Indian Institute of Welding - ANB

Refresher Course – Process 06

ADVANCED WELDING PROCESSES
Theory and Practice

ADVANCED WELDING PROCESSES:

Introduction: MMAW, SAW, MIG/MAG, GTAW etc. are somewhat common welding
processes and cover vast majority of welding activities. However, there are some special
applications and requirements where some specific criteria or restrictions are to be met. To
accomplish that, some special welding techniques have been developed. To name a few:
 Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
 LASER Beam Welding (LBW)
 Hybrid Welding
 Solid State Welding
◦ Ultrasonic
◦ Diffusion
◦ Explosive
 Magnetically Impelled Arc Butt Welding
ELECTRON BEAM WELDING (EBW):
EBW is a fusion welding process, where a beam of high-velocity electrons are
directed on the intended joining line of the materials. The work pieces melt locally at the
joining line as the Kinetic Energy of the high velocity electrons transform into heat upon
impact. Filler metal, if used, also melts to form part of the weld. The process is often done in
vacuum to prevent dispersion of beam. The process was developed by a German physicist,
who was at the time working on various electron beam applications. He perceived and
developed the first practical electron beam welding machine which began operation in 1958.
Power density (PD) in watt/unit area is given by
PD = n e E / A = E I / A where,
n = Total number of electrons per second in the beam e =
Charge of an electron (1.6 x 10 -19) coulombs
E = The accelerating voltage on the electron, V in volts I =
The beam current in A
A = Area of focused beam at the work piece surface
Depth of penetration is determined by Beam current, Accelerating voltage and Speed
of welding. Power concentrations of 1 to 100 kW /mm 2 are routinely achieved and 10
MW /mm2 can be obtained. EBW generally performed at voltage between 20kV to 150kV.
Accelerating voltage accelerates the electrons to a speed
approximately 2 x 108 m/s, higher the voltage higher the power densities. However,
penetration is low in the range of 150µm due to low mass of individual electron, appox. 9.1 x
10 -28 g. Another process needed in order to obtain large weld depths, the so-called ‘Deep-
penetration effect’.
Deep Penetration Effect: Higher PD, achievable with electron beams, causes practically
instantaneous vaporisation of metal. The material melts and vaporises in the centre of the
beam and this happens so quickly that the heat dissipation into the cold material is negligible.
The resulting vapour is superheated to temperatures of above approx 27000K. The vapour
pressure is sufficiently high to press the molten metal upwards and to the sides. A cavity
develops through which the electrons contact the yet unvaporised metal and heat this further.
This leads to a vapour cavity which in its core consists of superheated vapour and is
surrounded by a shell of fluid metal. This effect is maintained as long as the pressure from the
developing vapour cavity and the surface tension of the molten pool are in equilibrium.
This produces a needlelike vapor-filled cavity or keyhole in the work piece through
which the beam can penetrate. The cavity is held open by the vapor pressure of the work
piece material. Diameter of vapour cavity corresponds roughly with the electron beam
diameter. With high energy supply, the developing cavity can penetrate entire work piece
(Fig. 1). The relative motion between work piece and electron beam causes the material
which has been molten at the front of the electron beam to flow around the cavity and to
solidify at the rear to form the weld.
The pressure and temperature condition inside the cavity are subject to dynamic changes
over time. Under influence of constantly changing geometry of the vapour cavity, welding
faults such as shrinkage cavities may occur when the welding parameter chosen unsuitably. It
is possible to avoid these faults by a suitable selection of welding parameters and in particular
by selection of suitable oscillation characteristics; examples are circular, sine, rectangular and
triangular functions.

