter setting. The pressure value to which an aircraft altimeter scale is set so that it will indicate
the altitude above mean sea level of an aircraft on the ground at the location for which the value was
determined.
c. Sea-level pressure. A pressure value obtained by the theoretical reduction of barometric pressure
to sea level. Where the Earth’s surface is above sea level, it is assumed that the atmosphere extends
to sea level below the station and that the properties of that hypothetical atmosphere are related to
conditions observed at the station.
11.4 Pressure Observing Standards
11.4.1 Barometer Comparisons. Each agency shall establish an agency standard barometer traceable
to the standard of the National Institute of Standards and Technology. Each agency shall also establish a
system of routine barometer comparisons to determine corrections required to keep the station’s pressure
sensors within the required accuracy (see Appendix C).
11.4.2 Atmospheric Pressure. The various pressure parameters shall be determined from the barometric
pressure after appropriate corrections are applied. The method used shall depend on the type of sensor and
the available computational aids. These aids may be systems that result in a direct readout of the desired
parameter, pressure reduction calculators, or tables. Designated stations may use constants to convert
measured pressure to the desired pressure parameter.
11.4.3 Station Pressure. Station pressure shall be determined by adjusting the corrected barometric
pressure to compensate for the difference between the height of the barometer and the designated station
elevation.
11.4.4 Sea-Level Pressure. At designated stations, sea-level pressure shall be computed by adjusting the
station pressure to compensate for the difference between the station elevation and sea-level. This
adjustment shall be based on the station elevation and the 12-hour mean temperature at the station. The 12-
hour mean temperature shall be the average of the present ambient temperature and the ambient temperature
12 hours ago.
Stations within ± 50 feet of sea-level may be authorized by their agency to use a constant value to adjust
station pressure to sea-level pressure. Otherwise, stations shall use reduction ratios provided by their
responsible agency to calculate sea-level pressure.

11.4.5 Altimeter Setting. The altimeter setting shall be determined either directly from an altimeter
setting indicator or computed from the station pressure by applying a correction for the difference between
the station elevation and field elevation in the standard atmosphere. Where this difference is 30 feet or less,
agencies may authorize the use of a constant correction.
11.4.6 Pressure Change (Rising/Falling). At designated stations, the pressure calculated for each report
shall be examined to determine if a pressure change is occurring. If the pressure is rising or falling at a rate
of at least 0.06 inch per hour and the pressure change totals 0.02 inch or more at the time of the observation,
a pressure change remark shall be reported (see paragraph 12.7.1.u).
11.4.7 Pressure Tendency. Designated stations shall include pressure tendency data in each 3- and
6-hourly report. The pressure tendency includes two parts: the characteristic (an indication of how the
pressure has been changing over the past three hours) and the amount of the pressure change in the past three
hours. The characteristic shall be based on the observed or recorded (barogram trace) changes in pressure
over the past three hours. The amount of pressure change is the absolute value of the change in station
pressure or altimeter setting in the past three hours converted to tenths of hectopascals.
11.5 Pressure Reporting Standards
11.5.1 Rounding Pressure Values. When computations of pressure values require that a number be
rounded to comply with standards on reportable values, the number shall be rounded down to the next
reportable value. For example, an altimeter reading of 29.248 inches becomes 29.24 and a station pressure
reading of 29.249 inches becomes 29.245.
11.5.2 Units of Measure. Table 11-1 lists the units of measure for pressure parameters.
Table 11-1. Units of Measure of Pressure Parameters
Parameter Units of Measure

Altimeter Setting Inches of Mercury
Sea-Level Pressure Hectopascals
Station Pressure Inches of Mercury
11.5.3 Altimeter Setting. Altimeter setting shall be reported in all reports (see paragraph 12.6.11).
11.5.4 Sea-Level Pressure. At designated stations, sea-level pressure shall be included in the remarks
section of all METARs (see paragraph 12.7.1.v).
11.5.5 Remarks. At designated stations, the pressure change remarks (PRESRR or PRESFR) shall be
reported if occurring at the time of observation (see paragraph 12.7.1.u). The pressure tendency group shall
only be included in 3- and 6-hourly reports (see paragraph 12.7.2.h).

11.6 Summary of Pressure Observing and Reporting Standards
Table 11-2 summarizes the pressure observing and reporting standards.
Table 11-2. Summary of Pressure Observing and Reporting Standards
Parameter Reporting Standard

Reported in inches of mercury at all
Altimeter Setting
stations.
Reported in hectopascals at desig-
Sea-level pressure
nated stations.
Remarks:
Rising Rapidly
Reported at designated stations.
Falling Rapidly
Pressure Tendency Reported at designated stations.

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QT76%(QTGZCORNG/'6#4-&%#<YQWNFDGVJG
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#WVQOCVGFUVCVKQPUUJCNNWUGCP/VQKPFKECVGNGUUVJCPYJGPTGRQTVKPIXKUKDKNKV[(QTGZCORNG/5/
OGCPUCXKUKDKNKV[QHNGUUVJCPQPGSWCTVGTUVCVWVGOKNG
Table 12-1. Reportable Visibility Values
Source of Visibility Report
Automated Manual
M1/4 2 9a 0 5/8 1 5/8 4 12
1/4 2 1/2 10 1/16 3/4 1 3/4 5 13
1/2 3 1/8 7/8 1 7/8 6 14
3/4 4 3/16 1 2 7 15
1 5 1/4 1 1/8 2 1/4 8 20
1 1/4 6a 5/16 1 1/4 2 1/2 9 25
1 1/2 7 3/8 1 3/8 2 3/4 10 30
1 3/4 8 a 1/2 1 1/2 3 11 35b
a. These values may not be reported by some automated stations.
b. Further values in increments of 5 statute miles may be reported, i.e., 40,
45, 50, etc
12.6.7. Runway Visual Range Group (RDRDR/VRVRVRVRFT or RDRDR/VnVnVnVnVVxVxVxVxFT). The

standards for observing and reporting Runway Visual Range (RVR) are described in Chapter 7.
a. RVR shall be coded in the format RDRDR/VRVRVRVRFT, where R indicates that the runway number
follows, DRDR is the runway number (an additional DR may be used for runway approach directions,
such as R for right, L for left, and C for center), VRVRVRVR is the constant reportable value, and FT
indicates that units of measurement are feet. A solidus "/" without spaces separates the runway number
from the constant reportable value. For example, an RVR value for runway 01L of 800 feet would be
coded "R01L/0800FT".
b. RVR that is varying shall be coded in the format, RDRDR/VnVnVnVnVVxVxVxVxFT, where R indicates
that the runway number follows, DRDR is the runway number (an additional DR may be used for runway
approach directions, such as R for right, L for left, and C for center), VnVnVnVn is the lowest reportable
value in feet, V separates lowest and highest visual range values, VxVxVxVx is the highest reportable
value, and FT indicates that units of measurement are feet. A solidus "/" without spaces separates the
runway number from the reportable values. For example, the 10-minute RVR for runway 01L varying
between 600 and 1,000 feet would be coded "R01L/0600V1000FT".

c. The values shall be based on light setting 5 at manual stations regardless of the light setting actually in
use (see Appendix D). RVR values shall be coded in increments of 100 feet up to 1,000 feet,
increments of 200 feet from 1,000 feet to 3,000 feet, and increments of 500 feet from 3,000 feet to 6,000
feet. Manual RVR shall not be reported below 600 feet. For automated stations, RVR may be reported
from up to four designated runways.
d. If the RVR is less than its lowest reportable value, the VRVRVRVR or Vn Vn Vn Vn groups shall be
preceded by M. If the RVR is greater than its highest reportable value, the VRVRVRVR or VxVxVxVx
groups shall be preceded by a P. For example, an RVR for runway 01L of less than 600 feet will be
coded "R01L/M0600FT"; an RVR for runway 27 of greater than 6,000 feet will be coded
"R27/P6000FT".
12.6.8 Present Weather Group (w’w’). The standards for observing and reporting present weather are
described in Chapter 8.
The appropriate notations found in Table 12-2 shall be used to code present weather.
Table 12-2. Notations for Reporting Present Weather1
QUALIFIER WEATHER PHENOMENA
INTENSITY OR DESCRIPTOR PRECIPITATION OBSCURATION OTHER
PROXIMITY
1 2 3 4 5
.KIJV /+5JCNNQY &<&TK\\NG $4/KUV 219GNN
&GXGNQRGF
/QFGTCVG 242CTVKCN 4#4CKP ()(QI &WUV5CPF
9JKTNU
*GCX[ $%2CVEJGU 505PQY (75OQMG
535SWCNNU
8%+PVJG &4.QY&TKHVKPI 5)5PQY)TCKPU 8#8QNECPKE#UJ
8KEKPKV[ (%(WPPGN%NQWF
$.$NQYKPI +%+EG%T[UVCNU &79KFGURTGCF 6QTPCFQ
&WUV 9CVGTURQWV
5*5JQYGT
U 2.+EG2GNNGVU
5#5CPF 555CPFUVQTO
656JWPFGTUVQTO )4*CKN
*<*C\G &5&WUVUVQTO
(<(TGG\KPI )55OCNN*CKN
CPFQT5PQY 2;5RTC[
2GNNGVU
727PMPQYP
2TGEKRKVCVKQP
6JGYGCVJGTITQWRUUJCNNDGEQPUVTWEVGFD[EQPUKFGTKPIEQNWOPUVQKPVJGVCDNGCDQXGKPUGSWGPEGKG
KPVGPUKV[HQNNQYGFD[FGUETKRVKQPHQNNQYGFD[YGCVJGTRJGPQOGPCGIJGCX[TCKPUJQYGT
UKUEQFGFCU
5*4#
6QFGPQVGOQFGTCVGKPVGPUKV[PQGPVT[QTU[ODQNKUWUGF
5GGRCTCITCRJC
CPFHQTXKEKPKV[FGHKPKVKQPU
6QTPCFQGUCPFYCVGTURQWVUUJCNNDGEQFGFCU (%

6JGHQNNQYKPIIGPGTCNTWNGUCRRN[YJGPEQFKPIRTGUGPVYGCVJGTHQTC/'6#4QT52'%+

ó 9GCVJGTQEEWTTKPICVVJGRQKPVQHQDUGTXCVKQP
CVVJGUVCVKQPQTKPVJGXKEKPKV[QHVJGUVCVKQPUJCNNDG
EQFGFKPVJGDQF[QHVJGTGRQTVYGCVJGTQDUGTXGFDWVPQVQEEWTTKPICVVJGRQKPVQHQDUGTXCVKQP
CV
VJGUVCVKQPQTKPVJGXKEKPKV[QHVJGUVCVKQPUJCNNDGEQFGFKP4GOCTMU

ó 9KVJVJGGZEGRVKQPUQHXQNECPKECUJNQYFTKHVKPIFWUVNQYFTKHVKPIUCPFNQYFTKHVKPIUPQYUJCNNQY
HQIRCTVKCNHQICPFRCVEJGU
QHHQICPQDUEWTCVKQPUJCNNDGEQFGFKPVJGDQF[QHVJGTGRQTVKHVJG
UWTHCEGXKUKDKNKV[KUNGUUVJCPOKNGUQTEQPUKFGTGFQRGTCVKQPCNN[UKIPKHKECPV8QNECPKECUJUJCNN
CNYC[UDGEQFGFYJGPQDUGTXGF

ó 5GRCTCVGITQWRUUJCNNDGWUGFHQTGCEJV[RGQHRTGUGPVYGCVJGT'CEJITQWRUJCNNDGUGRCTCVGFHTQO
VJGQVJGTD[CURCEG/'6#452'%+UJCNNEQPVCKPPQOQTGVJCPVJTGGRTGUGPVYGCVJGTITQWRU

ó 6JGYGCVJGTITQWRUUJCNNDGEQPUVTWEVGFD[EQPUKFGTKPIEQNWOPUVQKP6CDNGKPUGSWGPEG
KGKPVGPUKV[HQNNQYGFD[FGUETKRVKQPHQNNQYGFD[YGCVJGTRJGPQOGPCGIJGCX[TCKPUJQYGT
U
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65CPF
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$.&7 DNQYKPI UCPF

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UQHQDUGTXCVKQP

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E %NGCTUMKGUUJCNNDGEQFGFKPVJGHQTOCV5-%QT%.4YJGTG5-%KUVJGCDDTGXKCVKQPWUGFD[
OCPWCNUVCVKQPUVQKPFKECVGPQNC[GTUCTGRTGUGPVCPF%.4KUVJGCDDTGXKCVKQPWUGFD[CWVQOCVGF
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UGGRCTCITCRJ

