A Single-Machine in Finite-Bus Power System Installed With A Power System Stabilizer
A Single-Machine in Finite-Bus Power System Installed With A Power System Stabilizer
A Single-Machine in Finite-Bus Power System Installed With A Power System Stabilizer
w_ d ¼ x0 ðvtd þ ra id þ xwq Þ
w_ q ¼ x0 ðvtq þ ra iq xwd Þ
w_ ¼ x0 ðvf rf if Þ
f ð2:1Þ
w_ D ¼ x0 rD iD
w_ Q ¼ x0 rQ iQ
where M is the inertia of the rotor, D the damping coefficient of the rotor motion, d
the rotor angular position of synchronous generator to a reference axis, and Tm and
Tt the mechanical torque and electric torque applied on the rotor of generator,
respectively.
vf0 vf
Vt
-
Vtref
vf' TE(s)
+
+ u pss
AVR
synchronous generator
DC motor
slip ring
field winding of - Vt
dc motor Vtref
AVR
+
Based on the difference of the excitation power sources used, excitation systems
can be classified into three major types.
1. DC excitation systems
A DC excitation system uses a DC generator as the source of excitation power to
provide field current and is connected to field winding through slip rings. The
exciter may be driven by a motor or by the generator itself. The DC excitation
system represents the early application of excitation control. Figure 2.2 shows the
arrangement of the DC excitation system.
2. AC excitation systems
An AC excitation system uses an AC machine (alternator) as the source of exci-
tation power to provide field current. The AC excitation current is rectified to
provide the DC excitation to the synchronous generator. Usually, the AC exciter is
on the same shaft of synchronous generator. There are two major types of AC
excitation systems, depending on the difference of the arrangement of AC excitation
from either the stationary or rotating armature winding of the exciter, as shown in
Figs. 2.3 and 2.4, respectively. In a rotating rectifier excitation system, the armature
windings of the AC exciter and the diode rectifiers rotate with the synchronous
generator field. Thus, the need for slip rings and brushes is eliminated. Hence, such
a system is also called a brushless excitation system.
3. Static excitation systems
In a static excitation system, power supply is from the synchronous generator.
The DC excitation is provided to the field of generator through slip rings after being
rectified. There are three major types of static excitation systems. They are
potential-source controlled-rectifier systems, compound-source rectifier systems,
and compound-controlled rectified excitation systems. Figure 2.5 shows the
arrangement of a potential-source controlled-rectifier excitation system.
2.1 Linearized Model of a Single-Machine … 21
slip ring
Vt
field winding of -
alternator
Vtref
AVR
+
Vt
field winding of − Vtref
alternator
AVR
+
controlled rectifier
Vt
−
Vtref
AVR
+
where vf0 is the constant excitation, upss the stabilizing signal of the PSS, and Vt
and Vtref the terminal voltage of generator and its reference setting value, respec-
tively. Various forms of transfer function have been recommended for different
types of excitation systems and the AVR. In this book, the following simplest form
is used for the purpose of simple presentation,
KA
TEðsÞ ¼ ð2:5Þ
1 þ sTA
where KA is the gain and TA the time constant of the AVR. Hence, from Eqs. (2.4)
and (2.5), mathematical model of the AVR can be written as
vf ¼ vf0 þ v0f
1 KA ð2:6Þ
v_ 0f ¼ v0f þ Vtref Vt þ upss
TA TA
Figure 2.6 shows the configuration of a power system where a generator sends
power to a large network. Capacity of the large network is much greater than that of
the generator such that operation of the large network is not affected at all by any
changes in the part of the power system on the left-hand side of busbar b in Fig. 2.6.
This effectively means that the voltage and frequency at busbar b are constant when
the focus of the study is the part of the left-hand side of the power system. Thus,
from the point of view of operation of the part of left-hand side of the power
system, capacity of the large network is “infinite”. Hence, busbar b is called the
“infinite busbar”, and the part of the power system on the left-hand side of busbar b
is a “single-machine infinite-bus” power system. The single-machine infinite-bus
power system is an approximate representation of a kind of real power systems,
where a power plant with a generator or a group of generators are connected by
transmission lines to a very large power network.
Vt Vb
xt
A large network
Pt It
busbar b
jxt I t
vq Vb
It
iq δ
d
id vd
For the single-machine infinite-bus power system shown in Fig. 2.6, it can have
t ¼ jxtIt þ V
V b ð2:7Þ
In the d–q coordinate of the generator shown in Fig. 2.7, Eq. (2.7) can be written
as follows:
where vtd ; vtq and id ; iq vd ; vq are the d and q components of terminal voltage of
generator, V t , line current, It , and voltage at the infinite busbar, V
b , respectively.
Comparing the real and imaginary part on the both sides of Eq. (2.8), it can have
vtd ¼ xt iq þ vd
ð2:9Þ
vtq ¼ xt id þ vq
In per unit, the mechanical and electric torque, Tm and Tt , in Eq. (2.3), is equal to
the mechanical power input from the prime mover to the electric power supplied by
the generator, respectively, i.e. Tm ¼ Pm and Tt ¼ Pt . While Pt is equal to the
electric power received at the infinite busbar, that is
Equations (2.1)–(2.3), (2.6) and (2.9)–(2.11) are the complete dynamic model of
the single-machine infinite-bus power system shown in Fig. 2.6 where Vb and Pm
are constant.
where prefix, D, and subscript 0 are used to denote small increment of a variable
(linearized variable) and value of the variable at the power system steady-state
operating condition where the linearization is carried out, respectively. This nota-
tion will be used throughout this book.
Linearization of Eqs. (2.10) and (2.11) is as follows:
vtd0 vtq0
DVt ¼ Dvtd þ Dvtq ð2:14Þ
Vt0 Vt0
DPt ¼ vdt0 Did þ vqt0 Diq þ id0 Dvdt þ iq0 Dvqt ð2:15Þ
By using Eqs. (2.14) and (2.15), linearization of Eqs. (2.3) and (2.6) can be
obtained to be
Dd_ ¼ x0 Dx
1
Dx_ ¼ ðDPt þ DDxÞ ð2:16Þ
M
1
¼ ðvdt0 Did þ vqt0 Diq þ id0 Dvdt þ iq0 Dvqt þ DDxÞ
M
2.1 Linearized Model of a Single-Machine … 25
Dvf ¼ Dv0f
1 KA vtd0 vtq0 ð2:17Þ
Dv_ 0f 0
¼ Dvf þ Dvtd Dvtq þ Dupss
TA TA Vt0 Vt0
Arranging Eqs. (2.12), (2.13), (2.16), and (2.17) in matrix form with all lin-
earized current variables be cancelled, it can have
where
T
DXgdq ¼ Dd Dx Dvf Dwd Dwq Dwf DwD DwQ ;
T T
DVdq ¼ ½ Dvtd Dvtq ; DIdq ¼ ½ Did Diq
For the single-machine infinite-bus power system, the network voltage equation
is Eq. (2.9). Its linearization is as follows:
where
0 xt Vb cos d0 0
Fdq1 ¼ ; Fdq2 ¼
xt 0 Vb sin d0 0
2.1.2.1 Simplification
For the study of power system oscillations, full mathematical model of synchronous
generator of Eqs. (2.1)–(2.2) can be simplified based on the following
considerations:
1. Effect of damper windings is not considered or directly included in the damping
coefficient D in the rotor motion equation in Eq. (2.3). Thus, Eq. (2.1) is sim-
plified to be
w_ ¼ x0 ðvtd þ ra id þ xw Þ
d q
2. Effect of fast transient and the resistance of d and q armature windings are
neglected. Equation (2.22) is further simplified to be
0 ¼ vtd þ xwq
0 ¼ vtq xwd ð2:23Þ
w_ f ¼ x0 ðvf rf if Þ
vtd ¼ wq
ð2:24Þ
vtq ¼ wd
To transform the third equation in Eq. (2.23) into a different form, it is defined
that
xad xad vf
E0q ¼ w ; Eq ¼ xad if ; Efd ¼ ð2:25Þ
xf f rf
where E0q is called the q-axis transient excitation voltage, Eq the q-axis excitation
voltage, and Efd the excitation voltage. Multiplying both sides of the third equation
in Eq. (2.23) by xradf , it can have
2.1 Linearized Model of a Single-Machine … 27
0
T0d0 E_ q ¼ Efd Eq ð2:26Þ
where T0d0 ¼ xx0 rf f , which is the time constant of the field winding.