Fig. 1: Stage-wise Formation of Key-hole and Solidification

a= local melting and vaporisation on the surface b=

Formation of a vapour capillary
c= Full penetration keyhole
d= solidified weld seam
 Not all beam electrons penetrate the
work piece and release their energy to
material. Some of the striking electrons
are dispersed in forms of (Fig. 2):
 Back –scattered electrons
 Thermal radiation
 Secondary electron and
 X-ray radiation

Fig. 2: Dispersion of impinging electrons

Comparison with the submerged-arc and the gas metal-arc welding processes illustrates the
depth-to-width ratio which is obtainable with the electron beam technology, as seen in the
diagram below (Fig. 3). Obviously, EBW of thick plates thereby offers decisive advantages.
With modern equipment, wall thicknesses of up to 300 mm with length-to-width ratios of up
to 50: 1 and consisting of low and high- alloy materials can be welded fast and precisely in
one pass and without adding any filler metal. Compared with the gas-shielded narrow gap
welding process, the production time can be reduced by the factor of approx. 20 to 50.
Fig. 3:Comparison of different welding process with EBW
 The electron beam welding
machine is made up of three
main components (Fig. 4):
 Beam generation,
 Beam manipulation
and forming
 Working chamber
These components may also
have separate vacuum systems

Fig. 4: Schematic of EBW Machine

Components of EBW M/cs:
 Cathode: Electrons that are necessary for beam generation are emitted from that
cathode by thermionic emission. The cathode is made from materials like Tungsten
and Tantalum. Material must show a high electron emission rate, be resistant to high
temperatures and guarantee a relatively long cathode life.
A tungsten cathode which has been heated under vacuum emits electrons by
thermal emission. The heating of the tungsten cathode may be carried out directly -
by filament current - or indirectly - as, for example, by coiled filaments.
 Accelerating voltage: A high voltage electric field is applied which supplies the
electrons with kinetic energy in order to emit them from the electron cloud and
subsequently accelerate them. The electrons are accelerated by high voltage between
the cathode and the pierced anode.
 Control electrode: A control electrode, which is positioned between anode and
cathode, regulates the electron flow. Depending on the height of the cut- off voltage
between the cathode and the modulating electrode, it acts as a barrier field and passes
only a certain quantity of electrons. This happens during an electron excess in front of
the cathode where it culminate in form of electron cloud.
 Electromagnetic focusing lenses: After passing the anode the electrons have
achieved their final speed and the electron beam is focused and
 deflected by means of electromagnetic focusing lenses. The focusing effect leads to
the constriction of the electron beam, the so called cross-over.
 Electron beam gun: The core piece of the electron beam welding machine is the
electron beam gun where the electron beam is generated under high vacuum. The
tightly focused electron beam diverges rapidly under atmospheric pressure caused by
scattering and ionisation of air. As it would lose power density and efficiency in
atmosphere, the welding process, as a rule, is carried out under medium or high
vacuum. The necessary vacuum is generated in separate vacuum pumps for working
chamber and beam gun.
 Valve: A shut-off valve which is positioned between electron gun and working
chamber serves to maintain the gun vacuum while the working chamber is flooded.
 Alignment and focussing system: The electron beam which diverges after having
passed the pierced anode, however, obtains the power density which is necessary for
welding only after having passed the adjacent alignment and focussing system. One or
several electromagnetic focussing lenses bundle the beam onto the work piece inside
the vacuum chamber.
 Deflection coil: It assists in maintaining the electron beam oscillating motion.
 Viewing optic: A viewing optic or a video system allows the exact positioning of the
electron beam onto the weld groove.

Type of Weld in EBW: The weld type

preferred in electron beam welding is the plain
butt weld. For the execution of axial welds,
slightly oversized parts (press fit) should be
selected during weld preparation, as a
transverse shrinkage sets in at the beginning of
the weld and may lead to a considerable
increase of the gap width in the opposite groove
area. In some cases T-welds may also be
carried out. The T-joint with a plain butt weld
should, however, be chosen only when the
demands on the strength of the joints are low.
Fig. 5 illustrates some of the preferred type of
joints for EBW.

Fig. 5: Type of joints for EBW

Classification of EBW M/cs:
 By Accelerating voltage
◦ High Voltage ≈ 150KV
◦ Low Voltage ≈ 60KV
  By Operating Vacuum level
◦ High vacuum machine in the tune of 10-5 mbar
◦ Fine vacuum machine in the tune of 10-4 mbar
◦ Atmospheric machine (NV-EB)
A collision of the electrodes with the residual gas molecules and the scattering of the electron beam
which is connected to this are, naturally, lowest in high vacuum
 By machine concept
◦ Conveyor machine
◦ Clock system machine
◦ All purpose EBW machine
◦ Local vacuum machine
◦ Mobile vacuum machine
◦ Micro and fine welding machine

EB-Welding in High Vacuum

The beam diameter is minimal in high
vacuum and the beam power density is
maximum in high vacuum. The reasons for
high vacuum unit are, among others, special
demand of narrow, deep welds with
minimum energy input or for materials with
a high oxygen affinity. The application of
the electron beam welding process also
entails advantages as far as the structural
design of the components is concerned (Fig.
6).