'CEJNC[GTUJCNNDGUGRCTCVGFHTQOQVJGTNC[GTUD[CURCEG6JGUM[EQXGTHQTGCEJNC[GTTGRQTVGFUJCNNDG
EQFGFD[WUKPIVJGCRRTQRTKCVGTGRQTVCDNGEQPVTCEVKQPHTQO6CDNG6JGTGRQTVQHENGCTUMKGU
5-%QT
%.4CTGEQORNGVGNC[GTTGRQTVUYKVJKPVJGOUGNXGU6JGCDDTGXKCVKQPU('95%6$-0CPF18%UJCNN
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Table 12-3. Contractions for Sky Cover
Summation Amount
Reportable Contraction Meaning
of Layer
88 8GTVKECN8KUKDKNKV[
5-%QT%.4 %NGCT
('9 (GY
5%6 5ECVVGTGF
$-0 $TQMGP
18% 1XGTECUV
6JGCDDTGXKCVKQP%.4UJCNNDGWUGFCVCWVQOCVGFUVCVKQPUYJGPPQNC[GTUCVQTDGNQY
HGGVCTGTGRQTVGFVJGCDDTGXKCVKQP5-%UJCNNDGWUGFCVOCPWCNUVCVKQPUYJGPPQNC[GTUCTG
TGRQTVGF
#P[NC[GTCOQWPVNGUUVJCPKUTGRQTVGFCU('9
6JGJGKIJVQHVJGDCUGQHGCEJNC[GTJUJUJUUJCNNDGEQFGFKPJWPFTGFUQHHGGVCDQXGVJGUWTHCEGWUKPIVJTGG
FKIKVUKPCEEQTFCPEGYKVJ6CDNG
Table 12-4. Increments of Reportable Values of Sky Cover Height
Range of Height Values (feet) Reportable Increment (feet)
#5,000 To nearest 100
>5,000 but #10,000 To nearest 500
>10,000 To nearest 1,000
At manual stations, cumulonimbus (CB) or towering cumulus (TCU) shall be appended to the associated layer.
For example, a scattered layer of towering cumulus at 1,500 feet would be coded "SCT015TCU" and would be
followed by a space if there were additional higher layers to code.
12.6.10 Temperature/Dew Point Group (T’T’/T’dT’ ). d The standards for observing and reporting
temperature and dew point are given in Chapter 10. The temperature shall be separated from the dew point with
a solidus "/".
The temperature and dew point shall be coded as two digits rounded to the nearest whole degree Celsius (see
paragraph 2.6.3). For example, a temperature of 0.3EC would be coded as “00". Sub-zero temperatures and dew
points shall be prefixed with an M. For example, a temperature of 4EC with a dew point of -2EC would be coded
as "04/M02"; a temperature of -0.5EC would be coded as "M00".

If the temperature is not available, the entire temperature/dew point group shall not be coded. If the dew point
is not available, the temperature shall be coded followed by a solidus "/" and no entry made for dew point. For
example, a temperature of 1.5EC and a missing dew point would be coded as "02/".
12.6.11 Altimeter (APHPHPHPH). The standards for observing and reporting altimeter are described in Chapter
11.
The altimeter group always starts with an A (the international indicator for altimeter in inches of mercury). The
altimeter shall be coded as a four digit group immediately following the A using the tens, units, tenths, and
hundredths of inches of mercury. The decimal point is not coded.
12.7 Remarks (RMK)
Remarks shall be included in all METAR and SPECI, if appropriate.
Remarks shall be separated from the body of the report by a space and the contraction RMK. If there are no
remarks, the contraction RMK is not required.
METAR/SPECI remarks fall into 2 categories: (1) Automated, Manual, and Plain Language (see paragraph
12.7.1), and (2) Additive and Maintenance Data (see paragraph 12.7.2).
Remarks shall be made in accordance with the following:
a. Where plain language is called for, authorized contractions, abbreviations, and symbols should be used
to conserve time and space. However, in no case should an essential remark, of which the observer is
aware, be omitted for the lack of readily available contractions. In such cases, the only requirement is
that the remark be clear. For a detailed list of authorized contractions, see FAA Order 7340 Series,
Contractions.
b. Time entries shall be made in minutes past the hour if the time reported occurs during the same hour the
observation is taken. Hours and minutes shall be used if the hour is different, or this Handbook prescribes
the use of the hour and minutes.
c. Present weather coded in the body of the report as VC may be further described, i.e., direction from the
station, if known. Weather phenomena beyond 10 statute miles of the point(s) of observation shall be
coded as distant (DSNT) followed by the direction from the station. For example, precipitation of
unknown intensity within 10 statute miles east of the station would be coded as "VCSH E"; lightning 25
statute miles west of the station would be coded as "LTG DSNT W".
d. Distance remarks shall be statute miles except for automated lightning remarks which are in nautical miles.
e. Movement of clouds or weather, if known, shall be coded with respect to the direction toward which the
phenomena is moving. For example, a thunderstorm moving toward the northeast would be coded as
"TS MOV NE".
f. Directions shall use the eight points of the compass coded in a clockwise order.
g. Insofar as possible, remarks shall be entered in the order they are presented in the following paragraphs.

12.7.1 Automated, Manual, and Plain Language Remarks. These remarks generally elaborate on
parameters reported in the body of the report. Automated and manual remarks may be generated either by an
automated or manual station. Plain language remarks are only provided from manual stations.
a. Volcanic Eruptions (Plain Language). Volcanic eruptions shall be coded.
The remark shall be plain language and contain the following, if known:
(1) Name of volcano.
(2) Latitude and longitude or the direction and the approximate distance from the station.
(3) Date/Time (UTC) of the eruption.
(4) Size description, approximate height, and direction of movement of the ash cloud.
(5) Any other pertinent data about the eruption.
For example, a remark on a volcanic eruption would look like the following:
MT. AUGUSTINE VOLCANO 70 MILES SW ERUPTED 231505 LARGE ASH CLOUD
EXTENDING TO APRX 30000 FEET MOVING NE.
Pre-eruption volcanic activity shall not be coded. Pre-eruption refers to unusual and/or increasing
volcanic activity which could presage a volcanic eruption.
b. Funnel Cloud (Tornadic activity_B/E(hh)mm_LOC/DIR_(MOV)). At manual stations, tornadoes,
funnel clouds, or waterspouts shall be coded in the format, Tornadic
activity_B/E(hh)mm_LOC/DIR_(MOV), where TORNADO, FUNNEL CLOUD, or
WATERSPOUT identifies the specific tornadic activity, B/E denotes the beginning and/or ending time,
(hh)mm is the time of occurrence (only the minutes are required if the hour can be inferred from the
report time), LOC/DIR is the location and/or direction of the phenomena from the station, and MOV
is the movement, if known (see paragraphs 8.3.3.c, 8.5.3.c, and 8.5.5.b). Tornadic activity shall be coded
as the first remark after the "RMK" entry. For example, "TORNADO B13 6 NE" would indicate that
a tornado, which began at 13 minutes past the hour, was 6 statute miles northeast of the station.
c. Type of Automated Station (AO1 or AO2). AO1 or AO2 shall be coded in all METAR/SPECI from
automated stations. Automated stations without a precipitation discriminator shall be identified as
AO1; automated station with a precipitation discriminator shall be identified as AO2.
d. Peak Wind (PK_WND_dddff(f)/(hh)mm). The peak wind shall be coded in the format, PK_WND
dddff(f)/(hh)mm of the next METAR, where PK_WND is the remark identifier, ddd is the direction
of the peak wind, ff(f) is the peak wind speed since the last METAR, and (hh)mm is the time of
occurrence (only the minutes are required if the hour can be inferred from the report time) (see
paragraphs 5.4.5 and 5.5.5). There shall be a space between the two elements of the remark identifier
and the wind direction/speed group; a solidus "/" (without spaces) shall separate the wind direction/speed
group and the time. For example, a peak wind of 45 knots from 280 degrees that occurred at 15 minutes
past the hour would be coded "PK WND 28045/15".
e. Wind Shift (WSHFT_(hh)mm). A wind shift shall be coded in the format, WSHFT_(hh)mm, where
WSHFT is the remark identifier and (hh)mm is the time the wind shift began (only the minutes are
required if the hour can be inferred from the report time) (see paragraphs 5.4.6 and 5.5.6). The
contraction FROPA may be entered following the time if it is reasonably certain that the wind shift was
the result of a frontal passage. There shall be a space between the remark identifier and the time and,
if applicable, between the time and the frontal passage contraction. For example, a remark reporting
a wind shift accompanied by a frontal passage that began at 30 minutes after the hour would be coded
as "WSHFT 30 FROPA".

f. Tower or Surface Visibility (TWR_VIS_vvvvv or SFC_VIS_vvvvv). Tower visibility or surface
visibility (see paragraphs 6.5.4 and 6.5.5) shall be coded in the formats, TWR_VIS_vvvvv or
SFC_VIS_vvvvv, respectively, where vvvvv is the observed tower/surface visibility value. A space
shall be coded between each of the remark elements. For example, the control tower visibility of 1 1/2
statute miles would be coded "TWR VIS 1 1/2".
g. Variable Prevailing Visibility (VIS_vnvnvnvnvnVvxvxvxvxvx). Variable prevailing visibility shall be
coded in the format VIS_vnvnvnvnvnVvxvxvxvxvx, where VIS is the remark identifier, vn vn vn vn vn is the
lowest visibility evaluated, V denotes variability between two values, and vxvxvxvxvx is the highest
visibility evaluated. There shall be one space following the remark identifier; no spaces between the
letter V and the lowest/highest values. For example, a visibility that was varying between 1/2 and 2
statute miles would be coded "VIS 1/2V2" (see paragraphs 6.4.5 and 6.5.3).
h. Sector Visibility (VIS_[DIR]_vvvvv) [Plain Language]. The sector visibility shall be coded in the
format, VIS_[DIR]_vvvvv, where VIS is the remark identifier, [DIR] defines the sector to 8 points of
the compass, and vvvvv is the sector visibility in statute miles, using the appropriate set of values in
Table 12-1 (see paragraphs 6.4.6 and 6.5.7). For example, a visibility of 2 1/2 statute miles in the
northeastern octant would be coded "VIS NE 2 1/2".
i. Visibility At Second Location (VIS_vvvvv_[LOC]). At designated automated stations, the visibility
at a second location shall be coded in the format VIS_vvvvv_[LOC], where VIS is the remark
identifier, vvvvv is the measured visibility value, and [LOC] is the specific location of the visibility
sensor(s) at the station (see paragraph 6.5.6). This remark shall only be generated when the condition
is lower than that contained in the body of the report. For example, a visibility of 2 1/2 statute miles
measured by a second sensor located at runway 11 would be coded "VIS 2 1/2 RWY11".
j. Lightning (Frequency_LTG(type)_[LOC]).
(1) When lightning is observed at a manual station, the frequency, type of lightning, and location
shall be reported. The remark shall be coded in the format Frequency_LTG(type)_[LOC]. The
contractions for the type and frequency of lightning shall be based on Table 12-5. The location
and direction shall be coded in accordance with paragraph 12.7.c. For example, "OCNL
LTGICCG OHD", “FRQ LTG VC", or "LTG DSNT W".
(2) When lightning is detected by an automated system:
(a) Within 5 nautical miles of the Airport Location Point (ALP), it will be reported as TS in
the body of the report with no remark;
(b) Between 5 and 10 nautical miles of the ALP, it will be reported as VCTS in the body of the
report with no remark;
(c) Beyond 10 but less than 30 nautical miles of the ALP, it will be reported in remarks only
as LTG DSNT followed by the direction from the ALP.

Table 12-5. Type and Frequency of Lightning
Type of Lightning
Type Contraction Definition
Cloud-ground CG Lightning occurring between cloud and ground.

In-cloud IC Lightning which takes place within the cloud.
Cloud-cloud CC Streaks of lightning reaching from one cloud to another.
Streaks of lightning which pass from a cloud to the air,
Cloud-air CA
but do not strike the ground.
Frequency of Lightning
Frequency Contraction Definition
Occasional OCNL Less than 1 flash/minute.