Equation (2.26) together with Eq. (2.3) forms the simplified third-order model of
synchronous generator. Equation (2.2) becomes
wd xd xad id
¼
wf xad xf if ð2:27Þ
wq ¼ xq iq
vtd ¼ wq ¼ xq iq
ð2:28Þ
vtq ¼ wd ¼ xad if xd id ¼ Eq xd id
xad xad x2
E0q ¼ wf ¼ ðxf if xad id Þ ¼ Eq ad id ¼ Eq xd x0d id ð2:29Þ
xf xf xf
x2
where x0d ¼ xd xadf , which is called the transient d-axis reactance. Thus, Eq. (2.26)
becomes
0
T0d0 E_ q ¼ Efd E0q xd x0d id ð2:30Þ
For the single-machine infinite-bus power system shown in Fig. 2.6, from Eqs. (2.9)
and (2.28), it can have
vtd ¼ vd xt iq ¼ xq iq
ð2:31Þ
vtq ¼ vq þ xt id ¼ Eq xd id ¼ E0q x0d id
Thus,
x dΣ (x dΣ ')
x qΣ vd vq
Eq (Eq ')
d winding
- -
q winding
single-machine infinite-bus EQ
power system
j(x q − x 'd )I t
Eq '
jx 'd I t
jx t I t
Vt b
vq Vb
δ
iq It
d
id vd
By substituting Eqs. (2.9) and (2.33) into Eq. (2.11), the electric power supplied
by the generator can be expressed as follows:
2.1 Linearized Model of a Single-Machine … 29
0
Vb sin d Eq Vb cos d
Pt = Vb cos d þ Vb sin d
xqR x0dR
0 ð2:34Þ
Eq Vb V2 xq x0d
¼ 0 sin d b 0 sin 2d
xdR 2 xdR xqR
E0q Vb cos d
Eq ¼ E0q þ xd x0d id ¼ E0q þ xd x0d
x0dR
0 0
ð2:35Þ
Eq xdR xd xd Vb cos d
¼ 0
xdR x0dR
Vb sin d xq Vb sin d
vtd = Vb sin d xt iq ¼ Vb sin d xt ¼ ;
xqR xqR
ð2:36Þ
E0q Vb cos d xt E0q Vb x0d cos d
vtq = Vb cos d þ xt id ¼ Vb cos d þ xt ¼ þ
x0dR x0dR x0dR
where
E0q Vb V2b xq x0d
Pt ¼ 0 sin d sin 2d
xdR 2 x0dR xqR
E0q xdR xd x0d Vb cos d
Eq ¼ 0
xdR x0dR ð2:38Þ
Efd ¼ Efd0 þ E0fd
xq Vb sin d xt E0q Vb x0d cos d qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
vtd ¼ ; vtq ¼ 0 þ 0 ; Vt ¼ v2td þ v2tq
xqR xdR xdR
30 2 A Single-Machine Infinite-Bus Power System …
By linearizing Eqs. (2.37) and (2.38) at an operating point of power system, where
Vt ¼ Vt0 ; Vtd ¼ Vtd0 ; Vtq ¼ Vtq0 ; d ¼ d0 ; x0 ¼ 1; E0q ¼ E0q0 ; Efd ¼ Efd0 , it can have
Dd_ ¼ xo Dx
1
Dx_ ¼ ðDPt DDxÞ
M
0 1 ð2:39Þ
DE_ q ¼ 0 ðDEq þ DE0fd Þ
Tdo
0 1 KA
DE_ fd ¼ DE0fd ðDVt Dupss Þ
TA TA
DPt ¼ K1 Dd þ K2 DE0q
DEq ¼ K3 DE0q þ K4 Dd ð2:40Þ
DVt ¼ K5 Dd þ K6 DE0q
where
E0q0 Vb x0dR V 2 ð xq x0 Þ
K1 ¼ cos d0 bx0 xqR d cos 2d0
dR
K2 ¼ xV0 b sin d0
dR
K3 ¼ xxdR
0
dR
ðxd x0d ÞVb sin d0
K4 ¼ x0dR
X q Vb cos d0 V V x0 sin d0
K5 ¼ VVt0
td0
xqR Vtq0 b0 xd0
t0 dR
V
K6 ¼ Vtq0 xx0 t
t0 dR
Dd_ ¼ xo Dx
1
Dx_ ¼ ðK1 Dd K2 DE0q DDxÞ
M
_ 0 1 ð2:41Þ
DEq ¼ 0 ðK3 DE0q K4 Dd þ DE0fd Þ
Tdo
0 1 KA
DE_ fd ¼ DE0fd ðK5 Dd þ K6 DE0q Dupss Þ
TA TA
2.1 Linearized Model of a Single-Machine … 31
K1
ΔPt Δω ω0 Δδ
_ 1
Ms + D s
K4 K5
K2
_ _
ΔEq’ 1 + KA + Δupss
Td0's+K3 1+sTA _
K6
0
6 7
6 0 7
bpss ¼6
6 0 7
7
4 5
KA
TA
32 2 A Single-Machine Infinite-Bus Power System …
sX ¼ Ao X þ bo u
y ¼ cTo X ð2:43Þ
u ¼ HðsÞy
where Ao , bo and cTo is the state matrix, control vector, and output vector of
open-loop system, respectively, and HðsÞ is the transfer function of feedback
controller. Transfer function of open-loop system is as follow:
y
GðsÞ ¼ ¼ cTo ðsI Ao Þ1 bo ð2:44Þ
u
y GðsÞ
TðsÞ ¼ ¼ ð2:45Þ
w 1 GðsÞHðsÞ
Eigen solution is one of the basic techniques in the modal analysis, involving the
computation of eigenvalues and eigenvectors of state matrix, Ao . An eigenvalue of
matrix Ao , k, is a scalar parameter, which satisfies the following equation
Ao v ¼ kv ð2:46Þ
where I is an unity matrix. In order for Eq. (2.47) to have the non-trivial solution, it
should have
Avi ¼ ki vi ; i ¼ 1; 2; . . . ; M ð2:50Þ
That is
V1 AV ¼ K ð2:52Þ
where
2 3
k1 0 0 0
60 k2 0 0 7
6 7
V ¼ ½ v1 v2 ... vM ; K ¼ 6 .. 7
40 0 . 0 5
0 0 0 kM
34 2 A Single-Machine Infinite-Bus Power System …
Denote
2 3
wT1
6 wT 7
6 2 7
V 1
¼6
6 ..
7 ¼ ½ w1
7 w2 . . . w M T ¼ WT ð2:53Þ
4 . 5
wTM
X ¼ VZ ð2:55Þ
sZ ¼ KZ þ WT bo u
ð2:56Þ
y ¼ cTo VZ
That is
szi ¼ ki zi ; þ wTi bo u i ¼ 1; 2; . . .; M
X
M ð2:57Þ
y ¼ cTo vi z i
i¼1
According to Eq. (2.57), the system can also be shown in Fig. 2.12. This is the
modal decomposition representation of state-space model of open-loop system.
1 z1
w1T b 0 c0 T v1
s − λ1
1 z2
w 2Tb0 c0 T v 2
s − λ2
u y
+
1 zM
w M Tb0 c0 T v M
s − λM
szi ¼ ki zi ð2:58Þ
X
M
xk ðtÞ ¼ vk1 z1 ð0Þek1 t þ vk2 z2 ð0Þek2 t þ þ vkM zM ð0ÞekM t ¼ vki zi ð0Þeki t
i¼1
ð2:61Þ
real part of the mode ni . The pair of conjugate eigenvalues of state matrix Ao are
often called the oscillation mode of the system.
