Mechanical Analysis and Design

ME 2104

Lecture 1

Mechanical Analysis
Shafts & keyways
Prof Ahmed Kovacevic
School of Engineering and Mathematical Sciences
Room CG25, Phone: 8780, E-Mail: a.kovacevic@city.ac.uk
www.staff.city.ac.uk/~ra600/intro.htm
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 Plan for the analysis of
mechanical elements
Objective:
Procedures for design and selection of
mechanical elements
 Week 1 – Shafts and keyways
 Week 2 – Bearings and screws
 Week 3 – Belt and chain drives
 Week 4 – Gears and gear trains
 Week 5 – Design Project Review
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 Plan for this week

 Principles of mechanical design

 Shafts & shaft elements (with examples)

Literature:
Mechanical Engineering Design, 7th edition, Shigley, Mischke,
Budynas, McGraw Hill, 2004, ISBN 007-252036-1
Fundamentals of Machine Elements, Hamrock, Jacobson,
Smchnmidt, McGraw Hill, 1999, ISBN 0-256-19069-0

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 Mechanical Design Process

Use of scientific principles and technical information

along with innovations, ingenuity or imagination in the
definition of a machine, mechanical device or system to
perform pre specified functions with maximum economy and
efficiency.

(Engineering Design Council, UK)

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 Mechanical Design Procedure
A component is usually designed in the following sequence:

1. At first a design scheme (lay out) is drawn in which the shape of the
part being designed and the nature of its connection with other
elements are presented in a simplified form while the forces acting
on the part are assumed to be either concentrated or distributed in
conformity with some simple law;

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 Mechanical Design Procedure
A component is usually designed in the following sequence:

1. At first a design scheme (lay out) is drawn in which the shape of the
part being designed and the nature of its connection with other
elements are presented in a simplified form while the forces acting
on the part are assumed to be either concentrated or distributed in
conformity with some simple law;
2. The forces acting on the part in the process of machine operation
are then determined

l l l l
b b b
l t

l l
l p
l
a p a

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 Mechanical Design Procedure
A component is usually designed in the following sequence:

1. At first a design scheme (lay out) is drawn in which the shape of the
part being designed and the nature of its connection with other
elements are presented in a simplified form while the forces acting
on the part are assumed to be either concentrated or distributed in
conformity with some simple law;
2. The forces acting on the part in the process of machine operation
are then determined;
3. Material is selected and the allowable stresses are found
accounting for all the factors that affect the strength of the part;
4. The dimensions of the part, required by the design criteria (strength,
rigidity, wear resistance etc.) corresponding to the accepted design
scheme, are determined;
5. Finally the drawing of the part is made indicating all dimensions,
accuracy of manufacture, surface finish and other information
necessary for the manufacture of the part.
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 System, Equilibrium and
Free-Body Diagrams
System is any isolated part or portion of a machine or structure to be studied. If the
system is motionless or has constant velocity it is said the system is in equilibrium.
For such a system all forces and moments acting on the system balance:
SF=0 SM=0
The isolated system together with all forces and moments due to any external
effects and the reactions with the main system is called free-body diagram.

An analysis of any structure

can be greatly simplified by
successively isolating each
element and studying and
analysing it by the use of free-
body diagram.
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 Stress and Strength
The quality of a mechanical system depends on the relationship of
the maximum stress to the component strength
1. Stress is a state property of a body which is a function of :
load, geometry, temperature and manufacturing process.
Stress is denoted with Greek letters and has unit [N/m2]
s = F/A – normal stress (tensile or compressive)
t = Fp/A – shear stress
Various marks denote various kinds of stress:
s1 – principal stress – stress in the direction of a principal axis
sy – coordinate stress component
sr – radial stress component

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 Stress, Strain and Strength

2. Strain is defined as deformation of a solid due to stress in terms of

displacement of material

Strain is denoted with Greek letters:

e = dl / lo [m/m]
g = ds / so [m/m]

Elastic Moduli are ratio of stress / strain:

E=s/e [N/m2] - Young’s modulus
Modulus of Elasticity

G=t/ g [N/m2] - Shear modulus

Modulus of Rigidity

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 Stress and Strength
The quality of a mechanical system depends on the relationship of
the maximum stress to the component strength

1. Strength is an inherent property of a material built into the part because of

the use of a particular material and process.
Strength is denoted with capital letter S [N/m2]
SE – Yield strength (lowest stress that produces permanent deformation)
SG – Shear strength (lowest shear stress that produces permanent deformation)
St – Tensile or ultimate strength
(limit state of tensile stress)
Sd – Fatigue strength – dynamic loading
(in a stress range Ds=smax-smin)
Si – Impact strength

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 Selection of material
lateral strain
s = Ee t = Gg  = E = 2G(1  )
axial strain

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 Mechanical Design Criteria
specific characteristics which influence the design
of the element or the entire system
1. Strength: A component should not fail or have residual deformations under the
effect of the forces that act on it.
This is satisfied if the induced stress is smaller then the material strength
s  [S]
The necessary and sufficient strength of the part of a selected material under a
given load is ensured by dimensions and shapes, which preclude damage and
residual deformations.
A component can also fail because of damaged working surfaces induced by the
very high stress or very small area.

2. Rigidity: is the ability of parts to resist deformations under the action of forces.
Proper rigidity is necessary to ensure that machine as a whole and its elements
operate effectively.
In many cases this parameter of operating capacity proves to be most important.
Therefore apart from the strength calculations, rigidity of a number of parts is
also calculated as ratio of the actual displacements (deflections, angles of turn,
angles of twist) with allowable (rated) displacements.
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 Mechanical Design Criteria (Cont.)

3. Wear Resistance: Wear is the principal cause of putting machine elements

out of commission. Problems: frequent stops, loss of machine accuracy etc.
Calculations of wear are usually of an arbitrary nature and carried out
together with calculations of strength.
4. Heat resistance: The liberation of heat involved in the working process or
some times due to friction between moving surfaces, causes the components
of some machines to operate under conditions of increased temperature.
An increased temperature (> 100o C) impairs the lubricating ability of oils;
Continuous operations involving temperatures > 300-400o C causes slow
plastic deformations called creep. Thermal deformations may reduce the
accuracy of a machine.
Effective cooling and special calculations for heat to find the working
temperature of the machine elements, evaluate the working stresses and
compare them with the creep limits for the material of the part.
5. Resistance to vibrations: The term implies the ability of a machine to
operate at the assigned speeds and loads without impermissible oscillations
Dynamic analysis after finalizing the design to avoid inherent unbalances.
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 Design for Strength
 Basic assumptions
» Material is continuous, homogenous and isotropic
» Material is linearly elastic or Hook’s law is valid
» There are no internal stresses prior to loading
» Load is static
 Static loading – any combination of:
» Axial loading, either tension or compression
» Shear loading
» Transverse loading which causes bending
» Torsional loading
Valid if time of application of load > three times its natural period.
» Apply yield criteria to the maximum expected loading – the limit loading
» Apply ultimate criteria to a possible overload - should survive without material rupture
 Dynamic loading
» Apply fatigue criteria (Ds=smax-smin)
» Depend on a type of loading
» Use empirical factors (reliability….)

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 Design for Strength – Static Load
 The part to be designed must be capable of
» transmitting the necessary forces and performing necessary motions efficiently
and economically
» failure must not occur in it before a predetermined span of operating life has
elapsed
» the part must perform its function without interfering with any other part of the
machine

Strength is the primary criteria for the design. The relation between the
strength of the part and the stress induced on it due to the anticipated
static loading must also be considered in order to select the optimum
material and dimensions for satisfying above requirements