Frequent FRQ About 1 to 6 flashes/minute.
Continuous CONS More than 6 flashes/minute.
k. Beginning and Ending of Precipitation (w’w’B(hh)mmE(hh)mm). At designated stations, the

beginning and ending of precipitation shall be coded in the format, w’w’B(hh)mmE(hh)mm, where
w’w’ is the type of precipitation, B denotes the beginning, E denotes the ending, and (hh)mm is the time
of occurrence (only the minutes are required if the hour can be inferred from the report time) (see
paragraph 8.5.5.a). There shall be no spaces between the elements. The coded remarks are not required
in SPECI and should be reported in the next METAR. Intensity qualifiers shall not be coded. For
example, if rain began at 0005, ended at 0030, and snow began at 0020, and ended at 0055, the remarks
would be coded "RAB05E30SNB20E55". If the precipitation were showery, the remark would be coded
"SHRAB05E30SHSNB20E55".
l. Beginning and Ending of Thunderstorms (TSB(hh)mmE(hh)mm). The beginning and ending of
thunderstorm(s) shall be coded in the format, TSB(hh)mmE(hh)mm, where TS indicates
thunderstorm, B denotes the beginning, E denotes the ending, and (hh)mm is the time of occurrence
(only the minutes are required if the hour can be inferred from the report time) (see paragraph 8.5.4).
There shall be no spaces between the elements. For example, if a thunderstorm began at 0159 and
ended at 0230, the remark would be coded "TSB0159E30".
m. Thunderstorm Location (TS_LOC_(MOV_DIR)) [Plain Language]. Thunderstorm(s) shall be
coded in the format, TS_LOC_(MOV_DIR), where TS identifies the thunderstorm activity, LOC is
the location of the thunderstorm(s) from the station, and MOV_DIR is the movement with direction,
if known (see paragraph 8.4.1.b(5) and 8.5.4). For example, a thunderstorm southeast of the station and
moving toward the northeast would be coded "TS SE MOV NE".
n. Hailstone Size (GR_[size]) [Plain Language]. At designated stations, the hailstone size shall be coded
in the format, GR_[size], where GR is the remark identifier and [size] is the diameter of the largest
hailstone. The hailstone size shall be coded in 1/4 inch increments (see paragraph 8.5.1.c(8)). For
example, "GR 1 3/4" would indicate that the largest hailstones were 1 3/4 inches in diameter. If GS is
coded in the body of the report, no hailstone size remark is required.

o. Virga (VIRGA_(DIR)) [Plain Language]. Virga shall be coded in the format, VIRGA_(DIR), where
VIRGA is the remark identifier and DIR is the direction from the station. The direction of the
phenomena from the station is optional, e.g., "VIRGA" or "VIRGA SW".
p. Variable Ceiling Height (CIG_hnhnhnVhxhxhx). The variable ceiling height shall be coded in the
format, CIG_hnhnhnVhxhxhx, where CIG is the remark identifier, hn hn hn is the lowest ceiling height
evaluated, V denotes variability between two values, and hxhxhx is the highest ceiling height evaluated
(see paragraph 9.5.7 and Table 9-1). There shall be one space following the remark identifier; no spaces
between the letter V and the lowest/highest ceiling values. For example, "CIG 005V010" would indicate
a ceiling that was varying between 500 and 1,000 feet.
q. Obscurations (w’w’_[NsNsNs]hshshs). [Plain Language] Obscurations (surface-based or aloft) shall be
coded in the format, w’w’_[NsNsNs]hshshs, where w’w’ is the weather causing the obscuration at the
surface or aloft, NsNsNs is the applicable sky cover amount of the obscuration aloft (FEW, SCT, BKN,
OVC) or at the surface (FEW, SCT, BKN), and hshshs is the applicable height (see paragraphs 9.4.3 and
9.5.6). Surface-based obscurations shall have a height of “000". There shall be a space separating the
weather causing the obscuration and the sky cover amount; there shall be no space between the sky cover
amount and the height. For example, fog hiding 3-4 oktas of the sky would be coded "FG SCT000"; a
broken layer at 2,000 feet composed of smoke would be coded “FU BKN020".
r. Variable Sky Condition (NsNsNs(hshshs)_V_NsNsNs). [Plain Language] The variable sky condition
remark shall be coded in the format, NsNsNs(hshshs)_V_NsNsNs, where Ns Ns Ns (hs hs hs ) and Ns Ns Ns
identifies the two operationally significant sky conditions and V denotes the variability between the two
ranges (see paragraphs 9.4.2.d and 9.5.9). If there are several layers with the same sky condition
amount, the layer height (hshshs) of the variable layer shall be coded. For example, a cloud layer at
1,400 feet that is varying between broken and overcast would be coded "BKN014 V OVC".
s. Significant Cloud Types [Plain Language]. The significant cloud type remark shall be coded in all
reports in the following manner (see paragraphs 9.4.6 and 9.5.10):
(1) Cumulonimbus or Cumulonimbus Mammatus (CB or CBMAM_LOC_(MOV_DIR).
Cumulonimbus or cumulonimbus mammatus, as appropriate, (for which no thunderstorm is being
reported) shall be coded in the format, CB or CBMAM_LOC_(MOV_DIR), where CB or
CBMAM is the cloud type, LOC is the direction from the station, and MOV_DIR is the
movement with direction (if known). The cloud type, location, movement, and direction entries
shall be separated from each other with a space. For example, a CB up to 10 statute miles west
of the station moving toward the east would be coded "CB W MOV E". If the CB was more than
10 statute miles to the west, the remark would be coded "CB DSNT W".
(2) Towering cumulus (TCU_[DIR]). Towering cumulus clouds shall be coded in the format,
TCU_[DIR], where TCU is the cloud type and DIR is the direction from the station. The cloud
type and direction entries shall be separated by a space. For example, a towering cumulus cloud
up to 10 statute miles west of the station would be coded "TCU W".
(3) Altocumulus castellanus (ACC_[DIR]). Altocumulus castellanus shall be coded in the format,
ACC_[DIR], where ACC is the cloud type and DIR is the direction from the station. The cloud
type and direction entries shall be separated by a space. For example, an altocumulus cloud 5 to
10 statute miles northwest of the station would be coded "ACC NW".

(4) Standing lenticular or Rotor clouds (CLD_[DIR]). Stratocumulus (SCSL), altocumulus
(ACSL), or cirrocumulus (CCSL), or rotor clouds shall be coded in the format, CLD_[DIR],
where CLD is the cloud type and DIR is the direction from the station. The cloud type and
direction entries shall be separated by a space. For example, altocumulus standing lenticular
clouds observed southwest through west of the station would be coded "ACSL SW-W"; an
apparent rotor cloud 5 to 10 statute miles northeast of the station would be coded "APRNT
ROTOR CLD NE"; and cirrocumulus clouds south of the station would be coded "CCSL S".
t. Ceiling Height at Second Location (CIG_hhh_[LOC]). At designated stations, the ceiling height
at a second location shall be coded in the format, CIG_hhh_[LOC], where CIG is the remark
identifier, hhh is the measured height of the ceiling, and [LOC] is the specific location of the
ceilometer(s) at the station (see paragraph 9.5.8). This remark shall only be generated when the ceiling
is lower than that contained in the body of the report. For example, if the ceiling measured by a second
sensor located at runway 11 is broken at 200 feet, the remark would be "CIG 002 RWY11".
u. Pressure Rising or Falling Rapidly (PRESRR/PRESFR). At designated stations, when the pressure
is rising or falling rapidly at the time of observation (see paragraphs 11.4.6 and 11.5.5), the remark
PRESRR (pressure rising rapidly) or PRESFR (pressure falling rapidly) shall be included in the report.
v. Sea-Level Pressure (SLPppp). At designated stations, the sea-level pressure shall be coded in the
format SLPppp, where SLP is the remark identifier and ppp is the sea-level pressure in hectopascals
(see paragraphs 11.4.4 and 11.5.4). For example, a sea-level pressure of 998.2 hectopascals would be
coded as "SLP982". For a METAR, if sea-level pressure is not available, it is coded as "SLPNO".
w. Aircraft Mishap (ACFT_MSHP) [Plain Language]. If a report is taken to document weather
conditions when notified of an aircraft mishap, the remark ACFT_MSHP shall be coded in the report
but not transmitted. The act of non-transmission shall be indicated by enclosing the remark in
parentheses in the record, i.e., "(ACFT MSHP)".
x. No SPECI Reports Taken (NOSPECI) [Plain Language]. At manual stations where SPECI's are not
taken, the remark NOSPECI shall be coded to indicate that no changes in weather conditions will be
reported until the next METAR.
y. Snow Increasing Rapidly (SNINCR_[inches-hour/inches on ground]). At designated stations, the
snow increasing rapidly remark shall be reported, in the next METAR, whenever the snow depth
increases by 1 inch or more in the past hour. The remark shall be coded in the format, SNINCR [inches-
hour/inches on ground], where SNINCR is the remark indicator, inches-hour is the depth increase in
the past hour, and inches on ground is the total depth of snow on the ground at the time of the report.
The depth increase in the past hour and the total depth on the ground are separated from each other by
a solidus "/". For example, a snow depth increase of 2 inches in the past hour with a total depth on the
ground of 10 inches would be coded "SNINCR 2/10".
z. Other Significant Information [Plain Language]. Agencies may add to a report other information
significant to their operations, such as information on fog dispersal operations, runway conditions,
"FIRST" or "LAST" report from station, etc.

12.7.2 Additive and Automated Maintenance Data. Additive data groups are only reported at designated
stations. The maintenance data groups are only reported from automated stations.
a. Precipitation
(1) Amount of Precipitation. The amount of liquid precipitation shall be coded as the depth of
precipitation that accumulates in an exposed vessel during the time period being evaluated. The
amount of freezing or frozen precipitation shall be the water equivalent of the solid precipitation
accumulated during the appropriate time period.
(2) Units of Measure for Precipitation. Precipitation measurements shall be in inches, tenths of
inches, or hundredths of inches depending on the precipitation being measured (see Table 12-6).
Table 12.6. Units of Measure for Precipitation
Type of Measurement Unit of Measure
Liquid Precipitation 0.01 inch

Water Equivalent of Solid Precipitation 0.01 inch
Solid Precipitation 0.1 inch
Snow Depth 1.0 inch
(3) Depth of Freezing or Frozen Precipitation. The depth of freezing and/or frozen precipitation
shall be the actual vertical depth of the precipitation accumulated on a horizontal surface during
the appropriate time period (see paragraphs 12.7.2.a(3)(b) and 12.7.2.a(3)(c). If snow falls, melts,
and refreezes, the depth of ice formed shall be included in the measurement.
(a) Hourly Precipitation Amount (Prrrr). At designated automated stations, the hourly
precipitation amount shall be coded in the format, Prrrr, where P is the group indicator and
rrrr is the water equivalent of all precipitation that has occurred since the last METAR (see
paragraph 12.7.2.a(1)). The amount shall be coded in hundredths of an inch. For example,
"P0009" would indicate 9/100 of an inch of precipitation fell in the past hour; "P0000"
would indicate that less than 1/100 of an inch of precipitation fell in the past hour.
The group shall be omitted if no precipitation occurred since the last METAR.
(b) 3- and 6-Hour Precipitation Amount (6RRRR). At designated stations, the 3- and
6-hourly precipitation group shall be coded in the format, 6RRRR, where 6 is the group
indicator and RRRR is the amount of precipitation. The amount of precipitation (water
equivalent) accumulated in the past 3 hours shall be reported in the 3-hourly report; the
amount accumulated in the past 6 hours shall be reported in the 6-hourly report. The
amount of precipitation shall be coded in inches, using the tens, units, tenths and
hundredths digits of the amount. When an indeterminable amount of precipitation has
occurred during the period, RRRR shall be coded 6////. For example, 2.17 inches of
precipitation would be coded "60217". A trace shall be coded "60000".
(c) 24-Hour Precipitation Amount (7R24R24R24R24). At designated stations, the 24-hour
precipitation amount shall be coded in the format, 7R24R24R 24R 24, where 7 is the group
indicator and R24R24R24R24 is the 24-hour precipitation amount. The 24-hour precipitation
amount shall be included in the 1200 UTC (or other agency designated time) report
whenever more than a trace of precipitation (water equivalent) has fallen in the preceding
24 hours. The amount of precipitation shall be coded by using the tens, units, tenths, and
hundredths of inches (water equivalent) for the 24-hour period. If more than a trace (water
equivalent) has occurred and the amount cannot be determined, the group shall be coded

7////. For example, 1.25 inches of precipitation (water equivalent) in the past 24 hours shall
be coded "70125".
(d) Snow Depth on Ground (4/sss). At designated stations, the total snow depth on the
ground group shall be coded in the 0000 and 1200 UTC observation whenever there is
more than a trace of snow on the ground. It shall be coded in the 0600 and 1800 UTC
observation if there is more than a trace of snow on the ground and more than a trace of
precipitation (water equivalent) has occurred within the past 6 hours. The remark shall be
coded in the format, 4/sss, where 4/ is the group indicator and sss is the snow depth in
whole inches using three digits. For example, a snow depth of 21 inches shall be coded as
"4/021".
(e) Water Equivalent of Snow on Ground (933RRR). At designated stations, the water
equivalent of snow on the ground shall be coded each day, in the 1800 UTC report, if the
average snow depth is 2 inches or more. The remark shall be coded in the format,
933RRR, where 933 is the group indicator and RRR is the water equivalent of snow, i.e.,
snow, snow pellets, snow grains, ice pellets, ice crystals, and hail, on the ground. The water
equivalent shall be coded in tens, units, and tenths of inches, using three digits. If the water
equivalent of snow consists entirely of hail, the group shall not be coded. A water
equivalent of 3.6 inches of snow would be coded as "933036"; a water equivalent of 12.5
would be coded as "933125".
b. Cloud Types (8/CLCMCH). At designated stations, the group, 8/CLCMCH, shall be reported and coded
in 3- and 6-hourly reports when clouds are observed. The predominant low cloud (CL), middle cloud
(CM), and high cloud (CH), shall be identified in accordance with the WMO International Cloud Atlas,
Volumes I and II, or the WMO Abridged International Cloud Atlas or agency observing aids for cloud
identification. A 0 shall be coded for the low, middle, or high cloud type if no cloud is present in that
classification. A solidus "/" shall be coded for layers above an overcast. If no clouds are observed due
to clear skies, the cloud type group shall not be coded. For example, a report of "8/6//" would indicate
an overcast layer of stratus clouds; a report of "8/903" would indicate cumulonimbus type low clouds,
no middle clouds, and dense cirrus high clouds.
c. Duration of Sunshine (98mmm). The duration of sunshine that occurred the previous calendar day
shall be coded in the 0800 UTC report. If the station is closed at 0800 UTC, the group shall be coded
in the first 6-hourly METAR after the station opens. The duration of sunshine shall be coded in the
format, 98mmm, where 98 is the group indicator and mmm is the total minutes of sunshine. The
minutes of sunshine shall be coded by using the hundreds, tens, and units digits. For example, 96
minutes of sunshine would be coded "98096". If no sunshine occurred, the group would be coded
"98000".
d. Hourly Temperature and Dew Point (TsnT’T’T’snT’dT’dT’d). At designated stations, the hourly
temperature and dew point group shall be coded to the tenth of a degree Celsius in the format,
TsnT’T’T’snT’dT’dT’d, where T is the group indicator, sn is the sign of the temperature, T’T’T’ is the
temperature, and T’dT’dT’d is the dew point (see paragraphs 10.5.1 and 10.5.3). The sign of the
temperature and dew point shall be coded as 1 if the value is below 0EC and 0 if the value is 0EC or
higher. The temperature and dew point shall be reported in tens, units, and tenths of degrees Celsius.
There shall be no spaces between the entries. For example, a temperature of 2.6EC and dew point of -
1.5EC would be reported in the body of the report as "03/M01" and the TsnT’T’T’snT’dT’dT’d group as
"T00261015". If dew point is missing report the temperature; if the temperature is missing do not report
the temperature/dew point group.