The oscillation frequency f i (Hz) and damping fi associated with k i;i þ 1 ¼
ni jxi are normally defined as follows:
xi ni
fi ¼ ; f ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð2:63Þ
2p i n þ x2
2
i i
From Eq. (2.59), it can be seen that zi ðtÞ; i ¼ 1; 2; . . .; M is related only with the
ith mode of the system ki . Hence, zi ðtÞ; i ¼ 1; 2; . . .; M often is seen as the ith mode
of the system. Equation (2.57) is often called the modal decomposition of
state-space representation.
From Eq. (2.61), it can also be seen that the magnitude of vki measures how
much the ith mode ki contributes to the kth state variable xk ðtÞ. Thus, jvki j is a kind
of measurement of the “observability” of the ith mode in the kth state variable.
On the basis of above discussion, from Fig. 2.12, it can be seen that wTi bo is the
weight on how much the control signal u affects the ith mode of the open-loop
system, the so-called controllability index, whereas cTo vi is the weight on how much
the ith mode is observed in the system output, which is called the observability
index. The product of controllability and observability index is called the residue.
That is
Z ¼ V1 X ¼ WT X ð2:65Þ
or
wki is the ith row kth column element of matrix W. Equation (2.66) indicates that
the magnitude of wki measures the influence of the kth state variable xk ðtÞ on the ith
state variable zi ðtÞ, or the ith mode ki of the system. It is a kind of measurement of
“controllability” of the kth state variable on the ith mode.
Let the realization of the transfer function of feedback controller HðsÞ be
sXf ¼ Af Xf þ bf y
ð2:67Þ
u ¼ cTf Xf
2.2 Modal Analysis 37
That is HðsÞ ¼ cTf ðsI Af Þ1 bf . Thus, from Eqs. (2.43) and (2.67), the
state-space representation of closed-loop system can be obtained to be
sX Ao bo cTf X X
¼ ¼ Ac ð2:68Þ
sXf bf cTo Af Xf Xf
where Ac is the state matrix of closed-loop system. Obviously, based on the dis-
cussion above, eigenvalues of Ac or modes of closed-loop system determine the
stability of closed-loop system.
From Eq. (2.68), it can be obtained that
Hence, the residue measures how much the mode of closed-loop system is
affected by the parameter of the controller.
In the above state-space model of the power system, the input to the open-loop
system is DE0q , the output is Dd, and the transfer function of feedback controller is
Fdelta ðsÞ. Obviously, the state-space realization of Fdelta ðsÞ is as follows:
2 3 2 3
K0 3 1 0 K0 4
sDE0q 6 Tdo 0
Tdo 7 DE Tdo 5
¼4 5
q
þ4 Dd
sDE0fd K
TA K6
T 1 DE0
TA K5
K
A A
fd
A ð2:72Þ
0
DEq
DE0q ¼ ½ 1 0
DE0fd
According to Eq. (2.48), the modes of open-loop system can be found by solving
the following characteristic equation
0 xo 1 0 k xo D K1
D k 0 1 ¼ K1 D k ¼ k þ M k þ M xo ¼ 0
2
K1 M M
M M
ð2:73Þ
The oscillation mode is related to the rotor motion of generator, i.e. state vari-
ables Dd and Dx. It is often called the electromechanical oscillation mode of the
power system.
From Eq. (2.71), it can have
sDd 0 xo Dd Dd
¼ K K D ¼ Ac ð2:75Þ
sDx M M2 Fdelta ðsÞ
1
M Dx Dx
KA K6
TA sþ T1
TA K5
K
A A
2 32 3
s þ T1 1
K0 4
1 T0do Tdo 5
4 54
A
¼
½1 0 K K
s þ K0 3 s þ T1 þ KTA K6 10 TA 6 s þ K0 3 TA K5
K
Tdo A A Tdo A Tdo A
2 3
T0do TA h i K0 4
s þ T1 1 4 Tdo 5
¼ T0do
ðsT0do þ K3 ÞðTA s þ 1Þ þ KA K6 A
TA K5
K
A
ðTA s þ 1ÞK4 þ KA K5
¼
ðsT0doþ K3 ÞðTA s þ 1Þ þ KA K6
ð2:76Þ
The general linearized model of the single-machine infinite-bus power system with
the PSS installed is Eq. (2.21) which can be rearranged as follows:
2 3 2 32 3 2 3
sDd 0 x0 0 Dd 0
6 7 6 a21 a22 aT238 76 7 6 7
4 sDx 5 ¼ 4 54 Dx 5 þ 4 0 5Dupss
M M M
sDx38 a138 a238 A33 Dx38 bpss3
2 3
Dd ð2:78Þ
6 7
y ¼ Dx ¼ ½ 0 1 0 4 Dx 5
Dx38
Dupss ¼ Tpss ðsÞDx
40 2 A Single-Machine Infinite-Bus Power System …
a 21
1 Δω ω0 Δδ
- Ms + a 22 s
ΔTe
ΔX 3-8
( sI - A 33 ) −1 + bpss-3 Δu pss
Fig. 2.13 General linearized model of single-machine infinite-bus power system with PSS
installed
That is
2 3
0 x0 0
It can have
a21 i w
i2
w Ti3 a138 ¼ k
þw i1
M
a22 i w
x0 w i2
i1 w Ti3 a238 ¼ k
þw i2 ð2:81Þ
M
aT i w
i2 238 þ w
w Ti3 A33 ¼ k Ti3
M
2.2 Modal Analysis 41
Hence,
aT238
Ti3 ¼ w
w i2 ðki I A33 Þ1 ð2:82Þ
M
From Eqs. (2.64), (2.78), and (2.82), the residue can be obtained to be
2 3 2 3
0 vi1
6 7 6 7
Ri ¼ wi1 wi2 Ti3 4
w 0 5½ 0 1 0 4 vi2 5
bpss3 vi3
ð2:83Þ
¼ wTi3 bpss3 vi2
aT i I A33 Þ1 bpss3
¼ w i2 vi2 238 ðk
M
If the feedback signal and transfer function of the PSS to be designed is y and
TPSS ðsÞ respectively, Eq. (2.78) can be written more generally as follows:
sX ¼ AX þ bDupss
y ¼ cT X ð2:84Þ
Dupss ¼ Tpss ðsÞy
c ÞTpss ðk
1 þ Gðk c Þ ¼ 0 ð2:87Þ
42 2 A Single-Machine Infinite-Bus Power System …
By separating the real and imaginary part of the above equation, two equations
will be obtained which can be used to determine two parameters of the transfer
function of PSS. If the transfer function of PSS adopts the following format of a
lead–lag block,
ð1 þ saTÞ2
Tpss ðsÞ ¼ Kpss ð2:88Þ
ð1 þ sTÞ2
With a predetermined T, parameters of the PSS, Kpss and a , can be set according
to Eq. (2.87), thus completing the design of PSS via the pole assignment.
The damping torque analysis (DTA) was firstly introduced on the basis of the
Heffron–Phillips model for a single-machine infinite-bus power system to examine
the effect of excitation control, such as the AVR, on power system small-signal
stability [1–3]. It was developed based on the understanding that the dynamic of the
electromechanical oscillation loop of a generator decides the damping of power
oscillations in the single-machine infinite-bus power system.
In the Heffron–Phillips model shown in Fig. 2.10, the upper part obviously is the
linearized rotor motion equation and lower part is formed from the mathematical
description of dynamic of the field winding of generator and the AVR. Figure 2.14
shows the upper part of the model which is called the electromechanical oscillation
loop. Signal DTe from the lower part in the Heffron–Phillips model is obviously an
electric torque. Hence, from Fig. 2.14, it can have
K1
Δω ω0 Δδ
_ 1
Ms + D s
ΔTe
D x0 K1 x0
s2 Dd þ sDd þ Dd þ DTe ¼ 0 ð2:89Þ
M M M
If firstly the contribution from the lower part of Heffron–Phillips model, DTe , is
not considered, the electromechanical oscillation loop of generator shown in
Fig. 2.14 is described by the following second-order differential equation
D x0 K1
s2 Dd þ sDd þ Dd ¼ 0 ð2:90Þ
M M
DTe ¼ Td Dx þ Ts Dd ð2:92Þ
44 2 A Single-Machine Infinite-Bus Power System …
Obviously, from the discussion on Eq. (2.91), it is easy to understand that the
component in the decomposition of DTe , Td Dx, contributes to the damping of
power oscillation. This component is called the damping torque. In Eq. (2.92), Ts Dd
is called the synchronizing torque.
