INTRODUCTION TO SOFTWARES

INTRODUCTION TO CATIA
CATIA (computer aided three-dimensional interactive application) is a multiple-
platform CAD/CAM/CAE commercial software suite developed by the French company
dassault systems. Written in the C++ programming language, CATIA is the cornerstone of
the dassault systems product lifecycle management software suite. Commonly referred to as a
3D product life cycle management software suite, CATIA supports multiple stages of product
development (CAX), from conceptualization, design (CAD), manufacturing (CAM), and
engineering (CAE). CATIA facilitates collaborative engineering across disciplines, including
surfacing & shape design, mechanical engineering, equipment and systems engineering.
CATIA provides a suite of surfacing, reverse engineering, and visualization solutions
to create, modify, and validate complex innovative shapes. From subdivision, styling, and
class A surfaces to mechanical functional surfaces. CATIA enables the creation of 3D parts,
from 33D sketches, sheet metal, composites, molded, forget or tooling parts up to the
definition of mechanical assemblies. It provides tools to complete product definition,
including functional tolerances, as well as kinematics definition.

INTRODUCTION TO ANSYS
ANSYS finite element analysis software enables engineers to perform the following
tasks:
Build computer models or transfer CAD models of structures, products,
components, or systems.
Apply operating loads or other design performance conditions.
Study physical responses, such as stress levels, temperature distributions, or
electromagnetic fields.
Optimize a design early in to production costs.
Do prototype testing in environment where it otherwise would be
undesirable or impossible (for example, biomedical applications).

The ANSYS program is organized into two basics levels:

Begin level
Processor (or Routine) level

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 ANSYS is one of the most widely used finite element programs. It has gained
popularity because of its friendliness and its applicability to a variety of problems. The
ANSYS family of programs covers a wide spectrum of engineering applications ranging from
linear structural and heat transfer analysis to fatigue and fracture analysis. The preprocessing
is a very user friendly program with exclusive modeling capabilities it offers features like
CAD/CAM interfacing both command and menu driven modes with on-line help,3D models
generation including points , lines , arcs , surfaces and solids and geometric transformations
including translation , rotation , scaling , mirror imaging etc . Some other importance features
incorporated are for the FE generation. It offers interactive FE mesh generation including
automatic node and element generation , includes element attributes like material properties
and other simpler options for plotting , hidden line removal, shrink elements plots , shading
and light effects , model thinking including calculation of areas, volumes, element distortion
index checking and ANSYS data deck generation .
The ANSYS input data structure is in free format and is simple and easy to use. It
has extensive data checking features. The input data used in one analysis type can be used for
another analysis type with modifications. It also includes an extensive element library with
linear and higher order isoperimetric elements. Some elements available are 2-D and 3-D
beam elements, 3-D solid elements, 3-D shell elements and 3-D laminated composite shell
elements. Several material models are also available.
The General post processing module can be used to have contour plots,
displacement plots or graphs. ANSYS also gives output files in the form of print files and
also offers the facility to take screen plots. In Ansys the problem is basically divided into
three categories namely,
Pre-Processing
Solving
Post-Processing

Pre-Processing:
In this stage or process the model undergoes developing geometry, assigning
physical and material properties, meshing, describing the loads and boundary conditions and
checking the model.

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Solving the Model:
This model can solve problems linear statics, linear dynamics, conduction, heat
transfer, potential flow analysis, electromagnetic analysis, fluid dynamics, etc. This also
involves the submission of FE model to the FE solver.

Post Processing:
It is the process for plotting deflections and stresses comparing results with
failure criteria imposed on the design, such as maximum allowable deflection, material static
and failure strength, etc. FEA results in formats deformed geometry, criteria, contour and
others to give insight into whether the part fails or how to improve the design.
The post-processing task allows displaying and studying the results of an analysis
which exists in the model as analysis data sets. This task can generate displays of deformed
geometry, contour plots, arrow plots, XY and XYZ plots, beam shear and moment diagrams.

ANALYSIS TYPES:
The following types of analysis can be performed in Ansys

Structural Analysis:
Static.
Modal.
Transient.
Spectrum.
Eigen Buckling.
Harmonic.
Sub-Structuring/CMS.

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Identify the five basic stresses acting on an aircraft. The primary factors to
consider in aircraft structures are strength, weight, and reliability. These factors
determine the requirements to be met by any material used to construct or repair the
aircraft. Airframes must be strong and light in weight. An aircraft built so heavy that it
couldn't support more than a few hundred pounds of additional weight would be
useless. All materials used to construct an aircraft must be reliable. Reliability
minimizes the possibility of dangerous and unexpected failures. Many forces and
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structural stresses act on an aircraft when it is flying and when it is static. When it is
static, the force of gravity produces weight, which is supported by the landing gear.
The landing gear absorbs the forces imposed on the aircraft by takeoffs and landings.
During flight, any maneuver that causes acceleration or deceleration increases the
forces and stresses on the wings and fuselage. Stresses on the wings, fuselage, and
landing gear of aircraft are tension, compression, shear, bending, and torsion. These
stresses are absorbed by each component of the wing structure and transmitted to the
fuselage structure. The empennage (tail section) absorbs the same stresses and
transmits them to the fuselage. These stresses are known as loads, and the study of
loads is called a stress analysis. Stresses are analyzed and considered when an aircraft
is designed.

TENSION:
Tension is defined as pull. It is the stress of stretching an object or pulling at its ends.
Tension is the resistance to pulling apart or stretching produced by two forces pulling
in opposite directions along the same straight line. For example, an elevator control
cable is in additional tension when the pilot moves the control column.

COMPRESSION:
If forces acting on an aircraft move toward each other to squeeze the material, the
stress is called compression. Compression is the opposite of tension. Tension is pull,
and compression is push. Compression is the resistance to crushing produced by two
forces pushing toward each other in the same straight line. For example, when an
airplane is on the ground, the landing gear struts are under a constant compression
stress.

SHEAR:
Cutting a piece of paper with scissors is an example of a shearing action. In an aircraft
structure, shear is a stress exerted when two pieces of fastened material tend to
separate. Shear stress is the outcome of sliding one part over the other in opposite
directions. The rivets and bolts of an aircraft experience both shear and tension
stresses.

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BENDING:
Bending is a combination of tension and compression. For example, when bending a
piece of tubing, the upper portion stretches (tension) and the lower portion crushes
together (compression). The wing spars of an aircraft in flight are subject to bending
stresses.

TORSION:
Torsional stresses result from a twisting force. When you wring out a chamois skin,
you are putting it under torsion. Torsion is produced in an engine crankshaft while the
engine is running. Forces that produce torsional stress also produce torque.

VARYING STRESS:
All structural members of an aircraft are subject to one or more stresses. Sometimes a
structural member has alternate stresses; for example, it is under compression one
instant and under tension the next.

Thermal Analysis:
Steady state.
Sub structuring.
Transient.
CFD Ansys Fluid:
Steady state.
Transient.

Specific Capabilities of Ansys:

Structural:
Structural analysis is probably the most common application of the finite element
method as it implies bridges and buildings, naval, aeronautical, and mechanical structures
such as ship hulls, aircraft bodies, and machine housings, as well as mechanical components
such as pistons, machine parts, and tools.

Static Analysis:
It is used to determine displacements, stresses, etc. under static loading conditions.
ANSYS can compute both linear and nonlinear static analyses. Nonlinearities can include
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plasticity, stress stiffening, large deflection, large strain, hyper elasticity, contact surfaces,
and creep.

Transient Dynamic Analysis:

It is used to determine the response of a structure to arbitrarily time-varying loads.
All nonlinearities mentioned under Static Analysis above are allowed.