e. 6-Hourly Maximum Temperature (1snTxTxTx). At designated stations, the 6-hourly maximum
temperature group shall be coded in the format, 1snTxTxTx, where 1 is the group indicator, sn is the sign
of the temperature, TxTxTx is the maximum temperature in tenths of degrees Celsius using three digits
(see paragraphs 10.4.4, 10.5.2, and 10.5.3). The sign of the maximum temperature shall be coded as
1 if the maximum temperature is below 0EC and 0 if the maximum temperature is 0EC or higher. For
example, a maximum temperature of -2.1EC would be coded "11021"; 14.2EC would be coded
"10142".
f. 6-Hourly Minimum Temperature (2snTnTnTn). At designated stations, the 6-hourly minimum
temperature group shall be coded in the format, 2snTnTnTn, where 2 is the group indicator, sn is the sign
of the temperature, and TnTnTn is the minimum temperature in tenths of degrees Celsius using three
digits (see paragraphs 10.4.4, 10.5.2, and 10.5.3). The sign of the minimum temperature shall be coded
as 1 if the minimum temperature is below 0EC and 0 if the minimum temperature is 0EC or higher. For
example, a minimum temperature of -0.1EC would be coded "21001"; 1.2EC would be coded "20012".
g. 24-Hour Maximum and Minimum Temperature (4snTxTxTxsnTnTnTn). At designated stations, the
24-hour maximum temperature and the 24-hour minimum temperature shall be coded in the format,
4snTxTxTxsnTnTnTn, where 4 is the group indicator, sn is the sign of the temperature, xT xT xT is the
maximum 24-hour temperature, and TnTnTn is the 24-hour minimum temperature (see paragraphs 10.4.4,
10.5.2, and 10.5.3). TxTxTx and TnTnTn shall be coded in tenths of degrees Celsius using three digits.
The sign of the maximum or minimum temperature shall be coded as 1 if it is below 0EC and 0 if it is
0EC or higher. For example, a 24-hour maximum temperature of 10.0EC and a 24-hour minimum
temperature of -1.5EC would be coded "401001015"; a 24-hour maximum temperature of 11.2EC and
a 24-hour minimum temperature of 8.4EC would be coded as "401120084".
h. 3-Hourly Pressure Tendency (5appp). At designated stations, the 3-hourly pressure tendency group
shall be coded in the format, 5appp, where 5 is the group indicator, a is the character of pressure change
over the past 3 hours (see Table 12-7), and ppp is the amount of barometric change in tenths of
hectopascals (see Table 12-8). The amount of barometric change shall be coded using the tens, units,
and tenths digits (see paragraphs 11.4.7 and 11.5.4). For example, a steady increase of 3.2 hectopascals
in the past three hours would be coded "52032".

Table 12-7 Characteristics of Barometer Tendency
Primary Code
Description
Requirement Figure
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Table 12-8. 3-Hour Pressure Change
Amount of Barometric Change (Rise or Fall) in the Past 3 Hours "ppp"
Code Inches of Hectopascals Code Inches of Hectopascals Code Inches of Hectopascals
Figure Mercury Figure Mercury Figure Mercury

K 5GPUQT5VCVWU+PFKECVQTU5GPUQTUVCVWUKPFKECVQTUUJQWNFDGTGRQTVGFCUKPFKECVGFDGNQY

KHVJG4WPYC[8KUWCN4CPIGUJQWNFDGTGRQTVGFDWVKUOKUUKPI48401UJCNNDGEQFGF

YJGPCWVQOCVGFUVCVKQPUCTGGSWKRRGFYKVJCRTGUGPVYGCVJGTKFGPVKHKGTCPFVJCVUGPUQTKUPQV
QRGTCVKPIVJGTGOCTM29+01UJCNNDGEQFGF

YJGPCWVQOCVGFUVCVKQPUCTGGSWKRRGFYKVJCVKRRKPIDWEMGVTCKPICWIGCPFVJCVUGPUQTKUPQV
QRGTCVKPI201UJCNNDGEQFGF

YJGP CWVQOCVGF UVCVKQPU CTG GSWKRRGF YKVJ C HTGG\KPI TCKP UGPUQT CPF VJCV UGPUQT KU PQV
QRGTCVKPIVJGTGOCTM(<4#01UJCNNDGEQFGF

YJGPCWVQOCVGFUVCVKQPUCTGGSWKRRGFYKVJCNKIJVPKPIFGVGEVKQPU[UVGOCPFVJCVUGPUQTKUPQV
QRGTCVKPIVJGTGOCTM6501UJCNNDGEQFGF

YJGPCWVQOCVGFUVCVKQPUCTGGSWKRRGFYKVJCUGEQPFCT[XKUKDKNKV[UGPUQTCPFVJCVUGPUQTKUPQV
QRGTCVKPIVJGTGOCTM8+501A.1%UJCNNDGEQFGF

YJGPCWVQOCVGFUVCVKQPUCTGGSWKRRGFYKVJCUGEQPFCT[EGKNKPIJGKIJVKPFKECVQTCPFVJCVUGPUQT
KUPQVQRGTCVKPIVJGTGOCTM%*+01A.1%UJCNNDGEQFGF

L /CKPVGPCPEG+PFKECVQT#OCKPVGPCPEGKPFKECVQTUKIPUJCNNDGEQFGFYJGPCPCWVQOCVGFU[UVGO
FGVGEVUVJCVOCKPVGPCPEGKUPGGFGFQPVJGU[UVGO

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6JGVGTOUCPFFGHKPKVKQPURTGUGPVGFKPVJKUINQUUCT[CTGKPCEEQTFCPEGYKVJVJGKTWUCIGKPVJKU*CPFDQQM
JQWTN[TGRQTV#/'6#4VCMGPCVQT76%

JQWTN[TGRQTV#/'6#4VCMGPCVQT76%

CEVWCNVKOGQHQDUGTXCVKQP(QT/'6#4UKVKUVJGVKOGVJGNCUVGNGOGPVQHVJGTGRQTVKUQDUGTXGFQT
GXCNWCVGF(QT52'%+UKVKUVJGVKOGVJCVVJGETKVGTKCHQTC52'%+YCUOGVQTPQVGF

CFFKVKXGFCVC#ITQWRQHEQFGFTGOCTMUVJCVKPENWFGURTGUUWTGVGPFGPE[COQWPVQHRTGEKRKVCVKQPCPF
OCZKOWOOKPKOWOVGORGTCVWTGFWTKPIURGEKHKGFRGTKQFUQHVKOG

CKTETCHVOKUJCR#PKPENWUKXGVGTOVQFGPQVGVJGQEEWTTGPEGQHCPCKTETCHVCEEKFGPVQTKPEKFGPV

#KTRQTV .QECVKQP 2QKPV #.2 VJG RGTOCPGPV CKTRQTV TGHGTGPEG RQKPV FGHKPGF D[ VJG NCVKVWFG CPF
NQPIKVWFGRWDNKUJGFKPVJG#KTRQTV(CEKNKV[&KTGEVQT[

CNIQTKVJO#UGVQHTWNGUKORNGOGPVGF
WUWCNN[KPCEQORWVGTVQRTQEGUUFCVCCPFIGPGTCVGFGHKPGF
QWVRWVU

CNVKOGVGTUGVVKPI6JCVRTGUUWTGXCNWGVQYJKEJCPCKTETCHVCNVKOGVGTUECNGKUUGVUQVJCVKVYKNNKPFKECVG
VJGCNVKVWFGCDQXGOGCPUGCNGXGNQHCPCKTETCHVQPVJGITQWPFCVVJGNQECVKQPHQTYJKEJVJGXCNWGYCU
FGVGTOKPGF
CTEJKXG#RGTOCPGPVTGEQTFQHUWTHCEGYGCVJGTTGRQTVUCPFTGNCVGFFCVCWUGFVQGUVCDNKUJCENKOCVQNQIKECN
TGEQTFHQTVJG7PKVGF5VCVGU

CVOQURJGTKERTGUUWTG6JGRTGUUWTGGZGTVGFD[VJGCVOQURJGTGCVCIKXGPRQKPV
UGGCNVKOGVGTUGVVKPI
RTGUUWTGUGCNGXGNRTGUUWTGUVCVKQPRTGUUWTG

CWIOGPVGFTGRQTV#OGVGQTQNQIKECNTGRQTVRTGRCTGFD[CPCWVQOCVGFUWTHCEGYGCVJGTQDUGTXKPIU[UVGO
HQTVTCPUOKUUKQPYKVJEGTVKHKGFQDUGTXGTUUKIPGFQPVQVJGU[UVGOVQCFFKPHQTOCVKQPVQVJGTGRQTV

CWVQOCVGFTGRQTV#OGVGQTQNQIKECNTGRQTVRTGRCTGFD[CPCWVQOCVGFUWTHCEGYGCVJGTQDUGTXKPIU[UVGO
HQTVTCPUOKUUKQPCPFYKVJPQEGTVKHKGFYGCVJGTQDUGTXGTUUKIPGFQPVQVJGU[UVGO

DCEMWR#PCNVGTPCVGOGVJQFHQTRTQXKFKPICOGVGQTQNQIKECNTGRQTVRCTVUQHTGRQTVUQTFQEWOGPVCVKQP
QHTGRQTVUYJGPVJGRTKOCT[OGVJQFKUWPCXCKNCDNG

DCTQITCO#PCPCNQITGEQTFQHRTGUUWTGRTQFWEGFD[CDCTQITCRJ

DCTQITCRJ#TGEQTFKPIDCTQOGVGT

DCTQOGVGT#PKPUVTWOGPVVJCVOGCUWTGUCVOQURJGTKERTGUUWTG

DCTQOGVTKERTGUUWTG6JGCEVWCNRTGUUWTGXCNWGKPFKECVGFD[CRTGUUWTGUGPUQT

DNQYKPI#FGUETKRVQTWUGFVQCORNKH[QDUGTXGFYGCVJGTRJGPQOGPCYJGPGXGTVJGRJGPQOGPCCTGTCKUGF
VQCJGKIJVQHHGGVQTOQTGCDQXGVJGITQWPF

DNQYKPIFWUV&WUVRKEMGFWRNQECNN[HTQOVJGUWTHCEGQHVJGGCTVJCPFDNQYPCDQWVKPENQWFUQTUJGGVU
TGFWEKPIVJGTGRQTVGFJQTK\QPVCNXKUKDKNKV[VQNGUUVJCPUVCVWVGOKNGU

DNQYKPIUCPF5CPFRCTVKENGURKEMGFWRHTQOVJGUWTHCEGQHVJGGCTVJD[VJGYKPFVQOQFGTCVGJGKIJVU
CDQXGVJGITQWPFTGFWEKPIVJGTGRQTVGFJQTK\QPVCNXKUKDKNKV[VQNGUUVJCPUVCVWVGOKNGU

DNQYKPIUPQY5PQYNKHVGFHTQOVJGUWTHCEGQHVJGGCTVJD[VJGYKPFVQCJGKIJVQHHGGVQTOQTGCDQXG
VJGITQWPFCPFDNQYPCDQWVKPUWEJSWCPVKVKGUVJCVVJGTGRQTVGFJQTK\QPVCNXKUKDKNKV[KUTGFWEGFVQNGUUVJCP
OKNGU
#
DNQYKPIURTC[9CVGTFTQRNGVUVQTPD[VJGYKPFHTQOCDQF[QHYCVGTIGPGTCNN[HTQOVJGETGUVUQH
YCXGUCPFECTTKGFWRKPVQVJGCKTKPUWEJSWCPVKVKGUVJCVVJG[TGFWEGVJGTGRQTVGFJQTK\QPVCNXKUKDKNKV[VQ
NGUUVJCPUVCVWVGOKNGU