From Fig. 2.10, it can be seen that the electric torque contributed from the lower
part of Heffron–Phillips model is as follows:
where Fdelta ðsÞ and Fpss ðsÞ are the transfer function from Dd and Dupss respectively,
to form the electric torque contribution to the electromechanical oscillation loop of
generator.
The electric torque contribution from the PSS is as follows:
Figure 2.15 shows that the PSS contributes the electric torque, DTpss , to the
electromechanical oscillation loop of generator. Obviously, Fpss ðsÞ is the transfer
function of forward path from the stabilizing signal of the PSS to the
ΔΤpss
K2
ΔE q’ 1 KA + Δupss
Td0's+K3 1+sTA
K6
1 KA
K3 þ sT0d0 1 þ sTA K
Fpss ðsÞ ¼ K2 ¼ K2 0
A ð2:96Þ
1 þ K6 1
0
K A K3 þ sT d0 ð1 þ sTA Þ þ K6 KA
K3 þ sTd0 1 þ sTA
For example, if the PSS is a pure-gain controller and takes the deviation of rotor
speed of generator as the feedback signal, i.e. Dupss ¼ Kpss Dx, the electric torque
contributed from the PSS to the electromechanical oscillation loop of generator is as
follows:
where Re F pss ðjxs Þ and Im Fpss ðjxs Þ denote the real and imaginary part of
pss ðjxs Þ, respectively (this notation will be used throughout the book). From the
F
first equation in Eq. (2.41), it can have sDd ¼ x0 Dx, i.e.
jxs
Dx ¼ Dd ð2:98Þ
x0
In Eq. (2.78) or Fig. 2.13, denote DTe ¼ aT238 Dx38 . From Eq. (2.78) or
Fig. 2.13, it can have
a22 a21
s2 Dd þ sDd þ x0 Dd þ DTe ¼ 0 ð2:100Þ
M M
46 2 A Single-Machine Infinite-Bus Power System …
Taking the similar procedure of DTA presented above in Sects. 2.3.1.1 and
2.3.1.2, transfer function of the forward path of stabilizing signal of the PSS can be
obtained to be
At the angular oscillation frequency, xs , the electric torque contribution from the
PSS is as follows:
The electric torque can be decomposed into the damping and synchronizing
torque. The damping torque contribution from the PSS determines its effect on the
damping of power oscillation.
Assume that the installation of PSS brings about a change of damping coefficient
Dpss Dx in the electromechanical oscillation loop of generator. The state-space
representation of power system with the PSS installed can be equivalently written
as follows:
2 3 2 32 3
sDd 0 x0 0 Dd
6 7 6 a21 a22 þ Dpss aT238 76 7
4 sDx 5 ¼ 4 M 54 Dx 5 ð2:103Þ
M M
Dx38 a138 a238 A33 Dx38
i
@k @Ac
Ti
¼w vi
@Dpss @Dpss
2 32 3
0 x0 0 vi1
@ 6 aT238 76 7
¼ w i1 i2
w i3
w T
4 a21
a22 þ Dpss
M 54 vi2 5 ð2:104Þ
@Dpss M M
a138 a238 A33 vi3
i2
w vi2
¼
M
From Eqs. (2.83), (2.102), and (2.104), it can be seen that the residue in fact
measures the effect of the PSS on the electromechanical oscillation mode of the
system. At the complex frequency k i , it is equal to the forward path of the PSS
multiplied by the sensitivity of the mode to the damping torque contribution.
2.3 Damping Torque Analysis 47
This section explains the theoretical basis of the damping torque analysis by use of
the Phillips–Heffron model as follows.
Firstly, the effect of PSS is not considered, i.e. Dupss ¼ 0. From Fig. 2.10, it can
have
2
Ms þ Ds þ x0 K1 DdðsÞ ¼ x0 DTðsÞ
ð2:105Þ
DTðsÞ ¼ Fdelta ðsÞDdðsÞ
where Fdelta ðsÞ is the transfer function from DdðsÞ to DTðsÞ. Combining two
equations above gives
2
2 þ Dk
Mk s þ x0 K1 þ x0 F s Þ ¼ 0
delta ðk ð2:108Þ
s
The second equation in Eq. (2.105) expressed in the complex frequency domain
is as follows:
s Þ ¼ F
DTðk s ÞDdðk
delta ðk s Þ ð2:109Þ
Also in the complex frequency domain, the first equation in Eq. (2.41) becomes
s Þ ¼ ns þ jxs s Þ ¼ ns Ddðk
s Þ þ j xs Ddðk
s Þ
Dxðk Ddðk ð2:110Þ
x0 x0 x0
s Þ ¼ Ts1 Ddðk
DTðk s Þ þ Td1 Dxðk
s Þ ð2:111Þ
48 2 A Single-Machine Infinite-Bus Power System …
s ÞDdðk
delta ðk
F s Þ þ Td1 ns Ddðk
s Þ ¼ Ts1 Ddðk s Þ þ jT xs Ddðk
s Þ ð2:112Þ
d1
x0 x0
That is
F s Þ ¼ Ts1 þ Td1 ns þ jT xs
delta ðk ð2:113Þ
d1
x0 x0
The above derivation indicates that in the complex frequency domain, the
electric torque can be decomposed into damping and synchronizing torque
according to Eq. (2.111). Substituting Eqs. (2.111) into (2.108), it can have
2 þ Dk
ðMk s þ x0 K1 ÞDdðk
s Þ ¼ x0 Ts1 Ddðk
s Þ x0 Td1 Dxðks Þ
s
ð2:115Þ
¼ x0 Ts1 Ddðk s Ddðk
s Þ Td1 k s Þ
Thus,
Mk s þ x0 K1 þ x0 Ts1 ¼ 0
2 þ ðD þ Td1 Þk ð2:116Þ
s
D þ Td1
ns ¼ ð2:117Þ
2M
Equation (2.117) indicates that the damping torque affects the real part of
electromechanical oscillation mode, i.e. the damping of power oscillation.
Equations (2.16) and (2.39) include the following linearized rotor motion equation
of generator
:
D d ¼ x0 Dx
: 1 ð2:118Þ
D x ¼ ðDPt þ DDxÞ
M
2.3 Damping Torque Analysis 49
Obviously, Ddelta Dx and Dpss Dx are the damping torque contributed to the
electromechanical oscillation loop of generator from Dd and Dupss , respectively.
Function of the damping torque component in suppressing the power oscillation can
be explained graphically by the use of the linearized equal-area criterion as follows.
Without affecting the conclusions of following discussion,
it is assumed
that in
Eq. (2.120), Ddelta ¼ 0. When there is no PSS installed DPt ðDupss Þ ¼ 0 ,
The linearized DPt Dd curve is line a–f as shown in Fig. 2.16. In Fig. 2.16, the
operating point of system at steady state is d (Pt0 ; d0 ) and it moves to point a
(Pt1 ; d1 ) after the system is subject to a small disturbance. Hence, when the oper-
ating point moves down from the initial point a (Pt1 ; d1 ) along line a–f, it will stop at
point f (Pt20 ; d20 ) with area a–d–c being equal to area d–g–f. Obviously, in this case,
jPt1 Pt0 j ¼ jPt20 Pt0 j; jd1 d0 j ¼ jd20 d0 j, power oscillation is of unchanged
magnitude and not damped at all.