Buckling Analysis:
It is used to calculate the buckling loads and determine the buckling mode shape.
Both linear (Eigen value) buckling and nonlinear buckling analyses are possible.

THERMAL
ANSYS is capable of both steady state and transient analysis of any solid with
thermal boundary conditions. Steady-state thermal analyses calculate the effects of steady
thermal loads on a system or component. Users often perform a steady-state analysis before
doing a transient thermal analysis, to help establish initial conditions. A steady-state analysis
also can be the last step of a transient thermal analysis; performed after all transient effects
have diminished. ANSYS can be used to determine temperatures, thermal gradients, heat
flow rates, and heat fluxes in an object that are caused by thermal loads that do not vary over
time. Such loads include the following:
Convection
Radiation
Heat flow rates
Heat fluxes (heat flow per unit area)
Heat generation rates (heat flow per unit volume)
Constant temperature boundaries
A steady-state thermal analysis may be either linear, with constant material
properties; or nonlinear, with material properties that depend on temperature. The thermal
properties of most material vary with temperature. This temperature dependency being
appreciable, the analysis becomes nonlinear. Radiation boundary conditions also make the
analysis nonlinear. Transient calculations are time dependent and ANSYS can both solve
distributions as well as create video for time incremental displays of models.

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FLUID FLOW:
The ANSYS CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) offers comprehensive tools for
analyzing two-dimensional and three-dimensional fluid flow fields. ANSYS is capable of
modeling a vast range of analysis types such as: airfoils for pressure analysis of airplane
wings (lift and drag), flow in supersonic nozzles, and complex, three-dimensional flow
patterns in a pipe bend. In addition, ANSYS could be used to perform tasks including:
Calculating the gas pressure and temperature distributions in an engine exhaust manifold
Studying the thermal stratification and breakup in piping systems
Using flow mixing studies to evaluate potential for thermal shock
Doing natural convection analyses to evaluate the thermal performance of chips
in electronic enclosures
Conducting heat exchanger studies involving different fluids separated by solid
regions
Analysis provides an accurate way to calculate the effects of fluid flows in complex
solids without having to use the typical heat transfer analogy of heat flux as fluid flow.
Types of analysis that ANSYS is able to perform include:
Laminar or Turbulent Flows
Thermal Fluid Analysis
Adiabatic Conditions
Free surface Flow
Compressible or incompressible Flows
Newtonian or Non-Newtonian Fluids
Multiple species transport

FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

The Finite Element Method (FEM) is a numerical technique for finding approximate
solutions of partial differential equations (PDE) as well as of integral equations. The solution
approach is based either on eliminating the differential equation completely (steady state
problems), or rendering the PDE into an approximating system of ordinary differential
equations, which are then numerically integrated using standard techniques such as Euler's
method, etc.
A variety of specializations under the umbrella of the mechanical engineering
discipline (such as aeronautical, biomechanical, and automotive industries) commonly use

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integrated FEM in design and development of their products. Several modern FEM packages
include specific components such as thermal, electromagnetic, fluid, and structural working
environments. In a structural simulation, FEM helps tremendously in producing stiffness and
strength visualizations and also in minimizing weight, materials, and costs.
FEM allows detailed visualization of where structures bend or twist, and indicates the
distribution of stresses and displacements. FEM software provides a wide range of simulation
options for controlling the complexity of both modeling and analysis of a system. This
powerful design tool has significantly improved both the standard of engineering designs and
the methodology of the design process in many industrial applications. It is primarily through
improved initial prototype designs using FEM that testing and development have been
accelerated. In summary, benefits of FEM include increased accuracy, enhanced design and
better insight into critical design parameters, virtual prototyping, fewer hardware prototypes,
a faster and less expensive design cycle, increased productivity, and increased revenue.

Need for Finite Element Method:

Design analysis, hand calculations, experiments and computer simulations.
FEM/FEA is the most widely applied computer simulation method in
engineering.
Closely integrated with CAD/CAM applications.

Objectives of the FEM Course:

Understand the fundamental ideas of the FEM.
Know the behavior and usage of each type of elements converted in this course.
Be able to prepare a suitable FE model for the given problem.
Can interpret and evaluate the quality of the results.
Be aware of the limitations of the FEM.

FEM in Structural Analysis:

Procedures:
Divide structure into pieces.
Describe the behavior of the physical quantities on each element.

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 Connect the elements of the nodes of form an approximate system of equations
for the whole structure.
Solve the system of equations involving unknown qualities at the nodes.
Calculate desired quantities at selected elements.

Application of Finite Element Method in Engineering:

Mechanical /Aerospace /Civil /Automobile Engineering.
Static Analysis (Static/Dynamic, Linear/Nonlinear).
Thermal/Fluid Flows.
Electromagnetic.
Geomechanics.
Biomechanics

Advantages of using Finite Element Method:

Can readily handle very complex geometry.
Can handle a wide variety of engineering problems in Solid Mechanics,
Dynamics, Heat Problems, Fluids-Electrostatic problems.
Can handle complex restraints.
Indeterminate structures can be solved.

COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

CFD is the fundamental governing equation of fluid dynamics they are the continuity
equation, momentum and the energy equation. All CFD codes contain three main elements
they are follow

Pre-processor: It is used to input the problem geometry, generate the grid, define the flow
parameter and the boundary conditions to the code

Flow solver: It is used to solve the governing equations of the flow subject to the conditions
provided. There are four different methods used as a flow solver
Finite difference method
Finite element method

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 Finite volume method
Spectral method

Post-processor: It is used to message the data and show the results in graphical and easy to
read format. Computational fluid dynamics provides a qualitative prediction of fluid flow by
means of
Mathematical modeling (partial differential equations)
Numerical methods (discretisation and solution techniques)
Software tools (solvers, pre and post processing utilities)

Classification of Fluid Flows

Viscous and Inviscid
Compressible and Incompressible
Steady and Unsteady
Laminar and Turbulent
Single phase and Multi phase

Grid Generation
Grid generation presents an important consideration in computing numerical solutions
to the governing partial differential equations of CFD. A well-constructed mesh wields great
influence on the numerical computation. CFD requires the subdivision of computational
domain into a number of smaller mesh grid cells overlaying the geometry. It is therefore
generally expected that the discretized domain needs to adequately resolve the important
physics and to capture all the geometrical details of the domain within the flow region.

Mesh Topology
When the geometry is simple and regular is termed as a structured mesh. This type of
mesh is not mostly used. Therefore the use of unstructured mesh has become more prevalent
and widespread in many CFD applications. In this cells are allowed to assemble freely within
the computational domain. In general structured meshes do not necessarily have to be
constrained to have matching cell faces.

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Boundary Condition
The set of conditions specified for behavior of the solution to a set of differential
equations at the boundary of its domain.

Inlet boundary conditions

Depending on the flow problem key parameters can be scrutinized to ascertain the inlet
boundary conditions that are being specified. Some useful parameters that can be examined
are:
Inlet flow direction and magnitude of flow velocity.
A uniform distribution of a parameter or a profile specification, for example
either a uniform inlet velocity or some predetermined inlet velocity profile.
Variation of physical properties.
Variation of turbulence properties at inlet

Outlet boundary conditions

Boundary conditions imposed at the outlet is always selected on the basis that
it has a weak influence on the upstream flow. Whenever possible the outlet boundary must be
placed as far away as possible from the region of interest and should be avoided in the region
strong geometrical changes or in wake regions with recirculation.

Wall boundary conditions:

Wall boundary conditions are generally employed for solid walls bounding the
flow domain. These boundary conditions are also used to bound fluid and solid regions such
as applied for the presence of the step within the flow domain. This condition implies that the
fluid flow comes to rests the solid walls. This condition corresponds to the absence of viscous
effects in the continuum equations and is applied to the problem where the continuum
approach breakdown as the fluid approaches the wall in viscous flow.