DQF[QHTGRQTV6JCVRQTVKQPQHC/'6#4QT52'%+DGIKPPKPIYKVJVJGV[RGQHTGRQTVCPFGPFKPIYKVJ
VJGCNVKOGVGTUGVVKPI

DTQMGPNC[GT#NC[GTEQXGTKPIYJQUGUWOOCVKQPCOQWPVQHUM[EQXGTKUVJUVJTQWIJVJU

ECNO#EQPFKVKQPYJGPPQOQVKQPQHVJGCKTKUFGVGEVGF

ECPFGNC#WPKVQHNWOKPQWUKPVGPUKV[GSWCNVQQHVJGNWOKPQWUKPVGPUKV[QHCUSWCTGEGPVKOGVGTQH
CDNCEMDQF[JGCVGFVQFGITGGU%GNUKWU

EGKNKPI6JGNQYGUVNC[GTCNQHVTGRQTVGFCUDTQMGPQTQXGTECUVQTVJGXGTVKECNXKUKDKNKV[KPVQCPKPFGHKPKVG
EGKNKPI

EGKNKPINKIJV#V[RGQHENQWFJGKIJVKPFKECVQTVJCVWUGUCHQEWUGFNKIJVVQRTQLGEVXGTVKECNN[CPCTTQY
DGCOQHNKIJVQPVQCENQWFDCUG

EGKNQOGVGT#FGXKEGWUGFVQGXCNWCVGVJGJGKIJVQHENQWFUQTVJGXGTVKECNXKUKDKNKV[KPVQCUWTHCEGDCUGF
QDUEWTCVKQP

EGTVKHKGFQDUGTXGT#PKPFKXKFWCNCRRTQXGFD[FGUKIPCVGF(GFGTCNCIGPEKGUVQVCMGUWTHCEGQDUGTXCVKQPU
WUGFKPCKTETCHVQRGTCVKQPU

ENGCTUM[6JGCDUGPEGQHUM[EQXGT

ENQWF#XKUKDNGCIITGICVGQHOKPWVGYCVGTFTQRNGVUQTKEGRCTVKENGUKPVJGCVOQURJGTGCDQXGVJG'CTVJ U
UWTHCEG

ENQWFCKTNKIJVPKPI
%#5VTGCMUQHNKIJVPKPIYJKEJRCUUHTQOCENQWFVQVJGCKTDWVFQPQVUVTKMGVJG
ITQWPF
ENQWFENQWFNKIJVPKPI
%%5VTGCMUQHNKIJVPKPITGCEJKPIHTQOQPGENQWFVQCPQVJGT

ENQWFITQWPFNKIJVPKPI
%).KIJVPKPIQEEWTTKPIDGVYGGPENQWFCPFITQWPF

ENQWFJGKIJV6JGJGKIJVQHVJGDCUGQHCENQWFQTENQWFNC[GTCDQXGVJGUWTHCEGQHVJGGCTVJ

ENQWFNC[GT#PCTTC[QHENQWFUYJQUGDCUGUCTGCVCRRTQZKOCVGN[VJGUCOGNGXGN

ENQWFOQXGOGPV6JGFKTGEVKQPVQYCTFYJKEJCENQWFKUOQXKPI

ENQWFV[RG#ENQWFHQTOYJKEJKUKFGPVKHKGFCEEQTFKPIVQVJG9/1+PVGTPCVKQPCN%NQWF#VNCU

EQPVTCEVKQP#UJQTVGPGFHQTOQHCYQTFVKVNGQTRJTCUGWUGFHQTDTGXKV[

%QQTFKPCVGF7PKXGTUCN6KOG
76%6JGVKOGKPVJG\GTQFGITGGOGTKFKCPVKOG\QPG

EWOWNWU#RTKPEKRCNENQWFV[RGKPVJGHQTOQHKPFKXKFWCNFGVCEJGFGNGOGPVUYJKEJCTGIGPGTCNN[FGPUG
CPFRQUUGUUUJCTRPQPHKDTQWUQWVNKPGU

EWOWNQPKODWU#PGZEGRVKQPCNN[FGPUGCPFXGTVKECNN[FGXGNQRGFENQWFQEEWTTKPIGKVJGTKUQNCVGFQTCU
CNKPGQTYCNNQHENQWFUYKVJUGRCTCVGFWRRGTRQTVKQPU6JGUGENQWFUCRRGCTCUOQWPVCKPUQTJWIGVQYGTU
CVNGCUVCRCTVQHVJGWRRGTRQTVKQPUQHYJKEJCTGWUWCNN[UOQQVJHKDTQWUQTUVTKCVGFCPFCNOQUVHNCVVGPGF

FGUKIPCVGF484TWPYC[#TWPYC[CVEKXKNKCPCKTRQTVUFGUKIPCVGFD[VJG(##HQTTGRQTVKPI484
#
FGUKIPCVGFUVCVKQPU9GCVJGTQDUGTXKPIUVCVKQPUVJCVJCXGVJGECRCDKNKV[CPFJCXGDGGPKPUVTWEVGFD[VJGKT
TGURQPUKDNGCIGPE[VQRGTHQTOCURGEKHKGFVCUMVJCVKUPQVTGSWKTGFD[UVCPFCTFUVQDGRGTHQTOGFCVCNN
UVCVKQPU

FGYRQKPV6JGVGORGTCVWTGVQYJKEJCIKXGPRCTEGNQHCKTOWUVDGEQQNGFCVEQPUVCPVRTGUUWTGCPF
EQPUVCPVYCVGTXCRQTEQPVGPVKPQTFGTHQTUCVWTCVKQPVQQEEWT

FKCOQPFFWUV5GGKEGET[UVCNU

FKUUGOKPCVKQP6JGCEVQHFGNKXGTKPICEQORNGVGFYGCVJGTTGRQTVVQWUGTU

FTK\\NG(CKTN[WPKHQTORTGEKRKVCVKQPEQORQUGFGZENWUKXGN[QHHKPGFTQRU
FKCOGVGTNGUUVJCPKPEJ
QTOOXGT[ENQUGVQIGVJGT&TK\\NGCRRGCTUVQHNQCVYJKNGHQNNQYKPICKTEWTTGPVCNVJQWIJWPNKMGHQI
FTQRNGVUKVHCNNUVQVJGITQWPF

FWTCVKQPQHUWPUJKPG6JGCOQWPVQHVKOGUWPNKIJVYCUFGVGEVGFCVCIKXGPRQKPV

FWUV
UGGYKFGURTGCFFWUV

FWUVUVQTO # UGXGTG YGCVJGT EQPFKVKQP EJCTCEVGTK\GF D[ UVTQPI YKPFU CPF FWUVHKNNGF CKT QXGT CP
GZVGPUKXGCTGC

GNGOGPV1PGQHVJGDCUKEEQPFKVKQPUQHVJGCVOQURJGTGFKUEWUUGFKPVJKU(/*
YKPFXKUKDKNKV[TWPYC[
XKUWCN TCPIG YGCVJGT QDUEWTCVKQPU UM[ EQPFKVKQP VGORGTCVWTG CPF FGYRQKPV CPF RTGUUWTG 5GG
RCTCOGVGT

HGY#NC[GTYJQUGUWOOCVKQPCOQWPVQHUM[EQXGTKUVJVJTQWIJVJU

HKGNFGNGXCVKQP6JGGNGXCVKQPCDQXGUGCNGXGNQHVJGJKIJGUVRQKPVQPCP[QHVJGTWPYC[UQHVJGCKTRQTV

HQI#XKUKDNGCIITGICVGQHOKPWVGYCVGTRCTVKENGU
FTQRNGVUYJKEJCTGDCUGFCVVJG'CTVJ UUWTHCEGCPF
TGFWEGJQTK\QPVCNXKUKDKNKV[VQNGUUVJCPUVCVWVGOKNGCPFWPNKMGFTK\\NGKVFQGUPQVHCNNVQVJGITQWPF

HTGG\KPI#FGUETKRVQT(<WUGFVQFGUETKDGFTK\\NGCPFQTTCKPVJCVHTGG\GUQPEQPVCEVYKVJVJGITQWPF
QTGZRQUGFQDLGEVUCPFWUGFCNUQVQFGUETKDGHQIVJCVKUEQORQUGFQHOKPWVGKEGET[UVCNU

HTGG\KPIFTK\\NG&TK\\NGVJCVHTGG\GUWRQPKORCEVYKVJVJGITQWPFQTQVJGTGZRQUGFQDLGEVU

HTGG\KPIHQI#UWURGPUKQPQHPWOGTQWUOKPWVGKEGET[UVCNUKPVJGCKTQTYCVGTFTQRNGVUCVVGORGTCVWTGU
DGNQYE%GNUKWUDCUGFCVVJG'CTVJ UUWTHCEGYJKEJTGFWEGUJQTK\QPVCNXKUKDKNKV[

HTGG\KPIRTGEKRKVCVKQP#P[HQTOQHRTGEKRKVCVKQPVJCVHTGG\GUWRQPKORCEVCPFHQTOUCINC\GQPVJG
ITQWPFQTGZRQUGFQDLGEVU

HTGG\KPITCKP4CKPVJCVHTGG\GUWRQPKORCEVCPFHQTOUCINC\GQPVJGITQWPFQTGZRQUGFQDLGEVU

HTQ\GPRTGEKRKVCVKQP#P[HQTOQHRTGEKRKVCVKQPVJCVTGCEJGUVJGITQWPFKPUQNKFHQTO
UPQYUOCNNJCKN
CPFQTUPQYRGNNGVUUPQYITCKPUJCKNKEGRGNNGVUCPFKEGET[UVCNU

HWPPGNENQWF#XKQNGPVTQVCVKPIEQNWOPQHCKTYJKEJFQGUPQVVQWEJVJGUWTHCEGWUWCNN[CRRGPFGFVQ
CEWOWNQPKODWUENQWF

INC\G+EGHQTOGFD[HTGG\KPIRTGEKRKVCVKQPEQXGTKPIVJGITQWPFQTGZRQUGFQDLGEVU
#
ITQWPF GNGXCVKQP 6JG QHHKEKCN JGKIJV QH C YGCVJGT UVCVKQP YKVJ TGHGTGPEG VQ UGCNGXGN YJGP C HKGNF
GNGXCVKQPJCUPQVDGGPGUVCDNKUJGF+VKUVJGJGKIJVQHVJGITQWPFCVVJGDCUGQHVJGEGKNQOGVGT

ITQWPFHQI5GGUJCNNQYHQI

IWUV4CRKFHNWEVWCVKQPUKPYKPFURGGFYKVJCXCTKCVKQPQHMPQVUQTOQTGDGVYGGPRGCMUCPFNWNNU

JCKN2TGEKRKVCVKQPKPVJGHQTOQHUOCNNDCNNUQTQVJGTRKGEGUQHKEGHCNNKPIUGRCTCVGN[QTHTQ\GPVQIGVJGT
KPKTTGIWNCTNWORU

JC\G#UWURGPUKQPKPVJGCKTQHGZVTGOGN[UOCNNFT[RCTVKENGUKPXKUKDNGVQVJGPCMGFG[GCPFUWHHKEKGPVN[
PWOGTQWUVQIKXGVJGCKTCPQRCNGUEGPVCRRGCTCPEG

JGEVQRCUECN#WPKVQHOGCUWTGQHCVOQURJGTKERTGUUWTGGSWCNVQPGYVQPURGTUSWCTGOGVGT

JQTK\QP6JGCEVWCNNQYGTDQWPFCT[QHVJGQDUGTXGFUM[QTVJGWRRGTQWVNKPGQHVGTTGUVTKCNQDLGEVU
KPENWFKPIPGCTD[PCVWTCNQDUVTWEVKQPU+VKUVJGFKUVCPVNKPGCNQPIYJKEJVJGGCTVJQTVJGYCVGTUWTHCEGCV
UGCCPFVJGUM[CRRGCTVQOGGV

KEGET[UVCNU
FKCOQPFFWUV#HCNNQHPQPDTCPEJGF
UPQYET[UVCNUCTGDTCPEJGFKEGET[UVCNUKPVJGHQTO
QHPGGFNGUEQNWOPUQTRNCVGU

KEGHQI5GGHTGG\KPIHQI

KEGRGNNGVU2TGEKRKVCVKQPQHVTCPURCTGPVQTVTCPUNWEGPVRGNNGVUQHKEGYJKEJCTGTQWPFQTKTTGIWNCTTCTGN[
EQPKECNCPFYJKEJJCXGCFKCOGVGTQHKPEJ
OOQTNGUU6JGTGCTGVYQOCKPV[RGU

C *CTFITCKPUQHKEGEQPUKUVKPIQHHTQ\GPTCKPFTQRUQTNCTIGN[OGNVGFCPFTGHTQ\GPUPQYHNCMGU

D 2GNNGVUQHUPQYGPECUGFKPCVJKPNC[GTQHKEGYJKEJJCXGHQTOGFHTQOVJGHTGG\KPIGKVJGTQH
FTQRNGVUKPVGTEGRVGFD[VJGRGNNGVUQTQHYCVGTTGUWNVKPIHTQOVJGRCTVKCNOGNVKPIQHVJGRGNNGVU

KPENQWFNKIJVPKPI
+%.KIJVPKPIYJKEJVCMGURNCEGYKVJKPVJGENQWF

KPFGHKPKVG EGKNKPI 6JG EGKNKPI ENCUUKHKECVKQP CRRNKGF YJGP VJG TGRQTVGF EGKNKPI XCNWG TGRTGUGPVU VJG
XGTVKECNXKUKDKNKV[WRYCTFKPVQUWTHCEGDCUGFQDUEWTCVKQP