When the PSS is installed to provide a pure positive damping torque,
When the operating point moves down from point a (Pt1 ; d1 ), power angle of
generator decreases and thus Dx\0. Dpss Dx\0 is added on Cdelta Dd as shown in
Eq. (2.123). Hence, the operating point should move below line a–f along curve
DPt ¼ Cdelta Dd þ Dpss Dx;. When the operating point stops moving, Dx ¼ 0. Thus,
it should stop on line a–f at point c (Pt2 ; d2 ) with area A1 being equal to area A2 .
50 2 A Single-Machine Infinite-Bus Power System …
ΔPt=CdeltaΔδ
A1
Pt0 g d e
A2
c
Direction of
f Δω < 0
δ
δ2' δ2 δ0 δ1
δ
Time response
with the PSS
time
Time response without the PSS
Obviously, jPt2 Pt0 j\jPt1 Pt0 j; jd2 d0 j\jd1 d0 j, indicating extra positive
damping is provided by the PSS to the power oscillation. A similar analysis can be
carried out to examine the case when the operating point moves up from point c
(Pt2 ; d2 ).
The above discussion explains the function of damping provided by the PSS in
suppressing the power oscillation. It is important to note that the explanation relies
only on the linearized rotor motion equation in Eqs. (2.118), (2.119), and (2.120)
without referring to any particular type of model of power system. This means that
for any type of linearized model of power system, including that of a multi-machine
power system, if Eqs. (2.119) and (2.120) can be established on the basis of the
model, the above procedure can be applied.
If the rotor speed of generator is taken as the feedback signal of the PSS, transfer
function of the PSS is Tpss ðsÞ, that is
2.3 Damping Torque Analysis 51
pss ðjxs ÞT
DTpss ¼ F pss ðjxs ÞDx
The damping and synchronizing torque provided by the PSS is Tpssd Dx and
Tpsss Dd, respectively. In order to achieve the most efficient design, ideally the PSS
should provide only the damping torque, that is,
where Dpss is the coefficient of the damping torque which needs to be provided by
the PSS. Hence, from Eqs. (2.126) and (2.127), it can be seen that design of the PSS
should satisfy that
pss ðjxs ÞT
Dpss ¼ F pss ðjxs Þ ð2:128Þ
According to Eq. (2.128), design of the PSS should set the phase of the PSS,
\T pss ðjxs Þ, to be equal to the minus phase of the forward path, \F
pss ðjxs Þ, that is to
design the PSS such that it can compensate the phase lag of the forward path and
ensure it to provide a pure positive damping torque. Hence, the method to design
the PSS based on Eq. (2.128) is called the phase compensation method.
If it is denoted that
pss ðjxs Þ ¼ Fpss \/; T
F pss ðjxs Þ ¼ Tpss \c ð2:129Þ
Often the PSS is constructed as a lead–lag block with its main part of transfer
function to be
where Kpss ¼ Kpss1 Kpss2 . Parameters of the PSS then can be set to satisfy
ð1 þ jxs T2 Þ Dpss /
Kpss1 ¼ \
ð1 þ jxs T1 Þ Fpss 2
ð2:133Þ
ð1 þ jxs T4 Þ /
Kpss2 ¼ 1:0\
ð1 þ jxs T3 Þ 2
c Þ ¼ F
DTdelta ðk c ðsÞDdðk
delta k c Þ ¼ C1 Ddðkc Þ þ D1 Dxðkc Þ
ð2:135Þ
DTpss ðkc Þ ¼ F c ÞT
pss ðk c ÞDxðk
pss ðk c Þ ¼ Cpss Ddðk
c Þ þ Dpss Dxðk
c Þ
Taking the similar procedure of discussion in Sect. 2.3.2.1, it can easily prove
c Þ affects the damping of the electromechanical oscillation mode.
that Dpss Dxðk
Hence, the PSS can be designed to satisfy
c ÞTpss ðk
Fpss ðk c Þ ¼ Dpss ð2:136Þ
When the PSS is being designed, if k c ¼ n þ jxc is given, the PSS can be
c
designed by using the phase compensation method defined by Eq. (2.136) to move
c ¼ n þ jxc in
the electromechanical oscillation mode strictly to the position at k c
the complex plane. If only the amount of damping torque provision
Dpss Dx; Dpss [ 0 is given, the PSS can also be designed by the phase compensation
method introduced above from Eqs. (2.126) to (2.133).
2.4 Examples 53
2.4 Examples
where Qb0 is the reactive power received at the infinite busbar and * denotes the
conjugate of a complex phasor. By choosing V b0 as the reference phasor, that is,
¼ Vb0 , from the above equation, it can be obtained that
b0 ¼ V
V b0
2sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 3
2
Vb0 4 xt Pt0
Qb0 ¼ V2t0 Vb0 5 ¼ 0:3155 p:u:
xt Vb0
Thus,
Q
Thus, the q-axis of generator can be found by calculating the imaginary EMF E
Q0 ¼ V
E t0 þ ðra þ jxq ÞIt0 ¼ 1:2959 þ j0:4634 ¼ 1:38\19:68
Hence, d0 ¼ 19:68 . From the above equation about Eq0 and EQ0 , it can have
Eq
jx d I t
v tq
jx t I t
Vt b
Vb
δ ϕ
It
vtd d
Above computation can be shown by the phasor diagram of Fig. 2.17 where
subscript 0 is omitted. From Fig. 2.17, it can be seen that
Because
thus
Eq0
if0 ¼ ¼ 1:5624
xad
56 2 A Single-Machine Infinite-Bus Power System …
Because iD0 ¼ 0; iQ0 ¼ 0, thus according to Eq. (2.2), it can be obtained that
2 3 2 32 3 2 3
wd0 xd xad xad id0 1:0132
6 7 6 76 7 6 7
4 wf0 5 ¼ 4 xad xf xad 54 if0 5 ¼ 4 1:3001 5
wD0 xad xad xD iD0 1:0970
" #
wq0 xq xaq iq0 0:2844
¼ ¼
wQ0 xaq xQ iQ0 0:2187
Denote
2 31 2 3 2 3
xd xad xad a11 a12 a13 4:2331 1:8311 2:1640
6 7 6 7 6 7
4 xad xf xad 5 ¼ 4 a21 a22 a23 5 ¼ 4 1:8311 5:1570 2:9963 5
xad xad xD a31 a32 a33 2:1640 2:9963 5:5498
1
xq xaq b11 b12 3:6842 2:8653
¼ ¼
xaq xQ b13 b14 2:8653 3:7249
2 0 0 3 2 3
0 0
6 id0 iq0 7 6