 Two distinct and separate approaches

1. The deterministic, or factor-of-safety approach. In this method, the maximum
stress or stresses in a part are kept below the minimum strength by a suitable
design factor or margin of safety, to ensure that the part will not fail.
2. The stochastic, or reliability approach. This method involves the selection of
materials, processing and dimensions such that the probability of failure is
16 always less than a pre selected value Ahmed Kovacevic, City University London
 Factor of Safety Method
 Factor of safety method, the classical method of design, employs reduced
values of strengths that are used in the design to determine the geometrical
dimensions of the parts.
 A design factor of safety Nd, some times called simply design factor N, is
defined by the relation
Loss of function Load Strength S
N= = =
Allowable Load Stress s
 The failure stress (strength) can be anything the designer chooses it to be.
Often such strengths as minimum, mean, yield, ultimate, shear, fatigue as well
as others are used; of course it must correspond in type and units to the
induced stress.
Material Load Factor of safety value N
Exceptionally reliable Certainly known 1.25 to 1.50
Well known Known 1.50 to 2.00
Known Well known 1.50 to 2.00
17 Less tried Known orAverage 2.00 to 2.50
Ahmed Kovacevic, City University London
 Reliability Method
 The reliability method, is the method in which statistical distribution of
stresses and strength are obtained and related to each other.
 The statistical measure of the probability that a mechanical element will not
fail in use is called the reliability of that element. It can be quantified as:
0  R 1
 If in the above equation R=0.90 that means that there is 90% chance that the
part will perform its proper function without failure.
 In the reliability method, designer should select materials, processes and
geometry in order to achieve a reliability goal.
 Analyses that lead to an assessment of reliability address uncertainties, or their
estimates, in parameters that describe the situation. Stochastic variables such
as stress, strength, load, or size are described in terms of their means, standard
deviations and distributions.

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 Shafts
and
Keyways
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 Steps in shaft design
Steps in the shaft design are:
1. Define shaft topology
2. Specify driving elements
3. Free body diagram
4. Select bearings
5. Consider shaft deflection and
stress
6. Check for critical speed
7. Specify connections
8. Dimensions

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 Steps in shaft design
1. Shaft topology

2. Driving elements

Gears, pulleys, sprockets …

Shaft design depends on the

size of rotating element and
forces acting on it

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 Steps in shaft design
3. Free body diagram
The system of interest is separated from the
surrounding and connections are replaced by
forces
Reactions in bearings & force diagram
Bending moment
Torsional moment ( P=w T )
4. Bearing selection and position
Equivalent load (forces)
Bearing rating life based on the size
Positioning and lubrication

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 Steps in shaft design
5. Shaft deflection and stress – minimum diameter
Difficult to calculate exactly. Reasons for complexity:
• Variable shaft diameter
• Undercuts and grooves – stress concentration points
• Type of load – axial, radial, torsional, bending, static, dynamic …

Static load:
M Mc 32 M
Bending stress sz = = =
Z I  d3
c=d/2 - maximum span
T Tc 16T
Torsional stress t zy = = = I=d4/64 - second moment of area
S J  d3 Z=c/I - section modulus
J=d4/32 - second polar moment of area
32 f s 3 2
Minimum diameter d = 3 M2  T S=c/J - polar section modulus
(distortion energy)  Sy 4 fs - factor of safety
theory

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 Dynamic loading – shaft design
6. Dynamic load:
Kf - Fatigue stress concentration factor for bending
Kfs - Fatigue stress concentration factor for torsion
Indices:
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑛
a - alternating moment or torque 𝑀𝑎 = 2
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑀𝑚𝑖𝑛
m - midrange moment or torque 𝑀𝑚 =
2

Von-misses stresses
for rotating round solid shaft neglecting axial load

Factor of safety:
Compares maximum yielding stress with yielding strength

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 Dynamic loading – shaft design
𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑐ℎ − 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 Fatigue stress
𝐾𝑓 = 1 + 𝐾𝑐 − 1 𝑞𝑛 𝐾𝑓 =
𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 concentration factor

𝐾𝑐 − Stress concentration factor (function of geometry)