Symmetry and periodic boundary conditions:

These boundary conditions are generally used when the flow geometry
possesses some symmetry or periodic that allows the flow problems to be simplified by
solving it. For symmetry boundary conditions, they are applied when the physical geometry

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and the flow has a mirror symmetry. At the symmetry plane the following requirements must
be satisfied:

The normal velocity is zero

The normal gradient for all transported properties are zero.
The application of symmetry planes can significantly reduce the computational
effort since only a quarter of the flow domain needs to be modeled. The mass flow rates at
the inlet and outlet boundaries are prescribed.

Turbulence modeling approaches:

Turbulent flows can be classified as being highly unsteady and random. They are
also known to contain large coherent structures responsible for the mixing or stirring process.
Turbulent flows are constantly encountered in many engineering system. They tend to need
more computational resources compared with flows that are laminar. The accurate approach
to turbulence simulation is to directly solve the governing transport equations. All of the fluid
motions contained in the flow are considered to be resolved.

Turbulence Modeling Rans Based

Algebraic Model
It contains the following models
Cebeci-smith model: The model is suitable for high-speed flows with
thin attached boundary-layers, typically present in aerospace applications.
Baldwin-Lomax model The model is suitable for high speed flows
with thin attached boundaries-layers, typically present in aerospace and
turbo machinery application.
Johnson-King model: The model solves for a transport equation for
maximum shear stress. It was not developed to be a universal model,
rather to solve only for turbulent boundary layer flows with strong adverse
pressure gradient.

One Equation Models

The following equation models are

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 Prandtls one equation model: One equation turbulence models solve
one turbulent transport equation, usually the turbulent kinetic energy
Baldwin-Barth model: It is based on kinematic viscosity and
turbulence Reynolds number.
Spalart-Allmaras model: Spalart-Allmaras model is a one equation
model which solves a transport equation for viscosity-like variable.

Two Equation Models

The following equations are two dimensional.
K-epsilon model: The first transported variable is turbulent kinetic
energy and the second transported variable in this case is the turbulent
dissipation. Kepsilon model was to improve the mixing-length model, as well
as to find an alternative to algebraically prescribing turbulent length scales in
moderate to high complexity flows.
Standard k-epsilon model
Realizable k-epsilon model
RNG k-epsilon model
Near-wall treatment
K-omega model: The first transported variable is turbulent kinetic
energy the second transported variables in this case is the specific dissipation.
It is the variable that determines the scale of turbulence, whereas the first
variable, determines the energy in the turbulence.
Wilcoxs k-omega model
Wilcoxs modified k-omega model
SST k-omega model
Near-wall treatment
Realisability issues:
Kato-Launcher modification
Durbins Realisability constraint
Yap correction
Relisability and Schwarz inequality

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 Non Linear Eddy Viscosity Models
Explicit nonlinear constitutive relation: An explicit nonlinear
constitutive relation for the Reynolds stresses represents an explicitly-
postulated expansion over the linear Boussinesq hypothesis.
V2-f models: It is similar to the standard k-epsilon model. It
incorporates also some near-wall turbulence anisotropy as well as non-local
pressure strain effects. It is a general turbulence model for low Reynolds
number that doesnt need to make use of will functions because it is valid up
to solid walls.

Reynold Stress Model(RSM)

Large eddy simulation: It is a popular technique for simulating turbulent
flows. The large eddies of the flow are dependent on the geometry while the
smaller scales are more universal. Explicitly solve for the large eddies in a
calculation and implicitly account for the small eddies by using a sub grid-
scale model.
Smagorinsky-Lilly Model
Dynamic sub grid-scale model
RNG-LES model
Wall-adapting local eddy-viscosity (WALE) model
Kinetic energy sub grid-scale model
Near wall treatment for LES models
Detached eddy simulation: The difficulties associated with the use of the
standard LES models, particulary in near-wall regions, has led to the
development of hybrid models that attempt to combine the best aspects of
RANS and LES methodologies in a single solution strategy. An example of a
hybrid technique is the detached-eddy simulation (DES).
Direct numerical simulation: It is a simulation in computational fluid
dynamics in which the Navier-Stokes equations are numerically solved
without any turbulence model. This means that the whole range of spatial and
temporal scales of the turbulence must be resolved.

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 Wall Function: There is equilibrium between production and dissipation of
the turbulent kinetic energy, therefore decreasing turbulent instability in near-
wall simulations.
Turbulence free stream boundary conditions: It is necessary to specify
values of the turbulence variables at the inlets.
Turbulence intensity
Turbulence length scale
CFD Code:
The first step in the process of obtaining a suitable CFD model was initially to define
the model and secondly to validate the model through comparison with the existing data. The
validation techniques utilized to verify the CFD model included a quantitative comparison
with the lift curve slope of the airfoil obtained using alternate software and a qualitative
comparison with the data obtained experimentally in the flow visualization experiment.
FLUENT software was the CFD solver used in this experiment.

CFD Model :
The CFD model was based on replicating the behavior of the airfoil in low speed
(incompressible), steady flow at Isa conditions corresponding to Canberras elevation of
580m. The CFD model was initially generated for the wing root airfoil and he same model
parameters retained for the wing and canard root airfoil analysis.

Solver Parameters
A pressure based solver was selected based on the assumption of incompressible
flow while the formulation method was predefined as implicit by the selection of the pressure
based solver. The space was defined as 2D and absolute velocity formulation was selected.
The gradient option was selected as green Gauss Node based as this option is recommended
for unstructured meshes, such as the triangular mesh used predominantly in this analysis.
Steady flow was selected based on the pre-defined flow conditions, with specified porous
formulation.

Model Constants
The operating fluid was defined as air with density =1.1673 kg/m3 and the operating
pressure P=95460 Pa in order to replicate ISA conditions at 580m. The inlet of this model

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was defined with a constant velocity with a turbulent intensity and length scale of 1% and 1m
respectively, which correlates to a relatively small degree of turbulence. The walls in the
model defining the airfoil surface and top and bottom, grid limits were defined with no slip
and a 0.5 roughness constant.

Solution Controls
The solution was modeled with the flow and modified turbulent viscosity equations
and simple pressure velocity coupling. The under-relaxation factors used in the analysis are
defined. For the simulations of the single airfoil it was decided to run the simulation using 1 st
order discretisation for an initial 200 iterations, and then complete the remainder of the
simulation using 2nd order discretisation. For simulating the wing configuration, the transition
was held at 500 iterations due to the more complex flow scenario. The selection of the
discretisation scheme was based on the fact that first order yields better convergence with
generally less accurate results, while 2nd order yields more accurate results however has the
tendency to be unstable. Therefore using the combination of both discretisation schemes, first
order would assist in establishing a stable solution while switching to 2nd order would then
assist in improving the accuracy of the results.

Grid Adaption
In order to ensure the grid was accurately capturing the flow behavior, the adapt
function in FLUENT was utilized. The adapt function identifies locations of relatively high
or low flow gradients at specified locations and creates more or less grid cells respectively. It
was found that the grid adaption was only necessary at high angles of attack when there was
observed to be greater relative disturbance in flow behavior.

Convergence
In order to ensure the solution reached a converged state, 4 convergence criteria were
implemented. The first three involved the plotting of lift and drag coefficients, in addition to
the solution residuals. The convergence criteria used was to ensure that all residuals had
reduced to a maximum altitude and that the lift and drag coefficient plots has reached steady
state. The final convergence technique was to check the mass flow rate at both the inlet and
outlet for the converged solution to ensure these values was practically zero.