6 M 7 0:0665 0:0521 7
6 M 7 6 7
6 KA Vtd0 KA Vtq0 7 6 2686:1 9632:5 7
6
7
6 T V T V 7 6 7
6 t0 7
6 7
6 x 7 6 314:1593
A t0 A
6 0 7
0 7
Bgdq ¼6 0 ¼
7 6 6 7
6 7 0 314:1593 7
6 0 x0 7 6 6 7
6 7 6 7
6 0 0 7 6 0 0 7
6 7 4 7
4 5 0 0 5
0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 a11 0 a12 a13 0
Cgdq ¼
0 0 0 0 b11 0 0 b12
0 0 0 4:2331 0 1:8331 2:1640 0
¼
0 0 0 0 3:4862 0 0 2:8653
0 xt 0 0:15
Fdq1 ¼ ¼
xt 0 0:15 0
Vb cos d0 0 0:9416 0
Fdq2 ¼ ¼
Vb sin d0 0 0:3367 0
Thus, state matrix and control vector of linearized state-space model are obtained
to be
According to Eq. (2.63), the oscillation frequency f i (Hz) and damping fi for the
electromechanical oscillation mode, k 6 and k7 , are as follows:
xi
fi ¼ ¼ 1:34 Hz
2p
ni
fi ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 0:0838; i ¼ 6; 7
ni þ x2i
2
With D and Q damping winding of generator being ignored, from the given
parameters of above example power system and results of calculation, it can have
x2
x0d ¼ xd ad ¼ 0:2951
x
f
E0q0 0
¼ EQ0 xq xd itd0 ¼ 1:1506
According to Eq. (2.63), oscillation frequency f i (Hz) and damping fi for the
electromechanical oscillation mode, k2;3 , are as follows:
xi
fi ¼ ¼ 1:315 Hz
2p
ni
fi ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 0:0014; i ¼ 2; 3
ni þ x2i
2
Hence,
¼ ½ v1
V v2 v3 v4
2 3
8:4781 106 0:9014 0:9014 0:0077
6 2:5091 106 j0:0237 7
6 j0:0237 0:0002 7
¼6 7
4 0:0022 0:0050 þ j0:0050 0:0050 j0:0050 0:0284 5
1 0:3868 j0:1930 0:3868 þ j0:1930 0:9996
60 2 A Single-Machine Infinite-Bus Power System …
T ¼ ½ w1 1
W 2
w 3
w w4 T ¼ V
2 3
0:2524 0:5554 j0:0001 0:5554 þ j0:0001 0:1773
6 0:8529 0:0312 j21:1226 0:0312 þ j21:1226 7:3269 7
6 7
¼6 7
4 38:0214 0:1626 þ j0:1475 0:1626 j0:1475 38:2206 5
1:0823 0:0003 þ j0:0003 0:0003 j0:0003 0:0827
szi ¼ ki zi ; þ wTi bo u, i ¼ 1; 2; 3; 4
Without considering the PSS Dupss ¼ 0 , solution of modal decomposition is
obtained to be
zi ðt) ¼ zi ð0Þeki t ; i ¼ 1; 2; 3; 4
X
4 X
4
xk ðt) ¼ vki zi ð0Þeki t ¼ vki zi ð0Þeni t ½cos xi t þ j sin xi t
i¼1 i¼1
X
4 X
4
lim xk ðt) ¼ lim vki zi ð0Þeki t ¼ lim vki zi ð0Þeni t ½cos xi t þ j sin xi t
t!1 t!1 t!1
i¼1 i¼1
92:9741t
¼ lim fe vk1 z1 ð0Þ þ e0:0114t vk2 z2 ð0Þ½cosð8:2610tÞ þ j sinð8:2610tÞ
t!1
þ e0:0114t vk3 z3 ð0Þ½cosð8:2610tÞ j sinð8:2610tÞ þ e7:6008t vk4 z4 ð0Þg ¼ 0
T
Since XðtÞ ¼ DdðtÞ DxðtÞ DE0q ðtÞ DE0fd ðtÞ and
lim dðtÞ ¼ d0 ; lim xðtÞ ¼ x0 ; lim E0q ðtÞ ¼ E0q0 ðtÞ; lim E0fd ðtÞ ¼ E0fd0 ðtÞ
t!1 t!1 t!1 t!1
All the state variables return to their initial points Xð0Þ, the equilibrium point of
the system. Hence, the system is stable in terms of small-signal stability.
State matrix, control vector, and output vector of Eq. (2.71) are as follows:
" #
0 w0 0 314:16
A0 ¼ D ¼ 0:2178
KM M
1
0
" #
0 0
b0 ¼ K ¼ cT0 ¼ ½ 1 0
M 2
0:1086
Thus
T ¼ ½w
W 1 w 1 ¼ ½ v1 v2 1
2 T ¼ V
T
0:9997 0:9997 1 0:5002 0:5002
¼¼ ¼
j0:0263 j0:0263 j18:9947 j18:9947
1 ¼ w
R T1 b0 cT0 v1 ¼ j2:0622
2 ¼ w
R T2 b0 cT0 v2 ¼ j2:0622
Above results indicate that increase of the gain value and time constant will
move the electromechanical oscillation mode towards the right on the complex
plane and hence is detrimental to the small-signal angular stability of the power
system. It has been well known that the fast-acting high-gain AVR may be detri-
mental to the damping of power system electromechanical oscillation modes. This
means that increase of gain value of the AVR could move the oscillation mode to
the right. However, increase of the time constant (slower action of the AVR) should
not.
In order to further clarify the results of derivative of the oscillation mode in
respect to the parameters of the AVR obtained above, Fig. 2.18 presents the loci of
movement of the electromechanical oscillation mode on the complex plane with the
change of gain value and time constant of the AVR. In Fig. 2.18, KA increases from
KA ¼ 50 to KA ¼ 100 with TA ¼ 0:01 and TA increases from TA ¼ 0:01 to TA ¼
0:1 with KA ¼ 100. From Fig. 2.18, it can be seen that although at the point
KA ¼ 100; TA ¼ 0:01 where the derivatives are calculated, the trend of loci
movement is towards the right with the increase of the gain value and time constant,
and the oscillation mode in fact moves towards left when the time constant of the
AVR increases. The trend of the loci with the increase of the time constant of the
AVR actually changes the direction at the point KA ¼ 100; TA ¼ 0:01.
2.4 Examples 63
Fig. 2.18 Loci of the movement of the oscillation mode on the complex plane with the changes of
parameters of the AVR
2.4.2.3 Design of the PSS by Pole Assignment for the Example Power
System
ð1 þ saTÞ2
Tpss ðsÞ ¼ Kpss
ð1 þ sTÞ2
64 2 A Single-Machine Infinite-Bus Power System …
238:8s
GðsÞ ¼ cT ðsI AÞ1 b ¼
1:1s4 þ 110:6s3 þ 854:5s2 þ 7563s þ 53020
From the characteristic equation of closed-loop control system of Eq. (2.85), for
the electromechanical oscillation mode k c , it should have
c Þ ¼ 1 1
Tpss ðk c Þ ¼ 0:0753 j0:0996
Gðk
That is
c aTÞ2
ð1 þ k 1
Kpss ¼
ð1 þ kc TÞ 2 0:0753 j0:0996
In order to establish the state-space model of closed-loop system with the PSS
installed, let