𝐾𝑓 − 1 S𝑒 = 𝑘𝑓 𝑘𝑠 𝑘𝑟 𝑘𝑡 𝑘𝑚 𝑆𝑒′ Modified endurance limits
𝑞𝑛 = − Notch sensitivity factor
𝐾𝑐 − 1
𝑘𝑓 = 0.65 − 0.85 kf – surface finish factor
𝑘𝑠 = 1.189 𝑑−0.112 ks – size factor
𝑆𝑒′ = 0.5 𝑆𝑢 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 Stress endurance limit
𝑘𝑟 : 1 for 50% kr – reliability factor
𝑆𝑒′ = 0.45 𝑆𝑢 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 for steels under
0.9 for 90%
𝑆𝑒′ = 0.29 𝑆𝑢 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 idealised conditions
(high-cycles fatigue) 0.82 for 99%
0.7 for 99.99%
𝑆𝑢𝑡 kt – temperature factor
𝑘𝑡 =
𝑆𝑢 km – miscellaneous factor

3 2 2
32𝑓𝑠 𝑆𝑦 𝑆𝑦 Minimum diameter for
𝑑= 𝑀𝑚 + 𝐾𝑓 𝑀𝑎 + 𝑇𝑚 + 𝐾𝑓𝑠 𝑇𝑎
𝜋𝑆𝑦 𝑆𝑒 𝑆𝑒 cyclic loading of a shaft

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 Propertied of steel

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 Critical speed - shaft design

Critical speed of a shaft without load

𝑟𝑎𝑑
[ ]
𝑠

Rayleigh’s equation
m – mass per unit length
g – specific weight
wi – weight at the location
yi – deflection at the location

Dunkerley equation
Deflection at
point i due to the
load at point j

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 Strength of a key

W D
4
Allowed torque on the key:
D
T =F ; A = WL
2
F 2T DWL S y
t= =  T=
A DWL 4 fs
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 Example 1 – Shaft design
The power from the motor of a
front-wheel drive car is transmitted
to the gearbox by a chain drive
(Figure a). The two chain wheels
are the same size. The chain is not
pre-stressed and it does exerts no
force. The safety factor is 4. The
shaft is to be made of ANSI 1080
steel. The chain transmits 100kW
of power at the chain speed of 50
m/s when the motor speed is 6000
rpm.

Find the appropriate shaft diameter.

Solution: d=26 mm
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 Example 2 – Shaft dynamic load
The shaft made of high-carbon steel, in
figure, is subjected to reversed bending
and steady torsion. A standard ball
bearing is to be placed on diameter d2
and this surface is machined to form a
good seat fro the bearing.
The groove between the sections is there to ensure that the large diameter
section is not damaged by the grinding operation and is called ‘grinding
relief’. Assume that standard ball bearing bore sizes are in 5 mm increments
in the range 15 to 50 mm.
Shaft should be designed so that d2=0.75 d3 and d1=0.65 d3. The completely
reversed bending moment is 70 Nm and the steady torsion is 45 Nm.
Assume safety factor of 2.5 and size the shaft for infinite life.
Assume stress concentration factor Kc=1.9, notch sensitivity qn=0.75,
surface factor kf=0.75
Determine diameter d2? Solution: d1=25.3 mm; d2=30mm; d3=40mm
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31 Ahmed Kovacevic, City University London
 Example 3 – Shaft critical speed
A simply supported shaft
arrangement is shown in the figure.
A solid shaft of 50 mm diameter
made of low-carbon steel is used.
Given values are:
x1=762 mm
x2=1016 mm
x3=508 mm
PA=356 N
PB=534 N
Solution: Determine first critical speeds:
a) 1155 rpm a) Unloaded shaft
b) 648 rpm b) Rayleigh method
c) 651 rpm c) Dunkerley method

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 Example 4 – Key calculation
A 100 mm diameter shaft with a hub is
made of high-carbon steel. A square
key made of low-carbon steel has a
width and height of 25 mm.
Assume allowable stress:
𝜏𝑎𝑙 = 0.4 𝑆𝑦
𝜎𝑎𝑙 = 0.9 𝑆𝑦
Calculate:
critical length of key while assuming
safety factor of 2 and considering both
compression and shear
Solution: Lcrt=202.2 mm
Lcrs=179.7 mm

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