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CFD Analysis
CFD enables scientist and engineers to perform a numerical experiments in a virtual
flow laboratory. The board area of CFD leads to many different specialized technology
areas. These include grid generation, flow field discretization algorithms, efficient solution of
large systems of equations, massive data storage and transmission technology methods and
computational flow visualization.

CFD USES
Architects to design comfortable and safe living environments.
Designers of vehicle to improve the aerodynamic characteristics.
Chemical engineers to maximize the yield from their equipment.
Petroleum engineers to devise optimal oil recovery strategies.

CFD Application
Biomedical
Electronics
Defense
Industrial
Environmental
Civil and Other

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 PROCEDURE TO BE FOLLOWED

MODELLING:

Start ANSYS ICEM CFD.

Then select Function from the Function Tabs.
Geomentery>Create Points Explict Coordinates.
The EXPLICT COORDINATES Option allows you to create a point by
specifying the XYZ coordinates, or create multiple points as a function of an
equation.
Now you can create points by entering the X,Y&Z coordinates of the points to be
created.
Then select CREATE/MODIFY CURVE OPTIONS from the GEOMENTRY
MENU
CREATE /MODIFY CURVE OPTIONS> FROM POINTS
The From points option allows you to create a B spline curve by interpolating
through n number of points.
Now you can create curves by selecting any location on the screen to create points
that define a curve
Then select CREATE/MODIFY SURFACE OPTIONS from the GEOMENTRY
MENU
CREATE/MODIFY SURFACE OPTIONS>FROM CURVES
The FROM CURVES option allows you to create surfaces from curves. The
following options are available for creating surfaces from curves
Now you can create surfaces by selecting FROM2-4 CURVES on the dropdown
box and select two to four curves to form the boundaries of a surface.
Then select CREATE BODY from the GEOMENTRY MENU.
CREATE BODY/BY MATERIAL POINT
Bodies can be created from surfaces that make up a volume. Bodies can also be
defined by specifying a material point within a closed volume. Material points can
be created at a specified point or at the centroid of two points.

Now we created our model to be simulated and further move on to the meshing.

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MESHING:
Select MESH from the FUNCTION TABS.
MESH>GLOBAL MESH SETUP.
The GLOBAL MESH SETUP options provide the general specific meshing
algorithm parameters used for the various meshes. The GLOBAL MESH SIZE
parameters affect meshes at the surface, volume, and inflation (prism) layer levels.
Enter your GLOBAL ELEMENT SCALE FACTOR and GLOBAL
ELEMENTSEED SIZE vales.
Then select PART MESH SETUP from the MESH MENU.
MESH>PART MESH
The PART MESH SETUP option opens a dialog where you can specify the mesh
parameters for different. Values defined here at the Part level will override Global
settings.
Enter your PART MESH SETUP vales in the dialog box.
Then select COMPUTE MESH from the MESH MENU.
MESH>COMPUTE MESH>VOLUME MESH>COMPUTE
The COMPUTE MESH option allows you to generate the mesh specified by us
and various parameters. The COMPUTE VOLUME MESH option generates a
volume mesh using the selected volume mesh type and method.
Then select EDIT MESH from the FUNCTION TABS.
The EDIT MESH menu contains all of the operations necessary to manipulate,
check, improve the quality of the mesh and fix any problems.
Then select SMOOTH MESH GLOBALLY from the EDIT MESHMENU.
EDIT MESH>SMOOTH MESH GLOBALLY>SMOOTH
The SMOOTH MESH GLOBALLY option allows you to automatically improve
the quality of the mesh elements. Different smoothing algorithms are available
depending on which mesh type is loaded. Mesh can be smoothed with respect to a
particular quality criterion and with a specified number of iterations to achieve a
given quality level.
Now we meshed our model to be simulated and now we have to write the output file
which has to be analysed on ANSYS Fluent later
Then select OUTPUT from the FUNCTION TABS.

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 ANSYS ICEM CFD allows you to write input files for many different OUTPUT
SOLVERS.
The output Menu allows you to choose between different solvers and specify the
file related option and settings.
OUTPUT>SELECT SOLVER>ANSYS FLUENT
The SELECT SOLVER option will open a window to select an OUTPUT
SOLVER (CFD) or COMMON STRUCTURAL SOLVER (FEA). The ANSYS
FLUENT interface creates a FLUENT mesh file from an unstructured mesh.
To create the ANSYS FLUENT file, select ANSYS FLUENT in the OUTPUT
SOLVER list and click APPLY. After generating the mesh, boundary conditions
can be defined.
Then select WRITE INPUT from the OUTPUTMENU
WRITE INPUT >SAVE PROJECT>TES>OPEN UNSTRURED MESH FILE
.uns>SELECT 2D OR 3D MODEL>DONE.
The translator writes the ANSYS FLUENT input file using an unstructured mesh
file and its boundary condition file.

ANALYSING:
Start ANSYS FLUENT.
Then select FILE from the MENU bar.
FILE>CASE>SELECT .mesh file.
Select GENERAL FROM the navigation pane.
Mesh>check
Then select solver type in the task page.
Select MODELS from the navigation pane.
MODELS>VISCOS>INVISCID
Select MATERIALS from the navigation pane.
MATERIALS>AIR>PROPERTIES>IDEAL GAS.
Select BOUNDARY CONDITIONS from navigation pane.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS>TYPE>EDIT.
Enter values of OPERATING CONDITIONS.
Select reference values from navigation pane.
REFERENCE VALUES>COMPUTE FROM

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 Select SOLUTION METHODS from navigation pane.
Then select scheme under pressure-velocity coupling from task page.
Then select Gradient, Pressure and Momentum under Spatial Discretization
from task page.
Select Monitors from Navigation pane. Then create and edit the parameters that
you need to monitor.
Select Solution initialization from navigation pane. Then select Compute from
where you want to compute. Then select Initialize.
Select Run Calculation from navigation pane. Check case for any missing
information and if not, proceed to number of Iterations and select Calculate to
begin iteration.

RESULTS:

Simulation is carried out and displayed as contour plot in window screen.

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 1. SIMULATION OF FLOW THROUGH A CONVERGING-DIVERGING
NOZZLE

AIM:

To understand the performance of Convergent-Divergent nozzle at different operating

conditions.

INTRODUCTION:

A de Laval nozzle (or convergent-divergent nozzle, CD nozzle or con-di nozzle) is a

tube that is pinched in the middle, making a carefully balanced, asymmetric hourglass shape.
It is used to accelerate a hot, pressurized gas passing through it to a higher speed in the axial
(thrust) direction, by converting the heat energy of the flow into kinetic energy. Because of
this, the nozzle is widely used in some types of steam turbines and rocket engine nozzles. It
also sees use in supersonic jet engines.

OPERATION:

Its operation relies on the different properties of gases flowing

at subsonic and supersonic speeds. The speed of a subsonic flow of gas will increase if the
pipe carrying it narrows because the mass flow rate is constant. The gas flow through a de
Laval nozzle is isentropic (gas entropy is nearly constant). In a subsonic flow the gas is
compressible, and sound will propagate through it. At the "throat", where the cross-sectional
area is at its minimum, the gas velocity locally becomes sonic (Mach number = 1.0), a
condition called choked flow. As the nozzle cross-sectional area increases, the gas begins to
expand, and the gas flow increases to supersonic velocities, where a sound wave will not
propagate backwards through the gas as viewed in the frame of reference of the nozzle (Mach
number > 1.0).