KPVGPUKV[SWCNKHKGT+PVGPUKV[SWCNKHKGTUCTGWUGFVQFGUETKDGYJGVJGTCRJGPQOGPCKUNKIJV
OQFGTCVG
PQU[ODQNWUGFQTJGCX[

NC[GT#PCTTC[QHENQWFUCPFQTQDUEWTCVKQPUYJQUGDCUGUCTGCVCRRTQZKOCVGN[VJGUCOGNGXGN

NC[GTCOQWPV6JGCOQWPVQHUM[EQXGTGFD[ENQWFUCPFQTQDUEWTCVKQPUCVCIKXGPNGXGNCDQXGVJG
'CTVJ UUWTHCEG

NC[GTJGKIJV6JGJGKIJVQHVJGDCUGUQHGCEJTGRQTVGFNC[GTQHENQWFUCPFQTQDUEWTCVKQPQTVJGXGTVKECN
XKUKDKNKV[KPVQCPKPFGHKPKVGEGKNKPI

NKIJVPKPI 6JG NWOKPQWU RJGPQOGPQP CEEQORCP[KPI C UWFFGP GNGEVTKECN FKUEJCTIG
UGG ENQWFCKT
NKIJVPKPIENQWFENQWFNKIJVPKPIENQWFITQWPFNKIJVPKPICPFKPENQWFNKIJVPKPI

NKSWKFRTGEKRKVCVKQP#P[HQTOQHRTGEKRKVCVKQPVJCVFQGUPQVHCNNCUHTQ\GPRTGEKRKVCVKQPCPFFQGUPQV
HTGG\GWRQPKORCEV

NQECNFKUUGOKPCVKQP6JGVTCPUOKUUKQPQTFGNKXGT[QHCYGCVJGTTGRQTVVQKPFKXKFWCNUQTITQWRUQHWUGTU
PGCTVJGQDUGTXKPINQECVKQP

.QECN5VCPFCTF6KOG
.56#VKOGDCUGFQPVJGIGQITCRJKENQECVKQPQHVJGUVCVKQPKPQPGQHVJGNGICNN[
GUVCDNKUJGFVKOG\QPGUQHVJGINQDG
#
NQPINKPG FKUUGOKPCVKQP
CNUQ NQPINKPG VTCPUOKUUKQP 6JG VTCPUOKUUKQP QH C YGCVJGT TGRQTV D[ C
EQOOWPKECVKQPOGFKCVQCITQWRQHWUGTUQPCTGIKQPCNQTPCVKQPCNUECNG

NQPIVGTOTGVGPVKQP4GVGPVKQPQHFCVCHQT[GCTUVQUCVKUH[TGSWKTGOGPVUHQTNQECNUVWFKGUCPFVQUWRRQTV
NKVKICVKQP

NQYFTKHVKPI#FGUETKRVQT&4WUGFVQFGUETKDGUPQYUCPFQTFWUVTCKUGFVQCJGKIJVQHNGUUVJCPHGGV
CDQXGVJGITQWPF

NQYFTKHVKPIFWUV&WUVVJCVKUTCKUGFD[VJGYKPFVQNGUUVJCPHGGVCDQXGVJGITQWPFXKUKDKNKV[KUPQV
TGFWEGFDGNQYUVCVWVGOKNGUCVG[GNGXGNCNVJQWIJQDLGEVUDGNQYVJKUNGXGNOC[DGXGKNGFQTJKFFGPD[
VJGRCTVKENGUOQXKPIPGCTN[JQTK\QPVCNVQVJGITQWPF

NQYFTKHVKPIUCPF5CPFVJCVKUTCKUGFD[VJGYKPFVQNGUUVJCPHGGVCDQXGVJGITQWPFXKUKDKNKV[KUPQV

NQYFTKHVKPIUPQY5PQYVJCVKUTCKUGFD[VJGYKPFVQNGUUVJCPHGGVCDQXGVJGITQWPFXKUKDKNKV[KUPQV

OCPWCNUVCVKQP#UVCVKQPYKVJQTYKVJQWVCPCWVQOCVGFUWTHCEGYGCVJGTQDUGTXKPIU[UVGOYJGTGVJG
EGTVKHKGFQDUGTXGTUCTGVQVCNN[TGURQPUKDNGHQTCNNOGVGQTQNQIKECNTGRQTVUVJCVCTGVTCPUOKVVGF

OCZKOWOVGORGTCVWTG6JGJKIJGUVVGORGTCVWTGFWTKPICURGEKHKGFVKOGRGTKQF

OC[#VGTOWUGFVQKPFKECVGVJCVCUVCPFCTFKUQRVKQPCN

/'6#452'%+#PGXCNWCVKQPQHUGNGEVYGCVJGTGNGOGPVUHTQOCRQKPVQTRQKPVUQPQTPGCTVJGITQWPF
CEEQTFKPIVQCUGVQHRTQEGFWTGU+VOC[KPENWFGV[RGQHTGRQTVUVCVKQPKFGPVKHKGTFCVGCPFVKOGQHTGRQTV
CTGRQTVOQFKHKGTYKPFXKUKDKNKV[TWPYC[XKUWCNTCPIGYGCVJGTCPFQDUVTWEVKQPUVQXKUKQPUM[EQPFKVKQP
VGORGTCVWTGCPFFGYRQKPVCNVKOGVGTUGVVKPICPF4GOCTMU

/'6#452'%+EQFG9/1EQFGHQTOU
(/:'ZV/'6#4CPF(/:'ZV52'%+EQPUKUVKPI
QHCDDTGXKCVKQPUEQPVTCEVKQPUPWODGTURNCKPNCPIWCIGCPFU[ODQNUVQRTQXKFGCWPKHQTOOGCPUQH
FKUUGOKPCVKPIUWTHCEGYGCVJGTTGRQTVU

OKPKOWOVGORGTCVWTG6JGNQYGUVVGORGTCVWTGFWTKPICURGEKHKGFVKOGRGTKQF

OKUV#XKUKDNGCIITGICVGQHOKPWVGYCVGTFTQRNGVUQTKEGET[UVCNUUWURGPFGFKPVJGCVOQURJGTGVJCV
TGFWEGUXKUKDKNKV[VQNGUUVJCPUVCVWVGOKNGUDWVITGCVGTVJCPQTGSWCNVQUVCVWVGOKNG

PQPWPKHQTOUM[EQPFKVKQP#NQECNK\GFUM[EQPFKVKQPYJKEJXCTKGUHTQOVJCVTGRQTVGFKPVJGDQF[QH
VJGTGRQTV

PQPWPKHQTOXKUKDKNKV[#NQECNK\GFXKUKDKNKV[YJKEJXCTKGUHTQOVJCVTGRQTVGFKPVJGDQF[QHVJGTGRQTV

QDUEWTGFUM[6JGEQPFKVKQPYJGPVJGGPVKTGUM[KUJKFFGPD[UWTHCEGDCUGFQDUEWTCVKQPU

QDUEWTCVKQPU#P[RJGPQOGPQPKPVJGCVOQURJGTGQVJGTVJCPRTGEKRKVCVKQPVJCVTGFWEGUVJGJQTK\QPVCN
XKUKDKNKV[KPVJGCVOQURJGTG

QDUGTXKPINQECVKQP6JGRQKPVQTRQKPVUHTQOYJKEJCPGNGOGPVKUGXCNWCVGF

QDUGTXKPIUVCVKQP6JGRQKPVQTRQKPVUHTQOYJKEJVJGXCTKQWUGNGOGPVUQHVJGTGRQTVCTGGXCNWCVGF

QXGTECUV#NC[GTYJQUGUWOOCVKQPCOQWPVQHUM[EQXGTKUVJU
#
RCTCOGVGT#UWDUGVQHVJGITQWRQHGXCNWCVKQPUVJCVEQPUVKVWVGGCEJGNGOGPVQHCPQDUGTXCVKQPGIUM[
EQPFKVKQPKUCPGNGOGPVUM[EQXGTCPFEGKNKPICTGRCTCOGVGTU

RCTVKCN#FGUETKRVQT24WUGFQPN[VQTGRQTVHQIVJCVEQXGTURCTVQHVJGCKTRQTV

RCTVKCNHQI#UWDUVCPVKCNRCTVQHVJGUVCVKQPEQXGTGFD[HQIYJKNGVJGTGOCKPFGTKUENGCTQHHQI

RCVEJGU#FGUETKRVQT$%WUGFQPN[VQTGRQTVHQIVJCVQEEWTUKPRCVEJGUCVVJGCKTRQTV

RCVEJGU
QHHQI(QIRCVEJGUYJKEJTCPFQON[EQXGTVJGUVCVKQP

RGCM YKPF URGGF 6JG OCZKOWO KPUVCPVCPGQWU YKPF URGGF UKPEG VJG NCUV /'6#4 VJCV GZEGGFGF
MPQVU

RTGEKRKVCVKQP#P[QHVJGHQTOUQHYCVGTRCTVKENGUYJGVJGTNKSWKFQTUQNKFVJCVHCNNHTQOVJGCVOQURJGTG
CPFTGCEJVJGITQWPF

RTGEKRKVCVKQPFKUETKOKPCVQT#UGPUQTQTCTTC[QHUGPUQTUVJCVFKHHGTGPVKCVGUDGVYGGPFKHHGTGPVV[RGU
QHRTGEKRKVCVKQP
NKSWKFHTGG\KPIHTQ\GP

RTGEKRKVCVKQP KPVGPUKV[ #P KPFKECVKQP QH VJG TCVG CV YJKEJ RTGEKRKVCVKQP KU HCNNKPI CV VJG VKOG QH
QDUGTXCVKQP

RTGEKRKVCVKQPTCVG6JGCOQWPVQHYCVGTNKSWKFQTUQNKFVJCVTGCEJGUVJGITQWPFKPCURGEKHKGFRGTKQF
QHVKOG

RTGUUWTG6JGHQTEGGZGTVGFD[CEQNWOPQHCKTCDQXGVJGRQKPVQHOGCUWTGOGPV

RTGUUWTGEJCPIG6JGPGVFKHHGTGPEGDGVYGGPRTGUUWTGTGCFKPIUCVVJGDGIKPPKPICPFGPFKPIQHCURGEKHKGF
KPVGTXCNQHVKOG

RTGUUWTGEJCTCEVGTKUVKE6JGKPFKECVKQPQHJQYVJGRTGUUWTGJCUDGGPEJCPIKPIFWTKPICURGEKHKGFRGTKQF
QHVKOGWUWCNN[VJGJQWTRGTKQFRTGEGFKPICPQDUGTXCVKQPGIFGETGCUKPIVJGPKPETGCUKPIRTGUUWTG
UCOGQTNQYGTVJCPJQWTUCIQ

RTGUUWTGHCNNKPITCRKFN[#FGETGCUGKPUVCVKQPRTGUUWTGCVCTCVGQHKPEJQHOGTEWT[QTOQTGRGT
JQWTYJKEJVQVCNUKPEJQTOQTG

RTGUUWTGTGFWEVKQPECNEWNCVQT#FGXKEGWUGFVQEQORWVGUGCNGXGNRTGUUWTGUVCVKQPRTGUUWTGCNVKOGVGT
UGVVKPIRTGUUWTGCNVKVWFGGVE

RTGUUWTGTKUKPITCRKFN[#PKPETGCUGKPUVCVKQPRTGUUWTGCVCTCVGQHKPEJQHOGTEWT[QTOQTGRGT
JQWTYJKEJVQVCNUKPEJQTOQTG

RTGUUWTGVGPFGPE[6JGEJCTCEVGTCPFCOQWPVQHCVOQURJGTKERTGUUWTGEJCPIGFWTKPICURGEKHKGFRGTKQF
QHVKOGWUWCNN[VJGJQWTRGTKQFRTGEGFKPICPQDUGTXCVKQP

RTGUUWTGWPUVGCF[#RTGUUWTGVJCVHNWEVWCVGUD[KPEJQHOGTEWT[QTOQTGHTQOVJGOGCPRTGUUWTG
FWTKPIVJGRGTKQFQHOGCUWTGOGPV

RTGXCKNKPI XKUKDKNKV[ 6JG XKUKDKNKV[ VJCV KU EQPUKFGTGF TGRTGUGPVCVKXG QH EQPFKVKQPU CV VJG UVCVKQP VJG
ITGCVGUVFKUVCPEGVJCVECPDGUGGPVJTQWIJQWVCVNGCUVJCNHVJGJQTK\QPEKTENGPQVPGEGUUCTKN[EQPVKPWQWU

TCKP2TGEKRKVCVKQPGKVJGTKPVJGHQTOQHFTQRUNCTIGTVJCPKPEJ
OOQTUOCNNGTFTQRUYJKEJ
KPEQPVTCUVVQFTK\\NGCTGYKFGN[UGRCTCVGFHQTCWVQOCVGFUVCVKQPURTGEKRKVCVKQPVJCVTGOCKPUKPVJGNKSWKF
UVCVGWRQPKORCEVYKVJVJGITQWPFQTQVJGTGZRQUGFQDLGEVU

4GOCTMU2NCKPNCPIWCIGQTEQFGFFCVCCFFGFVQVJGDQF[QHVJG/'6#452'%+VQTGRQTVUKIPKHKECPV
KPHQTOCVKQPPQVRTQXKFGFHQTKPVJGDQF[QHVJGTGRQTV
#
TQVQTENQWF#VWTDWNGPVENQWFHQTOCVKQPHQWPFKPVJGNGGQHUQOGNCTIGOQWPVCKPDCTTKGTU6JGCKTKP
VJGENQWFTQVCVGUCTQWPFCPCZKURCTCNNGNVQVJGOQWPVCKPTCPIG