ð1 þ saTÞ
Dx1 ¼ Dx
ð1 þ sTÞ
ð1 þ saTÞ
Dupss ¼ Kpss Dx1
ð1 þ sTÞ
2.4 Examples 65
1 1
sDx1 ¼ Dx þ a sDx Dx1
T T
K1 1 D K2 1
¼ aDd þ a Dx aDE0q Dx1
M T M M T
1 1
sDupss ¼ Kpss Dx1 Dupss þ Kpss a sDx1
T T
K1 2 1 D K2 0
¼ Kpss a Dd þ Kpss að aÞDx Kpss a2 DEq
M T M M
1 1
þ ð1 aÞ Kpss Dx1 Dupss
T T
By writing the state equation of open-loop system and the PSS together, the
state-space model of closed-loop system is obtained to be
2 : 32 32 3
Dd 0 314:159 0 0 0 0 Dd
6 : 7 6
6 Dx 7 6 0:218 0 0:109 0 0 0 7 6
76 Dx0 7
7
6 0 7 6
6 DE_ q 7 6 0:134 0 0:597 0:200 0 0 7 76
6 DEq 7
7
6 0 7 ¼ 6 26:582 3245:044 100 10000 7 6 0 7
6 DE_ 7 6 0 0 76 DEfd 7
6 fd 7
4 Dx_ 1 5 4 0:528 10 0:263 0 10 0 54 Dx1 5
Du_ pss 3:352 63:432 1:671 0 37:281 10 Dupss
1 ¼ 93:4535
k
2;3 ¼ 0:8995 j5:2621
k
4;5 ¼ 9:4136 j5:0918
k
k6 ¼ 6:5176
40
30
20
10
-10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
time (second)
Fig. 2.19 Simulation result of example power system without and with PSS installed
From Fig. 2.10, it can be seen that the electric torque provided by the AVR to the
electromechanical oscillation loop of generator is as follows:
K5 1 KA
sT0do þ K3 sTA þ 1
DTavr ¼ K2 Dd
1 þ 0 K6 sTKAþ 1
sTdo þ K3 A
K2 K5 KA
¼ Dd ¼ Favr ðsÞDd
K6 KA þ ðsT0do þ K3 ÞðsTA þ 1Þ
s ¼ Tsavr Dd k
DTavr k s þ Tdavr Dx k
s
Because
s Þ ¼ ns þ jxs s Þ ¼ ns Ddðk
s Þ þ j xs Ddðk
s Þ
Dxðk Ddðk
x0 x0 x0
thus
That is
xs s Þ
Tdavr ¼ ImFavr ðk
x0
Since
s Þ ¼ K2 K5 KA
Favr ðk s TA þ 1Þ
K6 KA þ ðks T0do þ K3 Þðk
K2 K5 KA
¼
K6 KA þ K3 þ ðK3 TA þ T0d0 Þk 2
s þ T0 TA k
d0 s
K2 K5 KA
¼
K6 KA þ K3 þ ðK3 TA þ T0d0 Þðns þ jxs Þ þ T0d0 TA ðns þ jxs Þ2
K2 K5 KA K2 K5 KA
¼ ¼ 2 ða jbÞ ¼ 0:0024 þ j0:0031
a þ jb a þ b2
where
a ¼ K6 KA þ K3 þ K3 TA þ T0d0 ns þ T0d0 TA n2s x2s ¼ 31:9695
b ¼ K3 TA þ T0d0 xs þ 2T0d0 TA ns xs ¼ 41:5426
x0 s Þ ¼ x0 K2 K5 KA b
Tdavr ¼ ImFavr ðk
xs xs a2 þ b2
¼ 0:0988
68 2 A Single-Machine Infinite-Bus Power System …
Since
@a @a
@ KA
¼ K6 ¼ 0:3245; @ TA
¼ K3 ns þ T0d0 n2s x2s ¼ 341:2561
@b
@ KA
¼ 0; @b
@ TA
¼ K3 xs þ 2T0d0 ns xs ¼ 23:7488
sensitivity of the damping torque provided by the AVR to its parameters can be
obtained to be
h
i
@Tdavr x0 K2 K5 b þ KA @@Kb a2 þ b2 KA b 2a @@Ka þ 2b @@Kb
¼ A A A
¼ 0:0003
@KA xs ða2 þ b2 Þ2
h
i
@b @a @b
x0 K2 K5 KA @ TA ða þ b Þ b 2a @ TA þ 2b @ TA
2 2
@Tdavr
¼ ¼ 0:9055
@TA xs ða2 þ b2 Þ2
The above results indicate that (1) with the increase of the AVR gain, less
damping torque will be provided by the AVR, detrimental to the system
small-signal angular stability and (2) with the increase of the AVR time constant,
less damping torque will be provided by the AVR, also detrimental to the damping
of low-frequency power oscillations.
The PSS to be designed is to provide a damping torque DTpss ¼ Dpss Dx; Dpss ¼ 15.
From Eq. (2.96), the forward path of stabilizing signal of the PSS can be obtained to
be ðjxs ¼ j8:44Þ
KA
Fpss ðjxs Þ ¼ K2 0
ðK3 þ jxs Td0 Þð1 þ jxs TA Þ þ K6 KA
¼ 0:8598 j1:1451 ¼ 1:4320\53:0989
The PSS adopts the deviation of rotor speed of generator as the feedback signal,
and its transfer function is as follows:
ð1 þ sT2 Þ ð1 þ sT4 Þ
Tpss ðsÞ ¼ K1 K2 with T1 ¼ 0:09 s; T3 ¼ 0:09 s
ð1 þ sT1 Þ ð1 þ sT3 Þ
2.4 Examples 69
According to Eq. (2.133), parameters of the PSS are set to compensate the phase
of the forward path and thus obtained to be
Let
ð1 þ sT4 Þ
Dx1 ¼ Kpss2 Dx ¼ ð9:3706 þ j4:6819ÞDx
ð1 þ sT3 Þ
ð1 þ sT2 Þ
Dupss ¼ Kpss1 Dx1 ¼ ð0:8946 þ j0:4470ÞDx1
ð1 þ sT1 Þ
1 Kpss2
sDx1 ¼ Dx1 þ ðT4 sDx þ DxÞ
T3 T3
1 Kpss2 T4
¼ Dx1 þ ðK1 Dd K2 DE0q DDxÞ þ DxÞ
T3 T3 M
Kpss2 T4 K1 Kpss2 T4 Kpss2 T4 K2 0 1
¼ Dd þ 1 D Dx DEq Dx1
T3 M T3 M T3 M T3
¼ 0:3230Dd þ 6:1672Dx 0:1224DE0q 11:1111Dx1
1 Kpss1 T2 Kpss1 Kpss1 T2 Kpss2 T4 K1
sDupss ¼ Dupss þ Dx1 þ Dd
T1 T1 T3 T1 T1 T3 M
Kpss2 T4 K2 0 Kpss2 T4
DEq þ 1 D Dx
T3 M T3 M
Kpss T2 T4 K1 Kpss T2 T4 Kpss T2 T4 K2 0
¼ Dd þ 1 D Dx DEq
T1 T3 M T1 T3 M T1 T3 M
Kpss1 T2 Kpss1 1
+ Dx1 Dupss
T1 T3 T1 T1
¼ 5:0182Dd þ 95:8026Dx 2:5018DE0q 108:0008Dx1 11:1111Dupss
By writing the state equation of open-loop system and the PSS together, state
matrix of closed-loop system is obtained to be
70 2 A Single-Machine Infinite-Bus Power System …
2 0 x0 0 0 0 0 3
6 K1 D K 0 7
6 0 0 7
2
6 M M M 7
6 K 7
6 K0 4 0 03 1
0 0 7
6 Td0 Td0 T0d0 7
6 7
A¼6 KA 7
6 KTA K5 0 KTA K6 K A
0 TA 7
6 A
A TA 7
6 7
6 Kpss2 T4 K1 Kpss2
1 TTM KT 20 T4 K2
K2 0 T1 0 7
6 7
4
4 T 3M T 3M
5
3 3 3
Kpss1
T 2 T 4 K1
T1 T3 M K PSS
T2 1 T4 D K
T1 T3 M PSS T 2 T 4 K2
T1 T3 M KPSS 0 T1 1 T2
T3 T1
1
2 3
0 314:16 0 0 0 0
6 0:2178 0:1086 7
6 0 0 0 0 7
6 7
6 0:1345 0 0:5977 0:2 0 0 7
¼6
6 26:5821
7
6 0 3245 100 0 10000 7
7
6 7
4 0:3230 6:1672 0:1224 0 11:1111 0 5
5:0182 95:8026 2:5018 0 108:0008 11:1111
k1 ¼ 93:6838
2;3 ¼ 1:2125 j8:0051
k
k4;5 ¼ 8:7171 j6:2080
k6 ¼ 9:2771
Fig. 2.20 Simulation result of power system without and with the PSS designed by use of the
phase compensation method
2.4 Examples 71
circuit occurred on the transmission line which was cleared in 100 ms. From
Fig. 2.20, it can be seen that the low-frequency oscillation is damped effectively by
the PSS designed by use of the phase compensation method.