22
 A de Laval nozzle will only choke at the throat if the pressure and mass flow through
the nozzle is sufficient to reach sonic speeds, otherwise no supersonic flow is achieved, and it
will act as a Venturi tube; this requires the entry pressure to the nozzle to be significantly
above ambient at all times (equivalently, the stagnation pressure of the jet must be above
ambient).
In addition, the pressure of the gas at the exit of the expansion portion of the exhaust of a
nozzle must not be too low. Because pressure cannot travel upstream through the supersonic
flow, the exit pressure can be significantly below the ambient pressure into which it exhausts,
but if it is too far below ambient, then the flow will cease to be supersonic, or the flow will
separate within the expansion portion of the nozzle, forming an unstable jet that may "flop"
around within the nozzle, producing a lateral thrust and possibly damaging it.

ANALYSIS:

The analysis of gas flow through de Laval nozzles involves a number of concepts and
assumptions:
For simplicity, the gas is assumed to be an ideal gas.
The gas flow is isentropic (i.e., at constant entropy). As a result the flow
is reversible (frictionless and no dissipative losses), and adiabatic (i.e., there is no heat
gained or lost).
The gas flow is constant (i.e., steady) during the period of the propellant burn.
The gas flow is along a straight line from gas inlet to exhaust gas exit (i.e., along the
nozzle's axis of symmetry)
The gas flow behavior is compressible since the flow is at very high velocities (Mach
number > 0.3).

PROCEDURE TO BE FOLLOWED:

1. MODELLING
2. MESHING
3. ANALYSING
4. SIMULATION
5. RESULTS
23
Design and Modeling:

The CD nozzle is a two-dimensional object which designed by using the CATIA.

Meshing:

The meshing of the CD nozzle was done using gambit software. Boundary meshing
should be used for the flow analysis. It is an internal flow analysis. In this we keep the
boundaries of the CD nozzle as wall.

Simulation:

The meshed CD nozzle was imported into Ansys Fluent and simulated. The mesh
scale should be in meters. The mesh was checked for errors. The solver used is steady state
density based solver. Energy equation was used for the simulation. This is needed because the
flow is compressible and we used ideal gas equation. The one-equation k-omega model was
chosen.

24
GEOMETRY

MESHED FILE

25
 ANALYSIS

STATIC PRESSURE

STATIC VELOCITY

RESULT:
Thus the CD nozzle is designed and analyzed at the mach no 2 and the pressure and
mach contour of CD nozzle is shown for the understanding.

26
 2. SIMULATION OF FLOW THROUGH AN AXIAL FLOW
COMPRESSOR BLADE PASSAGE

AIM:

To understand the working behavior of single stage axial flow compressor by using
CFD.

INTRODUCTION:

An axial compressor is a machine that can continuously pressurize gases. It is a

rotating, airfoil-based compressor in which the gas or working fluid principally flows parallel
to the axis of rotation. This differs from other rotating compressors such as centrifugal
compressors, axi-centrifugal compressors and mixed-flow compressors where the fluid flow
will include a "radial component" through the compressor. The energy level of the fluid
increases as it flows through the compressor due to the action of the rotor blades which exert
a torque on the fluid. The stationary blades slow the fluid, converting the circumferential
component of flow into pressure. Compressors are typically driven by an electric motor or
a steam or a gas turbine.
Axial flow compressors produce a continuous flow of compressed gas, and have the
benefits of high efficiency and large mass flow rate, particularly in relation to their size and
cross-section. They do, however, require several rows of airfoils to achieve a large pressure
rise, making them complex and expensive relative to other designs (e.g. centrifugal
compressors).
Typical Application Type of flow Pressure ratio per stage Efficiency per stage[2]

Industrial Subsonic 1.051.2 88%92%

Aerospace Transonic 1.151.6 80%85%

Research Supersonic 1.82.2 75%85%

27
DESCRIPTION:
Axial compressors consist of rotating and stationary components. A shaft drives a
central drum, retained by bearings, which has a number of annular airfoil rows attached
usually in pairs, one rotating and one stationary attached to a stationary tubular casing. A pair
of rotating and stationary airfoils is called a stage. The rotating airfoils, also known as blades
or rotors, accelerate the fluid. The stationary airfoils, also known as stators or vanes, convert
the increased rotational kinetic energy into static pressure through diffusion and redirect the
flow direction of the fluid, preparing it for the rotor blades of the next stage.[3] The cross-
sectional area between rotor drum and casing is reduced in the flow direction to maintain an
optimum Mach number using variable geometry as the fluid is compressed.

WORKING:
As the fluid enters and leaves in the axial direction, the centrifugal component in the
energy equation does not come into play. Here the compression is fully based on diffusing
action of the passages. The diffusing action in stator converts absolute kinetic head of the
fluid into rise in pressure. The relative kinetic head in the energy equation is a term that exists
only because of the rotation of the rotor. The rotor reduces the relative kinetic head of the
fluid and adds it to the absolute kinetic head of the fluid i.e., the impact of the rotor on the
fluid particles increases its velocity (absolute) and thereby reduces the relative velocity
between the fluid and the rotor. In short, the rotor increases the absolute velocity of the fluid

28
and the stator converts this into pressure rise. Designing the rotor passage with a diffusing
capability can produce a pressure rise in addition to its normal functioning. This produces
greater pressure rise per stage which constitutes a stator and a rotor together. This is the
reaction principle in turbo machines. If 50% of the pressure rise in a stage is obtained at the
rotor section, it is said to have a 50% reaction.

VELOCITY TRIANGLE:

PROCEDURE TO BE FOLLOWED:

1. MODELLING
2. MESHING
3. ANALYSING
4. SIMULATION
5. RESULTS

29
Design and Modeling:

The CD nozzle is a two-dimensional object which designed by using the CATIA.

Meshing:

The meshing of the CD nozzle was done using gambit software. Boundary meshing
should be used for the flow analysis. It is an internal flow analysis. In this we keep the
boundaries of the CD nozzle as wall.

Simulation:

The meshed CD nozzle was imported into Ansys Fluent and simulated. The mesh
scale should be in meters. The mesh was checked for errors. The solver used is steady state
density based solver. Energy equation was used for the simulation. This is needed because the
flow is compressible and we used ideal gas equation. The one-equation k-omega model was
chosen. The one-equation k-omega model was chosen.

Rotor : NACA4406
Stator : NACA 6418

30
 ANALYSING:

PRESSURE CONTOUR

RESULT:
Thus the simulation of compressor flow passage has been done by using the CFD.

31
 3. SIMULATION OF SUPERSONIC FLOW OVER A WING OF
BICONVEX CROSS SECTION

AIM:
To understand the working principle of biconvex wing at supersonic speeds.

DESCRIPTION:
A supersonic airfoil is a cross-section geometry designed to generate lift efficiently at
supersonic speeds. The need for such a design arises when an aircraft is required to operate
consistently in the supersonic flight regime.
Supersonic airfoils generally have a thin section formed of either angled planes or
opposed arcs (called "double wedge airfoils" and "biconvex airfoils" respectively), with very
sharp leading and trailing edges. The sharp edges prevent the formation of a detached bow
shock in front of the airfoil as it moves through the air. This shape is in contrast
to subsonic airfoils, which often have rounded leading edges to reduce flow separation over a
wide range of angle of attack. A rounded edge would behave as a blunt body in supersonic
flight and thus would form a bow shock, which greatly increases wave drag. The airfoils'
thickness, camber, and angle of attack are varied to achieve a design that will cause a slight
deviation in the direction of the surrounding airflow.
However, since a round leading edge decreases an airfoil's susceptibility to flow
separation, a sharp leading edge implies that the airfoil will be more sensitive to changes in
angle of attack. Therefore, to increase lift at lower speeds, aircraft that employ supersonic
airfoils also use high-lift devices such as leading edge and trailing edge flaps.
At supersonic conditions, aircraft drag is originated due to:
Skin-friction drag due to shearing
The wave drag due to thickness (or volume) or zero-lift wave drag
Drag due to lift
Therefore the Drag coefficient on a supersonic airfoil is described by the following
expression:
CD= CD,friction+ CD,thickness+ CD,lift

32
 Biconvex Aerofoil

PROCEDURE TO BE FOLLOWED:

1. MODELLING
2. MESHING
3. ANALYSING
4. SIMULATION
5. RESULTS

Design and Modeling:

An aerofoil (or airfoil) is a two-dimensional object, the shape of the cross section of
the wing at right angles to the wingspan, with the function of producing a controllable
aerodynamic force by its motion through the atmosphere. The bi-convex aerofoil is mostly
symmetric and used in supersonic speeds. The aerofoil has a thickness of 6%. For unit chord
the profile was designed.