4WPYC[8KUWCN4CPIG
484#PKPUVTWOGPVCNN[FGTKXGFXCNWGDCUGFQPUVCPFCTFECNKDTCVKQPUVJCV
TGRTGUGPVUVJGJQTK\QPVCNFKUVCPEGCRKNQVOC[UGGFQYPVJGTWPYC[HTQOVJGCRRTQCEJGPF

UCPF.QQUGRCTVKENGUQHITCPWNCTOCVGTKCN

UCPFUVQTO2CTVKENGUQHUCPFECTTKGFCNQHVD[CUVTQPIYKPF6JGUCPFRCTVKENGUCTGOQUVN[EQPHKPGFVQ
VJGNQYGUVVGPHGGVCPFTCTGN[TKUGOQTGVJCPHKHV[HGGVCDQXGVJGITQWPF

UECVVGTGF#NC[GTYJQUGUWOOCVKQPCOQWPVQHUM[EQXGTKUVJUVJTQWIJVJU

UEJGFWNGFVKOGQHTGRQTV6JGVKOGCUEJGFWNGFTGRQTVKUTGSWKTGFVQDGCXCKNCDNGHQTVTCPUOKUUKQP

UGCNGXGNRTGUUWTG6JGRTGUUWTGXCNWGQDVCKPGFD[VJGVJGQTGVKECNTGFWEVKQPQTKPETGCUGQHDCTQOGVTKE
RTGUUWTGVQUGCNGXGN

UGEVQTXKUKDKNKV[6JGXKUKDKNKV[KPCURGEKHKGFFKTGEVKQPVJCVTGRTGUGPVUCVNGCUVCFGITGGCTEQHVJG
JQTK\QPEKTENG

UJCNN#VGTOWUGFVQKPFKECVGVJCVCUVCPFCTFKUOCPFCVQT[

UJCNNQY#FGUETKRVQT/+WUGFQPN[VQFGUETKDGHQIYJGPVJGXKUKDKNKV[CVHGGVCDQXGVJGITQWPFKU
VJUUVCVWVGOKNGQTOQTGCPFVJGCRRCTGPVXKUKDKNKV[KPVJGHQINC[GTKUNGUUVJCPVJUUVCVWVGOKNG

UJCNNQYHQI(QIKPYJKEJVJGXKUKDKNKV[CVHGGVCDQXGITQWPFNGXGNKUVJUUVCVWVGOKNGQTOQTGCPF
VJGCRRCTGPVXKUKDKNKV[KPVJGHQINC[GTKUNGUUVJCPVJUUVCVWVGOKNG

UJGGVKEG+EGHQTOGFD[VJGHTGG\KPIQHNKSWKFRTGEKRKVCVKQPQTVJGHTGG\KPIQHOGNVGFUQNKFRTGEKRKVCVKQP
UGGUPQYFGRVJ

UJQTVVGTOUVQTCIG5VQTCIGQHFCVCHQTQTOQTGFC[UVQCUUKUVKPUGPUQTU[UVGOOCKPVGPCPEGCPF
XGTKHKECVKQPQHUGPUQTU[UVGOTGEQTFUKPVJGGXGPVQHCPCKTETCHVOKUJCR

UJQWNF#VGTOWUGFVQKPFKECVGVJCVCUVCPFCTFKUTGEQOOGPFGF

UJQYGT
U#FGUETKRVQT5*WUGFVQSWCNKH[RTGEKRKVCVKQPEJCTCEVGTK\GFD[VJGUWFFGPPGUUYKVJYJKEJ
VJG[UVCTVCPFUVQRD[VJGTCRKFEJCPIGUQHKPVGPUKV[CPFWUWCNN[D[TCRKFEJCPIGUKPVJGCRRGCTCPEGQH
VJGUM[

UKIPKHKECPV ENQWFU %WOWNQPKODWU EWOWNQPKODWU OCOOCVWU VQYGTKPI EWOWNWU CNVQEWOWNWU
ECUVGNNCPWUCPFUVCPFKPINGPVKEWNCTQTTQVQTENQWFU

UM[EQPFKVKQP6JGUVCVGQHVJGUM[KPVGTOUQHUWEJRCTCOGVGTUCUUM[EQXGTNC[GTUCPFCUUQEKCVGF
JGKIJVUEGKNKPICPFENQWFV[RGU

UM[EQXGT6JGCOQWPVQHVJGUM[YJKEJKUEQXGTGFD[ENQWFUQTQDUEWTCVKQPUKPEQPVCEVYKVJVJGUWTHCEG

UOCNNJCKN5GGUPQYRGNNGVU

UOQMG#UWURGPUKQPKPVJGCKTQHUOCNNRCTVKENGURTQFWEGFD[EQODWUVKQP#VTCPUKVKQPVQJC\GOC[
QEEWTYJGPUOQMGRCTVKENGUJCXGVTCXGNGFITGCVFKUVCPEGU
VQUVCVWVGOKNGUQTOQTGCPFYJGPVJG
NCTIGTRCTVKENGUJCXGUGVVNGFQWVCPFVJGTGOCKPKPIRCTVKENGUJCXGDGEQOGYKFGN[UECVVGTGFVJTQWIJVJG
CVOQURJGTG

UPQY2TGEKRKVCVKQPQHUPQYET[UVCNUOQUVN[DTCPEJGFKPVJGHQTOQHUKZRQKPVGFUVCTUHQTCWVQOCVGF
UVCVKQPUCP[HQTOQHHTQ\GPRTGEKRKVCVKQPQVJGTVJCPJCKN
#
UPQY FGRVJ 6JG XGTVKECN JGKIJV QH HTQ\GP RTGEKRKVCVKQP QP VJG ITQWPF (QT VJKU RWTRQUG HTQ\GP
RTGEKRKVCVKQPKPENWFGUKEGRGNNGVUINC\GJCKNCP[EQODKPCVKQPQHVJGUGCPFUJGGVKEGHQTOGFFKTGEVN[QT
KPFKTGEVN[HTQORTGEKRKVCVKQP

UPQYITCKPU2TGEKRKVCVKQPQHXGT[UOCNNYJKVGQRCSWGITCKPUQHKEG

UPQYRGNNGVU2TGEKRKVCVKQPQHYJKVGQRCSWGITCKPUQHKEG6JGITCKPUCTGTQWPFQTUQOGVKOGUEQPKECN
&KCOGVGTUTCPIGHTQOCDQWVVQKPEJ
VQOO

URTC[#PGPUGODNGQHYCVGTFTQRNGVUVQTPD[VJGYKPFHTQOCPGZVGPUKXGDQF[QHYCVGTIGPGTCNN[HTQO
VJGETGUVUQHYCXGUCPFECTTKGFWRKPVQVJGCKTKPUWEJSWCPVKVKGUVJCVKVTGFWEGUVJGJQTK\QPVCNXKUKDKNKV[

52'%+#UWTHCEGYGCVJGTTGRQTVVCMGPVQTGEQTFCEJCPIGKPYGCVJGTEQPFKVKQPUVJCVOGGVUURGEKHKGF
ETKVGTKCQTKUQVJGTYKUGEQPUKFGTGFVQDGUKIPKHKECPV

USWCNN#UVTQPIYKPFEJCTCEVGTK\GFD[CUWFFGPQPUGVKPYJKEJVJGYKPFURGGFKPETGCUGUCVNGCUVMPQVU
CPFKUUWUVCKPGFCVMPQVUQTOQTGHQTCVNGCUVQPGOKPWVG

5VCPFCTF#VOQURJGTG#J[RQVJGVKECNXGTVKECNFKUVTKDWVKQPQHVJGCVOQURJGTKEVGORGTCVWTGRTGUUWTG
CPFFGPUKV[YJKEJD[KPVGTPCVKQPCNCITGGOGPVKUEQPUKFGTGFVQDGTGRTGUGPVCVKXGQHVJGCVOQURJGTGHQT
RTGUUWTGCNVKOGVGTECNKDTCVKQPUCPFQVJGTRWTRQUGU
+05QTJ2C

UVCPFKPINGPVKEWNCTENQWF#OQTGQTNGUUKUQNCVGFENQWFYKVJUJCTRQWVNKPGUVJCVKUIGPGTCNN[KPVJG
HQTOQHCUOQQVJNGPUQTCNOQPF6JGUGENQWFUQHVGPHQTOQPVJGNGGUKFGQHCPFIGPGTCNN[RCTCNNGNVQ
OQWPVCKPTCPIGU&GRGPFKPIQPVJGKTJGKIJVCDQXGVJGUWTHCEGVJG[OC[DGTGRQTVGFCUUVTCVQEWOWNWU
UVCPFKPINGPVKEWNCTENQWF
5%5.CNVQEWOWNWUUVCPFKPINGPVKEWNCTENQWF
#%5.QTEKTTQEWOWNWUUVCPFKPI
NGPVKEWNCTENQWF
%%5.

UVCVKQPGNGXCVKQP6JGQHHKEKCNN[FGUKIPCVGFJGKIJVCDQXGUGCNGXGNVQYJKEJUVCVKQPRTGUUWTGRGTVCKPU
+VKUIGPGTCNN[VJGUCOGCUHKGNFGNGXCVKQPCVCPCKTRQTVUVCVKQP

UVCVKQPKFGPVKHKGT#HQWTCNRJCDGVKEEJCTCEVGTEQFGITQWRWUGFVQKFGPVKH[VJGQDUGTXKPINQECVKQP

5VCVKQP+PHQTOCVKQP(KNG#TGEQTFVJCVFQEWOGPVUVJGUKVGEJCTCEVGTKUVKEUQHCPQDUGTXKPINQECVKQPCPF
VJGTGRQTVKPIRTQITCOCVVJGNQECVKQP

UVCVKQPRTGUUWTG6JGCVOQURJGTKERTGUUWTGCVVJGFGUKIPCVGFUVCVKQPGNGXCVKQP

UWOOCVKQPNC[GTCOQWPV#ECVGIQTK\CVKQPQHVJGCOQWPVQHUM[EQXGTCVCPFDGNQYGCEJTGRQTVGFNC[GT

UWOOCVKQPRTKPEKRNG6JKURTKPEKRNGUVCVGUVJCVVJGUM[EQXGTCVCP[NGXGNKUGSWCNVQVJGUWOOCVKQPQH
VJGUM[EQXGTQHVJGNQYGUVNC[GTRNWUVJGCFFKVKQPCNUM[EQXGTRTQXKFGFCVCNNUWEEGUUKXGN[JKIJGTNC[GTU
WRVQCPFKPENWFKPIVJGNC[GTKPSWGUVKQP

UWTHCEG6JGJQTK\QPVCNRNCPGYJQUGGNGXCVKQPCDQXGUGCNGXGNGSWCNUVJGHKGNFGNGXCVKQP#VUVCVKQPU
YJGTG VJG HKGNF GNGXCVKQP JCU PQV DGGP GUVCDNKUJGF VJG UWTHCEG TGHGTU VQ VJG ITQWPF GNGXCVKQP CV VJG
QDUGTXCVKQPUKVG

UWTHCEGXKUKDKNKV[6JGRTGXCKNKPIXKUKDKNKV[FGVGTOKPGFHTQOVJGWUWCNRQKPVQHQDUGTXCVKQP

U[PQRVKEUWTHCEGYGCVJGTQDUGTXCVKQP5WTHCEGYGCVJGTQDUGTXCVKQPUGXCNWCVGFKPCEEQTFCPEGYKVJ9/1
TGIWNCVKQPU
RGTJCRUOQFKHKGFD[PCVKQPCNRTCEVKEGU6JGUGQDUGTXCVKQPUCTGTGRQTVGFPQOQTGHTGSWGPVN[
VJCPGXGT[JQWTU
#
VGORGTCVWTG # OGCUWTG QH VJG JQVPGUU QT EQNFPGUU QH VJG CODKGPV CKT CU OGCUWTGF D[ C UWKVCDNG
KPUVTWOGPV

VJWPFGTUVQTO#EWOWNQPKODWUENQWFVJCVKUCEEQORCPKGFD[NKIJVPKPICPFVJWPFGTQTHQTCWVQOCVGF
U[UVGOUCUVQTOFGVGEVGFD[NKIJVPKPIFGVGEVKQPU[UVGOU

VKOGQHQEEWTTGPEG#TGRQTVQHVJGVKOGYGCVJGTDGIKPUCPFGPFU

VQTPCFKECEVKXKV[6JGQEEWTTGPEGQTFKUCRRGCTCPEGQHVQTPCFQUHWPPGNENQWFUQTYCVGTURQWVU

VQTPCFQ#XKQNGPVTQVCVKPIEQNWOPQHCKTVQWEJKPIVJGITQWPFHWPPGNENQWFVJCVVQWEJGUVJGITQWPF
UGG
HWPPGNENQWFCPFYCVGTURQWV

VQYGTXKUKDKNKV[6JGRTGXCKNKPIXKUKDKNKV[FGVGTOKPGFHTQOVJGCKTRQTVVTCHHKEEQPVTQNVQYGTYJGPVJG
UWTHCEGXKUKDKNKV[KUFGVGTOKPGFHTQOCPQVJGTNQECVKQP