K2 ½K4 ðsTA þ 1Þ þ K5 KA
¼
K6 KA þ sT0do þ K3 ðsTA þ 1Þ
2 þ 0:1553k
7k s þ 477:7128 ¼ 0
s
This is the first equation in Eq. (2.120). Figure 2.21 presents the Pt d curve
from simulation. At 1 s of simulation, the mechanical power input to the generator
72 2 A Single-Machine Infinite-Bus Power System …
without PSS
with PSS installed
Fig. 2.21 Pt d curve, corresponding variation of rotor angle and power output of the generator
of example power system
c ÞDd þ F
DPt ¼ K1 Dd þ Fdelta ðk c ÞT
pss ðk c ÞDxðk
pss ðk c Þ
¼ K1 Dd þ Ts1 Dd þ Td1 Dx þ Dpss Dxðk c Þ
¼ 1:5207Dd þ 15:1553Dx
¼ ½ v1
V v2 v3 v4
T ¼ ½ w1 1
W 2
w 3
w w 4 T ¼ V
Thus, according to Eq. (2.64), for the electromechanical oscillation modes, the
residue is calculated to be
2 ¼ w
R T2 bo cTo
v2
¼ ½ 0:5554 j0:0001 0:0312 j21:1226 0:1626 þ j0:1476 0:0003 þ j0:0003
2 3 2 3
0 0:9014
6 0 7 6 7
6 7 6 j0:0237 7
6 7½ 0 1 0 0 6 7
4 0 5 4 0:0050 + j0:0050 5
10000 0:3868 j0:1930
¼ 0:0633 þ j0:0822
3 ¼ w
R T3 bo cTo
v3
¼ ½ 0:5554 þ j0:0001 0:0312 þ j21:1226 0:1626 j0:1475 0:0003 j0:0003
2 3 2 3
0 0:9014
6 0 7 6 j0:0237 7
6 7 6 7
6 7½ 0 1 0 0 6 7
4 0 5 4 0:0050 j0:0050 5
10000 0:3868 + j0:1930
¼ 0:0633 j0:0822
2
@k 22 v22
w ð0:0312 j21:1226Þðj0:0237Þ
¼ ¼ ¼ 0:0715
@Dpss M 7
3
@k 32 v32
w ð0:0312 þ j21:1226Þðj0:0237Þ
¼ ¼ ¼ 0:0715
@Dpss M 7
2.4 Examples 75
At the complex frequency k 2;3 ¼ 0:0114 j8:2610, the forward path can be
calculated from Eq. (2.96) as
2;3 Þ ¼ K2 KA
Fpss ðk
2;3 T0 Þð1 þ k2;3 TA Þ þ K6 KA
ðK3 þ k d0
0:7602 100
¼
½2:9885 þ ð0:0114 j8:2611Þ 5½1 þ ð0:0114 j8:2611Þ 0:01 þ 0:3245 100
¼ 0:8845 j1:1493
Hence,
@k2;3
R2;3 ¼ Fpss ðk2;3 Þ ¼ ð0:0715Þ ð0:8845 j1:1493Þ
@Dpss
¼ 0:0633 j0:0822
Thus, it is conformed that the residue is equal to the forward path of the PSS
multiplied by the sensitivity of electromechanical oscillation modes to the coeffi-
cient of damping torque contribution from the PSS.
In Sect. 2.4.1.1, state matrix and control vector of state-space model of example
power system are obtained to be
2 3
0 314:16 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 0:045 0:09 0:104 0:39 7
6 0 0 0:20 0:47 7
6 7
6 714:29 0 100 6116:3 1404:6 2646 3127 1154:5 7
6 7
6 295:81 89:35 6:65 135:03 7
6 0 478:4 2:88 3:40 7
Agcdq ¼6 7
6 105:79 318:31 0 513:64 5:48 86:29 101:98 4:50 7
6 7
6 1:22 7
6 0 0 314:16 0:43 0 0:71 0 7
6 7
4 0 0 0 1:36 0 1:88 3:49 0 5
0 0 0 0 36:0 0 0 46:8
2 3
0
6 0 7
6 7
6 7
6 10000 7
6 7
6 0 7
6 7
bpss ¼6 7
6 0 7
6 7
6 0 7
6 7
6 7
4 0 5
0
76 2 A Single-Machine Infinite-Bus Power System …
¼ ½ v1
V v2 ... v8
¼ ½w
T 1
; left eigenvectors corresponding to
As W 1 w 2 . . . w8 T ¼ V
eigenvalues are calculated to be
2 3T 2 3T
1:2419 j0:4483 1:2419 þ j0:4483
6 0:0486 j0:262 7 6 0:0486 þ j0:262 7
6 7 6 7
6 0:4494 þ j0:0412 7 6 0:4494 j0:0412 7
6 7 6 7
6 0:2153 j3:8659 7 T 6 0:2153 þ j3:8659 7
T1
w ¼6 7 w ¼ 6
6 1:9686 þ j0:7712 7 2 6 1:9686 j0:7712 7
7
6 7 6 7
6 0:0188 þ j1:3997 7 6 0:0188 j1:3997 7
6 7 6 7
4 0:0288 þ j1:6542 5 4 0:0288 j1:6542 5
0:6025 j0:5408 0:6025 þ j0:5408
2 3T 2 3T 2 3T
1:6552 þ j0:1633 1:6552 j0:1633 0:7411
6 0:1388 þ j0:9214 7 6 0:1388 j0:9214 7 6 6:8756 7
6 7 6 7 6 7
6 0:1003 j0:0038 7 6 0:1003 þ j0:0038 7 6 0:000219 7
6 7 6 7 6 7
6 0:2788 þ j1:9563 7 T 6 0:2788 j1:9563 7 T 6 0:0934 7
T3 6
¼6 7 6
4 ¼ 6 7 6 7
w 7 w 7 w5 ¼ 6 0:0106 7
6 2:5805 j0:126 7 6 2:5805 þ j0:126 7 6 7
6 0:0246 þ j0:1141 7 6 0:0246 j0:1141 7 6 0:000045 7
6 7 6 7 6 7
4 0:0277 þ j0:1353 5 4 0:0277 j0:1353 5 4 0:00006 5
0:7412 j0:2714 0:7412 þ j0:2714 1:3311
2 3T 2 3T
0:7422 þ j0:06 0:7422 j0:06
6 0:2586 j27:632 7 6 0:2586 þ j27:632 7
6 7 6 7
6 0:000019 þ j0:00094 7 6 0:000019 j0:00094 7
6 7 6 7
6 0:0034 þ j0:0146 7 T 6 0:0034 j0:0146 7
T6
w ¼6 7 w ¼ 6
6 0:0004 þ j0:000131 7 7 6 0:0004 j0:000131 7
7
6 7 6 7
6 0:000019 þ j0:000298 7 6 0:000019 j0:000298 7
6 7 6 7
4 0:000139 þ j0:0002727 5 4 0:000139 j0:0002727 5
0:0499 þ j0:2027 0:0499 j0:2027
2 3T
0:0803
6 2:7921 7
6 7
6 0:0021 7
6 7
6 0:003 7
wT8 ¼6
6 0:0283 7
7
6 7
6 0:000637 7
6 7
4 1:5496 5
0:079
78 2 A Single-Machine Infinite-Bus Power System …
According to Eq. (2.64), for the pair of electromechanical oscillation modes, the
residue is calculated to be
6;7 ¼ w
R T6;7 bo cTo v6;7
2 3T 2 3
0:7422 j0:06 0
6 0:2586
j27:632 7 6 0 7
6 7 6 7
6 7 6 7
6 0:000019 j0:00094 7 6 10000 7
6 7 6 7
6 0:0034 j0:0146 7 6 0 7
6 7 6 7
¼6 7 6 7
6 0:0004 j0:000131 7 6 0 7
6 7 6 7
6 0:000019 j0:000298 7 6 0 7
6 7 6 7
6 7 6 7
4 0:000139 j0:0002727 5 4 0 5
0:0499 þ j0:2027 0
2 3
0:7004
6 0:0016 j0:0188 7
6 7
6 7
6 0:000061
j0:000914 7
6 7
6 0:1482 j0:0043 7
6 7
½0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 7
6 0:5516 j0:0283 7
6 7
6 0:0317 j0:0041 7
6 7
6 7
4 0:0077 j0:0284 5
0:413 j0:0977
¼ 0:1772
j0:0114
6;7
@k 62;72 v62;72
w ð0:2586
j27:632Þð0:0016 j0:0188Þ
¼ ¼
@Dpss M 7
¼ 0:0743
j0:0056
At the complex frequency k6;7 ¼ 0:71 j8:44, the forward path can be cal-
culated to be
2.4 Examples 79
Hence,
6;7
@k
R6;7 ¼ Fpss ðk6;7 Þ ¼ ð0:0743
j0:0056Þð2:3823 j0:0253Þ
@Dpss
¼ 0:1772
j0:0114
It is thus confirmed that the residue is equal to the forward path of the PSS
multiplied by the sensitivity of oscillation modes to the coefficient of damping
torque contribution from the PSS.
References