Meshing:
The meshing of the aerofoil was done using gambit software. Boundary meshing
should be used for the flow analysis. The mesh was generated for the aerofoil with unit chord.
In an external flow such as that over an airfoil, we defined a far field boundary and mesh the
region between the airfoil geometry and the far field boundary. It is a good idea to place the
far field boundary well away from the airfoil since we used the ambient conditions to define
the boundary conditions at the far field. The maximum aspect ratio in this mesh is quite high.
This is acceptable because these cells are close to the airfoil wall surfaces. This is needed for
the turbulence model being used, since it ensures the first grid point is in the viscous sub

33
layer. The less effect it has on the flow and so more accurate is the far field boundary
condition

Simulation:
The meshed aerofoil was imported into Ansys Fluent and simulated. The mesh scale
should be in meter. The mesh was checked for errors. The solver used is steady state density
based solver. Energy equation was used for the simulation. This is needed because the flow is
compressible and we used ideal gas equation. The one-equation Spalart-Allmaras model was
chosen. This is a relatively simple turbulence model that has been shown to give good results
for boundary layers subjected to adverse pressure gradients, particularly where there is no or
only mild separation. Setting zero operating pressure which means that all pressures set in
FLUENT will be absolute. The pressure-far field boundary type is applicable only when the
density is calculated using the ideal-gas law. It is important to place the far-field boundary far
enough from the object of interest. The pressure, angle of attack and the temperature were
given as input corresponding to the Mach number and altitude.

34
 MESHING

ANALYSING

STATIC PRESSURE

RESULT:
Thus the biconvex wing has been analyzed using CFD.

35
 4. HOT FLOW SIMULATION THROUGH AN AXIAL FLOW TURBINE
BLADE PASSAGE

AIM:
To understand the flow properties of working fluid which is passing through the
turbine blades.

INTRODUCTION:
Axial flow turbine operates in the exactly reverse of an axial flow compressor. A set
of static guide vanes or nozzle vanes accelerates and adds swirl to the fluid and directs it to
the next row of turbine blades mounted on a turbine rotor. The angles in the absolute system
are noted by alpha () and the angles in the relative system are noted by beta (). Axial and
tangential components of both absolute and relative velocities are shown in the figure. Static
and stagnation values of pressure and enthalpy in the absolute and relative systems are also
shown.

It is often assumed that the axial velocity component remains constant through the stage.
From this condition we get, cx = c1 cos 1 = c2 cos 2:= w2 cos 2 = c3 cos 3 = w3 cos
3 Also, for constant axial velocity yields a useful relation: tan 2 + tan 3 = tan 2 + tan 3

36
LOSSES AND COEFFICIENTS:
The losses occur in an actual turbine due to disc and bearing friction. Figure shows
the energy flow diagram for the impulse stage of an axial turbine. Numbers in brackets
indicate the order of energy or loss corresponding to 100 units of isentropic work (h01 h03ss).
It is seen that the energy reaching the shaft after accounting for stage cascade losses (nozzle
and rotor blade aerodynamic losses) and leaving loss is about 85% of the ideal value; shaft
losses are a negligible proportion of this value.

PROCEDURE TO BE FOLLOWED:

1. MODELLING
2. MESHING
3. ANALYSING
4. SIMULATION
5. RESULTS

Design and Modeling:

The turbine blade passage is a two-dimensional object which designed by using the
Gambit.

Meshing:
The meshing of the turbine blade passage was done using gambit software. Boundary
meshing should be used for the flow analysis.

Simulation
The meshed turbine blade passage was imported into Ansys Fluent and simulated.
The mesh scale should be in meters. The mesh was checked for errors. The solver used is
steady state density based solver. Energy equation was used for the simulation. This is needed
because the flow is compressible and we used ideal gas equation. The one-equation k-omega
model was chosen.

37
 MODELLING

MESHING

ANALYSYS

RESULT:
Thus the flow through a turbine blade passage is simulated.

38
 5. SIMULATION OF FLOW THROUGH SUBSONIC AND SUPERSONIC
DIFFUSERS

AIM:
To simulate the flow through the subsonic and supersonic diffuser.

INTRODUCTION:
Supersonic and subsonic diffusers are essential elements of air breathing propulsion
systems. Their function is to provide a specified mass flow to the engine (e.g., compressor
face in the case of a turbojet) at high total pressure and minimal flow distortion.
In aerodynamics
Diffuser (automotive), a shaped section of a car's underbody which improves the car's
aerodynamic properties. It causes air to escape from the underside of the vehicle
faster than above air, working like a wing on an airplane in the opposite direction.
Results in improvement of down force.
divergent part of the aspirator
divergent part of the flute
Part of a jet engine air intake, especially when operated at supersonic speeds
the channel between the vanes of a turbine
the channel between the vanes of the stator of a centrifugal compressor

39
SUBSONIC DIFFUSER:

A subsonic diffuser conveys a specified incoming subsonic mass flow to an engine

(e.g., turbojet, ramjet, etc.) at a lower speed. Internal subsonic diffusers are common to
propulsion systems on a wide range of air vehicles including civilian and military aircraft and
air breathing missiles. Examples include the Boeing 727 and Lockheed Martin F-16. The
objective of a subsonic diffuser is to decelerate the flow with minimal total pressure loss and
distortion. The performance of a subsonic diffuser can significantly affect the propulsion
system efficiency. Reduced total pressure recovery at the diffuser outflow lowers propulsion
system efficiency. For a turbojet, the engine surge and stall limits are determined in part by
the degree of total pressure distortion at the compressor face.
The performance of a subsonic diffuser is strongly influenced by viscous effects. The
inherent adverse stream wise pressure gradient can separate the boundary layer on the 11
Doyle Knight inner surface resulting in lower total pressure at the outflow and increased total
pressure distortion. Modern design criteria for air vehicle weight, space and IR signature (for
military applications) imply short diffusers with a high degree of centerline curvature. These
factors result in strong stream wise and cross-flow pressure gradients with the likelihood of
significant boundary layer separation and consequent high total pressure distortion at the
outflow. Thus, the design of efficient subsonic diffusers has been increasingly difficult.

SUPERSONIC DIFFUSER:
A supersonic diffuser b conveys a specific incoming mass flow to an engine (e.g.,
turbojet, ramjet, etc.) while reducing the flow from supersonic to subsonic speed. Supersonic
diffusers are common to propulsion systems on a wide range of air vehicles including civilian
(e.g., Concorde) and military (e.g., F-14) aircraft and air breathing missiles.
The objective of a supersonic diffuser is to decelerate the flow with minimal total
pressure loss and distortion. The performance of a supersonic diffuser can significantly affect
the propulsion system efficiency, and consequently optimization of the design is critical. A
supersonic diffuser is typically joined to a subsonic diffuser which further decelerates and
directs the flow to the engine.
The performance of a supersonic diffuser is strongly influenced by inviscid and
viscous effects. The flow deceleration is accomplished through a system of oblique and
normal shocks with an accompanying loss of total pressure. Shock wave turbulent boundary
layer interaction can cause boundary layer separation with additional total pressure losses.
40
PROCEDURE TO BE FOLLOWED:

1. MODELLING
2. MESHING
3. ANALYSING
4. SIMULATION
5. RESULTS

Design and Modeling:

The Subsonic and Supersonic Diffuser is a two-dimensional object which designed by
using the Gambit.