VQYGTKPIEWOWNWU#FGUETKRVKXGVGTOHQTCENQWFYKVJIGPGTCNN[UJCTRQWVNKPGUCPFYKVJOQFGTCVGVQ
ITGCVXGTVKECNFGXGNQROGPVEJCTCEVGTK\GFD[KVUECWNKHNQYGTQTVQYGTCRRGCTCPEG

V[RGQHTGRQTV#EQFG
/'6#452'%+KPENWFGFKPVJGYGCVJGTTGRQTVVQKPFKECVGVJGEQPVGPVQHVJG
QDUGTXCVKQPCPFVQKPFKECVGYJGVJGTEGTVCKPTGRQTVKPIETKVGTKCJCXGDGGPOGV

V[RGQHUVCVKQP#EQFGHKIWTG
#1QT#1HQTCWVQOCVGFUVCVKQPUYJKEJKUKPENWFGFKPVJGTGOCTMU
UGEVKQPQHVJGTGRQTVVQKPFKECVGVJGUEQRGQHVJGQDUGTXCVKQPRTQITCOCVVJGUVCVKQPVJCVIGPGTCVGFVJG
TGRQTV

WPMPQYPRTGEKRKVCVKQP2TGEKRKVCVKQPV[RGVJCVKUTGRQTVGFKHVJGCWVQOCVGFUVCVKQPFGVGEVUVJGQEEWTTGPEG
QHRTGEKRKVCVKQPDWVVJGRTGEKRKVCVKQPFKUETKOKPCVQTECPPQVTGEQIPK\GVJGV[RG

XCTKCDNGEGKNKPI#EGKNKPIQHNGUUVJCPHGGVYJKEJTCRKFN[KPETGCUGUQTFGETGCUGUKPJGKIJVD[
GUVCDNKUJGFETKVGTKCFWTKPIVJGRGTKQFQHQDUGTXCVKQP

XCTKCDNGNC[GTCOQWPVU#EQPFKVKQPYJGPVJGTGRQTVCDNGCOQWPVQHCNC[GTXCTKGUD[QPGQTOQTG
TGRQTVCDNGXCNWGUFWTKPIVJGRGTKQFKVKUDGKPIGXCNWCVGF
XCTKCDNGUM[EQPFKVKQP

XCTKCDNGRTGXCKNKPIXKUKDKNKV[#EQPFKVKQPYJGPVJGRTGXCKNKPIXKUKDKNKV[KUNGUUVJCPUVCVWVGOKNGUCPF
TCRKFN[KPETGCUGUCPFFGETGCUGUD[OKNGQTOQTGFWTKPIVJGRGTKQFQHQDUGTXCVKQP

XCTKCDNGYKPFFKTGEVKQP#EQPFKVKQPYJGP
VJGYKPFFKTGEVKQPHNWEVWCVGUD[FGITGGUQTOQTG
FWTKPIVJGOKPWVGGXCNWCVKQPRGTKQFCPFVJGYKPFURGGFKUITGCVGTVJCPMPQVUQT
VJGFKTGEVKQPKU
XCTKCDNGCPFVJGYKPFURGGFKUMPQVUQTNGUU

XGTVKECNXKUKDKNKV[#UWDLGEVKXGQTKPUVTWOGPVCNGXCNWCVKQPQHVJGXGTVKECNFKUVCPEGKPVQCUWTHCEGDCUGF
QDUEWTCVKQPVJCVCPQDUGTXGTYQWNFDGCDNGVQUGG

XKEKPKV[#RTQZKOKV[SWCNKHKGT8%WUGFVQKPFKECVGYGCVJGTRJGPQOGPCQDUGTXGFDGVYGGPCPF
UVCVWVGOKNGUQHVJGWUWCNRQKPVQHQDUGTXCVKQPDWVPQVCVVJGUVCVKQP

XKTIC8KUKDNGYKURUQTUVTCPFUQHRTGEKRKVCVKQPHCNNKPIHTQOENQWFUVJCVGXCRQTCVGDGHQTGTGCEJKPIVJG
UWTHCEG

XKUKDKNKV[6JGITGCVGUVJQTK\QPVCNFKUVCPEGCVYJKEJUGNGEVGFQDLGEVUECPDGUGGPCPFKFGPVKHKGFQTKVU
GSWKXCNGPVFGTKXGFHTQOKPUVTWOGPVCNOGCUWTGOGPVU

XKUKDKNKV[TGHGTGPEGRQKPVU5GNGEVGFQDLGEVUCVMPQYPFKUVCPEGUHTQOVJGYGCVJGTUVCVKQPVJCVCTGWUGF
VQOCPWCNN[GXCNWCVGXKUKDKNKV[
#
XQNECPKE CUJ (KPG RCTVKENGU QH TQEM RQYFGT VJCV QTKIKPCVG HTQO C XQNECPQ CPF VJCV OC[ TGOCKP
UWURGPFGFKPVJGCVOQURJGTGHQTNQPIRGTKQFU

XQNECPKEGTWRVKQP#PGZRNQUKQPECWUGFD[VJGKPVGPUGJGCVKPIQHUWDVGTTCPGCPTQEMYJKEJGZRGNUNCXC
UVGCOCUJGUGVEVJTQWIJXGPVUKPVJGGCTVJ UETWUV

YCVGTGSWKXCNGPV6JGNKSWKFEQPVGPVQHUQNKFRTGEKRKVCVKQPVJCVJCUCEEWOWNCVGFQPVJGITQWPF
UPQY
FGRVJ6JGCEEWOWNCVKQPOC[EQPUKUVQHUPQYKEGHQTOGFD[HTGG\KPIRTGEKRKVCVKQPHTGG\KPINKSWKF
RTGEKRKVCVKQPQTKEGHQTOGFD[VJGTGHTGG\KPIQHOGNVGFUPQY

YCVGTURQWV#XKQNGPVTQVCVKPIEQNWOPQHCKTVJCVHQTOUQXGTCDQF[QHYCVGTCPFVQWEJGUVJGYCVGT
UWTHCEGVQTPCFQQTHWPPGNENQWFVJCVVQWEJGUCDQF[QHYCVGT
UGGHWPPGNENQWFCPFVQTPCFQ

YGNNFGXGNQRGFFWUVUCPFYJKTN#PGPUGODNGQHRCTVKENGUQHFWUVQTUCPFUQOGVKOGUCEEQORCPKGFD[
UOCNNNKVVGTTCKUGFHTQOVJGITQWPFKPVJGHQTOQHCYJKTNKPIEQNWOPQHXCT[KPIJGKIJVYKVJCUOCNN
FKCOGVGTCPFCPCRRTQZKOCVGN[XGTVKECNCZKU

YGCVJGT#ECVGIQT[QHKPFKXKFWCNCPFEQODKPGFCVOQURJGTKERJGPQOGPCYJKEJOWUVDGFTCYPWRQPVQ
FGUETKDGVJGNQECNCVOQURJGTKEEQPFKVKQPUCVVJGVKOGQHQDUGTXCVKQP

YKFGURTGCFFWUV(KPGRCTVKENGUQHGCTVJQTQVJGTOCVVGTTCKUGFQTUWURGPFGFKPVJGCKTD[VJGYKPFVJCV
OC[JCXGQEEWTTGFCVQTHCTCYC[HTQOVJGUVCVKQP

YKNN#VGTOWUGFVQKPFKECVGHWVWTKV[KVKUPQVCTGSWKTGOGPVVQDGCRRNKGFVQUVCPFCTFU

YKPF6JGJQTK\QPVCNOQVKQPQHVJGCKTRCUVCIKXGPRQKPV

YKPFEJCTCEVGT6JGFGUETKRVKQPQHVJGXCTKCDKNKV[QHVJGYKPFURGGFKPVGTOUQHIWUVU

YKPFFKTGEVKQP6JGVTWGFKTGEVKQPHTQOYJKEJVJGYKPFKUOQXKPICVCIKXGPNQECVKQP

YKPFIWUV5GGIWUV

YKPFUJKHV#EJCPIGKPVJGYKPFFKTGEVKQPQHFGITGGUQTOQTGKPNGUUVJCPOKPWVGUYKVJUWUVCKPGF
YKPFURGGFUQHMPQVUQTOQTGVJTQWIJQWVVJGYKPFUJKHV

YKPFURGGF6JGTCVGCVYJKEJCKTKUOQXKPIJQTK\QPVCNN[RCUVCIKXGPRQKPV+VOC[DGCOKPWVG
CXGTCIGURGGF
TGRQTVGFCUYKPFURGGFQTCPKPUVCPVCPGQWUURGGF
TGRQTVGFCUCRGCMYKPFURGGFQT
IWUV
#
#22'0&+:$
.+561(#$$4'8+#6+105#0&#%410;/5

6JGCDDTGXKCVKQPUCETQP[OUEQPVTCEVKQPUCPFU[ODQNUKPENWFGFKPVJKUCRRGPFKZCTGFGHKPGFKPCEEQTFCPEGYKVJVJGKTWUCIG
KPVJKU*CPFDQQM
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Table C-1. Accuracy for Runway Visual
Range
Runway Visual Range In

Accuracy
Feet
HGGV vHGGV
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HGGV v
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Table C-2. Accuracy of Automated Visibility Sensors
Percentage of Data Within or Exceeding Given Range
Visibility from
Standard
Visibility Sensor At least 80% No more than No more than
Within 18% Exceed 2% Exceed
0 through 1 1/4 ± 1/4 ± 1/2 ±1
1 1/2 through
1 3/4
+ 1/4, - 1/2 + 1/2, - 3/4 ±1
2 through 2 1/2 ± 1/2 ±1 ±1
3 + 1/2, - 1 ±1 ±1
4 through 10 ± 1 RV* ± 2 RV* ± 2 RV*
*RV = Reportable value, all other values in miles.
%
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Table C-3. Units of Measure, Range, Accuracy and Resolution of Wind

Parameters
Units of
Parameter Range Accuracy Resolution
Measure
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Table C-4. Range and Accuracy of Sky Condition Parameters
Accuracy
Parameter Range
Amounts Heights
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Table C-5. Temperature and Dew Point Sensor Accuracy

and Resolution (Co)
pVQp v

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pVQ v
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Table C-6. Units of Measure, Range, Accuracy and Resolution of Pressure

Parameters
Units of
Measure
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&

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U.S.

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE/ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

OFFICE OF THE FEDERAL COORDINATOR FOR

FEDERAL METEOROLOGICAL HANDBOOK No. 1

8455 COLESVILLE ROAD, SUITE 1500

FEDERAL METEOROLOGICAL HANDBOOK

SURFACE WEATHER OBSERVATIONS AND REPORTS

%JCPIG 2CIG &CVG +PKVKCNU

4GXKGY %QOOGPVU +PKVKCNU

Knots Specification Knots Specification

Table 5-2. Summary of Wind Observing and Reporting Standards

Parameter Observing and Reporting Standard

6.6 Summary of Visibility Observing and Reporting Standards

Table 6-2. Summary of Visibility Observing and Reporting Standards and

RVR Observing and Reporting

Table 8-1. Intensity of Rain or Ice Pellets Based on Rate-of-Fall

Light Up to 0.10 inch per hour; maximum 0.01 inch in 6 minutes.

Table 8-2. Estimating Intensity of Rain

Table 8-3. Estimating Intensity of Ice Pellets

Table 8-4. Intensity of Snow or Drizzle Based on Visibility

Light Visibility > 1/2 mile.

9.5 Sky Cover Reporting Standards

SKC or CLR1 Clear 0

FEW2 Few 1/8 - 2/8

SCT Scattered 3/8 - 4/8

BKN Broken 5/8 - 7/8

OVC Overcast 8/8

Priority Layer Description

#5,000 To nearest 100

>5,000 but #10,000 To nearest 500

>10,000 To nearest 1,000

Parameter Reporting Standard

Table 11-1. Units of Measure of Pressure Parameters

Parameter Units of Measure

Parameter Reporting Standard

12.6.7. Runway Visual Range Group (RDRDR/VRVRVRVRFT or RDRDR/VnVnVnVnVVxVxVxVxFT). The

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5%6 5ECVVGTGF 

$-0 $TQMGP 

18% 1XGTECUV 

#5,000 To nearest 100

>5,000 but #10,000 To nearest 500

>10,000 To nearest 1,000

Type Contraction Definition

Cloud-ground CG Lightning occurring between cloud and ground.

Frequency Contraction Definition

Occasional OCNL Less than 1 flash/minute.

k. Beginning and Ending of Precipitation (w’w’B(hh)mmE(hh)mm). At designated stations, the

Liquid Precipitation 0.01 inch

Runway Visual Range In

0 through 1 1/4 ± 1/4 ± 1/2 ±1

2 through 2 1/2 ± 1/2 ±1 ±1

4 through 10 ± 1 RV* ± 2 RV* ± 2 RV*

*RV = Reportable value, all other values in miles.

Table C-3. Units of Measure, Range, Accuracy and Resolution of Wind

Table C-5. Temperature and Dew Point Sensor Accuracy

Parameter Range Accuracy Resolution

pVQp v 

pVQp v 

Table C-6. Units of Measure, Range, Accuracy and Resolution of Pressure

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