Meshing:
The meshing of the Subsonic And Supersonic Diffuser was done using gambit
software. Boundary meshing should be used for the flow analysis.

Simulation
The meshed Subsonic And Supersonic Diffusers was imported into Ansys Fluent and
simulated. The mesh scale should be in meters. The mesh was checked for errors. The solver
used is steady state density based solver. Energy equation was used for the simulation. This is
needed because the flow is compressible and we used ideal gas equation. The one-equation k-
omega model was chosen.

41
SIMULATION:

SUBSONIC DIFFUSER

SUPERSONIC DIFFUSER

RESULT:
Thus the subsonic diffuser and supersonic diffuser is analyzed.

42
 6. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF A TAPERED WING

AIM:
To find the structural properties of tapered wing.

INTRODUCTION:
Wing narrows towards the tip, with straight edges. Structurally and aerodynamically
more efficient than a constant chord wing, and easier to make than the elliptical type. It is one
of the most common wing plan forms, as seen on the Grumman F4F Wildcat.
Trapezoidal: a low aspect ratio tapered wing, where the leading edge sweeps back
and the trailing edge sweeps forwards as on the Lockheed F-104 Star fighter.
Inverse tapered: wing is widest near the tip. Structurally inefficient, leading to high
weight. Flown experimentally on the XF-91 Thunderceptor in an attempt to
overcome the stall problems of swept wings.
Compound tapered: taper reverses towards the root. Typically braced to maintain
stiffness. Used on the Westland Lysander army cooperation aircraft to increase
visibility for the crew.
Constant chord with tapered outer section: common variant seen for example on
many Cessna types and the English Electric Canberra.

Constant chord,
Tapered Reverse tapered Compound tapered
tapered outer

43
PROCEDURE TO BE FOLLOWED:

1. MODELLING
2. MESHING
3. ANALYSING
4. SIMULATION
5. RESULTS

Design and Modeling:

The tapered wing is a two-dimensional object which designed by using the CATIA

Meshing:
The meshing of the tapered wing was done using ICEM CFD software. Boundary
meshing should be used for the flow analysis.

Simulation
The meshed tapered wing was imported into Ansys and simulated. The mesh scale
should be in meters. The mesh was checked for errors.

44
 MODELING

ANALYSING

RESULT:
Thus the structural analysis of tapered wing is done in ANSYS.

45
 7. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF A FUSELAGE STRUCTURE

AIM:
To find the structural properties of fuselage structure.

INTRODUCTION:
The fuselage is the main structure, or body, of the aircraft. It provides space for
personnel, cargo, controls, and most of the accessories. The power plant, wings, stabilizers,
and landing gear are attached to it.
Generally two types of structures
a) Monocoque
b) Semi Monocoque

MONOCOQUE:
In this method, the exterior surface of the fuselage is also the primary structure. A
typical early form of this (see the Lockheed) was built using molded plywood, where the
layers of plywood are formed over a "plug" or within a mold. A later form of this structure
uses fiberglass cloth impregnated with polyester or epoxy resin, instead of plywood, as the
skin. A simple form of this used in some amateur-built aircraft uses rigid expanded foam
plastic as the core, with a fiberglass covering, eliminating the necessity of fabricating molds,
but requiring more effort in finishing (see the Rutan VariEze). An example of a larger molded
plywood aircraft is the de Havilland Mosquito fighter/light bomber of World War II. No
plywood-skin fuselage is truly monocoque, since stiffening elements are incorporated into the
structure to carry concentrated loads that would otherwise buckle the thin skin.

46
SEMI-MONOCOQUE:
This is the preferred method of constructing an all-aluminum fuselage. First, a series
of frames in the shape of the fuselage cross sections are held in position on a rigid fixture.
These frames are then joined with lightweight longitudinal elements called stringers. These
are in turn covered with a skin of sheet aluminum, attached by riveting or by bonding with
special adhesives. The fixture is then disassembled and removed from the completed fuselage
shell, which is then fitted out with wiring, controls, and interior equipment such as seats and
luggage bins. Most modern large aircraft are built using this technique, but use several large
sections constructed in this fashion which are then joined with fasteners to form the complete
fuselage. As the accuracy of the final product is determined largely by the costly fixture, this
form is suitable for series production, where a large number of identical aircraft are to be
produced.

Both monocoque and semi-monocoque are referred to as "stressed skin" structures as

all or a portion of the external load (i.e. from wings and empennage, and from discrete
masses such as the engine) is taken by the surface covering. In addition, all the load from
internal pressurization is carried (as skin tension) by the external skin. The proportioning of
loads between the components is a design choice dictated largely by the dimensions, strength,
and elasticity of the components available for construction and whether or not a design is
intended to be "self jigging", not requiring a complete fixture for alignment.

47
WING INTEGRATION:
"Flying wing" aircraft, such as the Northrop YB-49 Flying Wing and the Northrop B-
2 Spirit bomber have no separate fuselage; instead what would be the fuselage is a thickened
portion of the wing structure. Conversely there have been a small number of aircraft designs
which have no separate wing, but use the fuselage to generate lift. Examples include National
Aeronautics and Space Administration's experimental lifting body designs and
the Vought XF5U-1 Flying Flapjack. A blended wing body can be considered a mixture of
the above. It carries the useful load in a fuselage producing lift. A modern example is Boeing
X-48. One of the earliest aircraft using this design approach is Burnelli CBY-3, which
fuselage was airfoil shaped to produce lift.

PROCEDURE TO BE FOLLOWED:

1. MODELLING
2. MESHING
3. ANALYSING
4. SIMULATION
5. RESULTS

Design and Modeling:

The fuselage is a two-dimensional object which designed by using the Pro E.

Meshing:
The meshing of the fuselage was done using ANSYS software. Boundary meshing
should be used for the flow analysis.

Simulation
The meshed fuselage was imported into Ansys and simulated. The mesh scale should
be in meters. The mesh was checked for errors.

48
 MODELING

MESHING

ANALYSING

RESULT:
Thus the Structural analysis on fuselage is done

49
 8. ANALYSIS OF A COMPOSITE LAMINATE STRUCTURE

AIM:
To analyze the structure of laminate.

INTRODUCTION:
In materials science, Composite laminates are assemblies of layers
of fibrous composite materials which can be joined to provide
required engineering properties, including in-plane stiffness, bending stiffness, strength,
and coefficient of thermal expansion. The individual layers consist of high-modulus, high-
strength fibers in a polymeric, metallic, or ceramic matrix material. Typical fibers used
include graphite, glass, boron, and silicon carbide, and some matrix materials
are epoxies, polyimides, aluminium, titanium, and alumina.
Layers of different materials may be used, resulting in a hybrid laminate. The
individual layers generally are orthotropic (that is, with principal properties in orthogonal
directions) or transversely isotropic (with isotropic properties in the transverse plane) with the
laminate then exhibiting anisotropic (with variable direction of principal properties),
orthotropic, or quasi-isotropic properties. Quasi-isotropic laminates exhibit isotropic (that is,
independent of direction) inplane response but are not restricted to isotropic out-of-plane
(bending) response. Depending upon the stacking sequence of the individual layers, the
laminate may exhibit coupling between inplane and out-of-plane response. An example of
bending-stretching coupling is the presence of curvature developing as a result of in-plane
loading.
Lamination is the technique of manufacturing a material in multiple layers, so that the
composite material achieves improved strength, stability, sound insulation, appearance or
other properties from the use of differing materials. A laminate is usually permanently
assembled by heat, pressure, welding or adhesives.
A composite material (also called a composition material or shortened to composite)
is a material made from two or more constituent materials with significantly

50
different physical or chemical properties that, when combined, produce a material with
characteristics different from the individual components. The individual components remain
separate and distinct within the finished structure. The new material may be preferred for
many reasons: common examples include materials which are stronger, lighter, or less
expensive when compared to traditional materials.
Typical engineered composite materials include:
Composite building materials, such as cements, concrete
Reinforced plastics, such as fiber-reinforced polymer
Metal composites
Ceramic composites (composite ceramic and metal matrices)
Composite materials are generally used for buildings, bridges, and structures such as boat
hulls, swimming pool panels, race car bodies, shower stalls, bathtubs, storage tanks,
imitation granite and cultured marble sinks and countertops. The most advanced examples
perform routinely on spacecraft and aircraft in demanding environments.
A laminate is constructed by stacking a number of laminas in the thickness (z) direction.
Each layer is thin and may have different fiber orientation. The fiber orientation, stacking
arrangements and material properties influence the response from the laminate. The theory of
lamination is same whether the composite structure may be a plate, a beam or a shell.
The following assumptions are made in formulations:
(i) The middle plane of the plate is taken as the reference plane.
(ii) The laminated plate consists of arbitrary number of homogeneous, linearly elastic
orthotropic layers perfectly bonded to each other.
(iii) The analysis follows linear constitutive relations i.e. 6 obeys generalized Hooke's
law for the material.
(iv) The lateral displacements are small compared to plate thickness.
(v) Normal strain in z-direction is neglected

51
PROCEDURE TO BE FOLLOWED:

1. MODELLING
2. MESHING
3. ANALYSING
4. SIMULATION
5. RESULTS

Design and Modeling:

The Laminate model is designed in ANSYS.

Meshing:
The meshing of the Laminate model was done using ANSYS software. Boundary
meshing should be used for the flow analysis.

Simulation
The meshed Laminate model was imported into Ansys and simulated. The mesh scale
should be in meters.

52
 MESHING

ANALYSING

RESULT:
Thus the laminate plate is analyzed in ANSYS.

53
 9. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF A LANDING GEAR

AIM:
To know the loads acting on the landing gear at different types of working situations.

MAIN LANDING GEAR:

A main landing gear are high strength, lightweight, medium stiffness and high elastic
strain energy storage capacity. The function of his landing gear was to absorb the kinetic
energy of the vertical velocity on landing. The sinking speed was limited to 3 m/s, the landing
'g' permitted was 3g at most and, the maximum vertical weight was 560 kg. He stated that,
landing gear should be able to take 90% of the weight of the aircraft while standing and, at
minimum sinking speed of 3 m/sec it should be able to take 80% of the takeoff weight. He
consider the landing gear as a thin curved shell element and the bending theory which
includes the effect of bending. Rupture dimples and quasi-cleavage surfaces characteristic of
overload failure.

PROBLEM DEFINITION AND FINITE ELEMENT MODEL DEVELOPMENT

PROBLEM DEFINITION:
Cad Design and Analysis of Landing gear for unmanned test air vehicle. The Landing
gear need to be checked for structural safety for static and shock spectrum loads.
The objectives include
(a) Cad Design of Landing Gear
(b) Static and Dynamic Analysis of the Landing Gear.

54
MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS:
Material : T7075-T6 (Aluminum Alloy)
- Density=2850kg/m3
- Yield Strength=490N/mm2
- Allowable Stress=392N/mm2
Landing Gear Loads( Design Loads)
- Lift Load - 1000N
- Drag load 450N
- Side load - 260N
- Torsion Load -20000N-mm

Assumptions:
1. The material is assumed to elastic and homogenous
2. The analysis has been carried out with in elastic limits
3. Both Solid and shell concepts are applied for analysis
4. All approximations applied to FEM are applicable for the analysis

PROCEDURE TO BE FOLLOWED:
1. MODELLING
2. MESHING
3. ANALYSING
4. SIMULATION
5. RESULTS
Design and Modeling:
The landing gear is designed in ANSYS.

Meshing:
The meshing of the landing gear was done using ANSYS software. Boundary
meshing should be used for the flow analysis.

Simulation
The meshed landing gear was imported into Ansys and simulated. The mesh scale
should be in meters. The mesh was checked for errors.

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 MESHING

ANALYZING

RESULT:
Thus the landing gear is analysed and the structural properties has been found out.

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 10. THERMO STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF A COMPOSITE
LAMINATE STRUCTURE

AIM:
To understand the behavior of thermal load on the laminate structure

INTRODUCTION:
In materials science, Composite laminates are assemblies of layers
of fibrous composite materials which can be joined to provide
required engineering properties, including in-plane stiffness, bending stiffness, strength,
and coefficient of thermal expansion. The individual layers consist of high-modulus, high-
strength fibers in a polymeric, metallic, or ceramic matrix material. Typical fibers used
include graphite, glass, boron, and silicon carbide, and some matrix materials
are epoxies, polyimides, aluminium, titanium, and alumina. Layers of different materials may
be used, resulting in a hybrid laminate. The individual layers generally are orthotropic or
transversely isotropic with the laminate then exhibiting anisotropic , orthotropic, or quasi-
isotropic properties. Quasi-isotropic laminates exhibit isotropic inplane response but are not
restricted to isotropic out-of-plane (bending) response. Depending upon the stacking
sequence of the individual layers, the laminate may exhibit coupling between inplane and
out-of-plane response. An example of bending-stretching coupling is the presence of
curvature developing as a result of in-plane loading.

Special cases of laminates:

(i) Symmetric laminates
A laminate is said to be symmetric if for every layer to one side of the laminate reference
surface with a specific thickness, specific material properties, and specific fiber orientation,
there is another layer the identical distance on the opposite side of the reference surface with
the identical thickness, material properties, and fiber orientation. If a laminate is not
symmetric, then it is referred to as an unsymmetric laminate.

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(ii) Balanced Laminates
A laminate is said to be balanced if for every layer with a specified thickness, specific
material properties, and specific fiber orientation, there is another layer with the identical
thickness, material properties, but opposite fiber orientation somewhere in the laminate.

(iii) Cross-Ply Laminates

A laminate is said to be a cross-ply laminate if every layer has its fibers oriented at
either 0 or 90.

(iv) Symmetric Cross-Ply Laminates

A laminate is said to be a symmetric cross-ply laminate if it meets the criterion for
being symmetric and the criterion for being cross-ply.
Flexural analysis of laminated composite plates of bi modulus materials subjected to
thermal load is carried out. The formulation is based on higher-order theory that accounts for
the transverse shear and transverse normal deformations, and incorporates through the
thickness approximations of the in-plane displacements. The governing equations obtained
using the principle of minimum potential energy are solved through the finite element
approach. The results obtained here are compared with those of the theory without thickness
stretch/contraction terms and the first-order one. The combined influence of higher-order
shear deformation, plate geometry, lay-up and ply-angle on the displacements/stresses and
neutral surface locations of bi modulus composite Laminate is examined.

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PROCEDURE TO BE FOLLOWED:

1. MODELLING
2. MESHING
3. ANALYSING
4. SIMULATION
5. RESULTS

Design and Modeling:

The composite laminate is designed in ANSYS.

Meshing:
The meshing of the laminate composite was done using ANSYS software.

Simulation
The meshed landing gear was imported into Ansys and simulated. The mesh scale
should be in meters. The mesh was checked for errors.

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 MESHING

ANALYZING:

RESULT:
Thus the thermal analysis of the composite laminate structure is analysed.

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