Fig. 6: High Vacuum EB

EBW in Fine Vacuum: With a low risk of
oxidation and reduced demands on welds, so-
called “medium vacuum units” (p = 10-2 mbar)
are applied. This is mainly because of
economic considerations like cycle time
reduction. Areas of application are pistons,
valves, torque converters, gear parts in the
automotive industry and also in the metal
working industry (fittings, gauge heads,
accumulators).

Fig. 7: Fine vacuum EB

Atmospheric Welding (NV-EBW): With relatively simple weld geometry, less stringent
distortion & strength criteria and full material compatibility with air/ shielding gas, out-of-
vacuum welding units are applied. Under extreme demands on welding cycle time, this
method is a good choice. Areas of application are in the metal- working industry (precision
tubes, bimetal strips) and in the automotive industry (converters, pinion cages, socket joints
and module holders). As the beam spread is more under atmosphere, odd seam formations
have to be accepted in case of Non- Vacuum Electron Beam Welding (Fig. 7 & 8).

Fig. 7: Beam spread in Atmospheric EBW and weld shapes

High Vacuum Fine Vacuum Atmospheric

Fig. 8: Weld Quality and Type of EBW
Classification by Machine Concept

Conveyor Type: Conveyor machines allow

continuous production of welded joint of bimetallic
semi finished products such as saw blades or
thermostatic bimetals. In the main chamber, there
is a gradually raising pressure system as partial
vacuum pre and post activated, to serve as a
vacuum lock.

Fig. 9: Conveyor Type EBW

Clock System Type: The system is equipped

with several small vacuum chambers, adapted to
work piece shape. It is characterised by short cycle
time. Just immediately before the welding starts,
beam gun is coupled to the vacuum chamber
evacuated during the preceding evacuation cycle. At
the same time, the next vacuum chamber is made
ready for operation.

Fig. 9: Clock System Type EBW

Conventional Type: the vacuum

chamber in this system is adjustable to different
joining tasks and characterised by its simply
designed working chamber. Equipped with
vertically or horizontally positioned and, in most
cases, traveling beam generators, several work
pieces can be welded in sequence during an
evacuation cycle. The largest, presently existing
working chamber has a volume of 265 m³ (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10: Conventional Type EBW

Local and Mobile Type: The system is characterised by shorter evacuation times with
simultaneous maintenance of vacuum by decreasing pumping volume. In the “local
vacuum systems”, with use of suitable sealing, vacuum is produced only in the welding
area. In the “mobile vacuum systems” welding is carried out in a small vacuum chamber
which is restricted to the welding area and is travelling along the weld seam. Maintaining
sufficient sealing between work piece & vacuum chamber is more difficult. It is suitable for
welding large components which cannot be loaded into a stationary vacuum chamber e.g.
Vessel skins, Components for Particle Accelerators and Nuclear fusion plants). In general,
work piece moves during welding, while the beam remains stationary and directed onto the
work piece in horizontal or vertical position. Depending on the control systems of the
working table, different welding positions is possible, similar to conventional welding.
EBW Benefits:
 Single pass welding of thick joints with deep, narrow, and almost parallel- sided
welds
 Low heat input resulting in Low distortion and Narrow HAZ
 No filler metal or shield gas
 Low contamination as welding is carried out in vacuum
 Projection of beam from a few inches to several feet, hence possible to reach
inaccessible locations
EBW Limitations:
 High equipment cost
 Work chamber size constraints
 Low productivity when welding in vacuum
 Sheet thickness limitation in NV-EBW
 High weld preparation costs
 X-rays produced during welding due to electron bombardment is hazardous
 Rapid solidification rates may cause cracking in some materials
Industrial Applications of EBW:
 Automobile: Welding of drive gears, valves, pistons, axle frames, steering
columns etc.
 Aircraft: Welding of structural /load bearing parts made of Ti and landing gears
made of HSS.
 Manufacturing of bimetal saw blade
 Turbine manufacturing: Production of guide blades and distributors
 Pipe line industry, Electronic industry, Surface treatment.
 Electron beam drilling – can drill 3000 drills per second
 Welding of materials with high affinity for oxygen
 Production of nuclear fuel element
 Joining of Al. and all Al. alloys, Cu. and all Cu. alloys, Magnesium alloys etc.
 Joining of Titanium, Tungsten, Gold
 Joining of dissimilar metal combinations like Cu – Steel, Bronze – Steel etc.
 Electrically conductive Ceramic materials
LASER WELDING
LASER is the acronym of Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
Basically it is light rays only. Being monochromatic & coherent i.e. single phase, it has
minimal divergence and produces a very narrow beam of light with intense energy, similar to
focusing sunlight by lens. The high temperature produced can vaporize any material
Fig. 11: Application of LASER in metal working industry:

Principle of LASER: Inside the resonator, the laser-active medium (Solid/ Gas)
molecules are excited to a higher energy level (Pumping) by energy input (electrical gas
discharge, flash lamps etc.). Essentially, the electrons in different shells (K, L, M etc) of
atoms of the laser-active medium jump to higher shell (K to L or M etc. and similar).
Being thermodynamic\ally unstable, the atoms try to retreat to their stable ground state.
During retreating, the electrons come back to their ground state, thus releasing a definite
quantum of energy (say EM – EK). The energy is released in the form of a discrete packet,
known as photon. The photon is characterized by the energy content (EM – EK) and the
frequency related as:
(EM – EK) = ∆E = hʋ = mc/λ
As seen from the above relationship, the wave length depends on the energy difference
between the Excited state & Ground state. As the energy levels of shells are characteristic to
the atoms of laser-active medium, the wavelength λ of the photons generated are also specific
to that medium. When this wandering photon hits one more atom in high energy state, it
induces releasing of a second photon with the same characters. This phenomenon is known
stimulated emission. The resulting photon has the same properties (frequency, direction,
phase) as the exciting photon (Coherence). Movement of these photons in the resonator by
multiple reflections causes multiple collisions, thus generating large population of photons
forming a intense light ray. The ray is monochromatic as the energy of photon is fixed. Being
in phase adds up the energy of individual photons resulting a high intensity beam. Part
of this photon stream (light ray) leaves the resonator through a slit to fall on the work piece.
Fig.12: Schematic diagram showing comparison of Normal Light & LASER

As the divergence is only 1/10 mrad, long transmission paths without significant beam
divergences are possible.
Power output of LASER: For a high level of output, the population of high energy atom is
to be very high, contrary to normal distribution of atoms. This ‘Population Inversion’ is
achieved by constant energy pumping. CO2 and Nd:YAG LASER is widely used in metal
cutting and welding industry with power outputs 5 - 20 kW. Lasers with powers of up to 40
kW are also available. In solid state lasers average output powers of up to 4 kW are nowadays
obtainable.
LASER welding & Cutting: Widely applied for sheet welding. Welding normally is
preceded by a LASER cut. The knife edges produced is then brought together and joined by
welding. The basic process of welding & cutting remains same. During cutting, slightly
higher power is deployed. High pressure N2 is normally used for flushing. Same N2 is used
for shielding purpose also.
 For joining 3 mm SS sheet
◦ Cutting - 2500W power, N2 pressure ≈ 15 bar
◦ Welding – 2000W power, N2 shield ≈ 40l/min
With a low-intensity laser beam (I less than 10 5 W/cm2) fusion welding with low penetration
is carried out. Above the threshold intensity value (I above 106 W/cm2) a phase transition
occurs and laser-induced plasma develops giving deep penetration - the Key hole effect. A
vapour cavity surrounded by molten metal moves through the joining zone and is prevented
to close due to the vapour pressure as in EBW.
 Fig. 13: Normal welding & Deep Penetration welding by LASER

Only a fraction of input Electrical

energy changes to beam energy (light).
From there, a small part is used up for
actual welding process. Remaining is
consumed in Optics, Reflection or
transmission (Vapour cavity), Thermal
conductance to the work piece, etc.

Fig. 14: Energy distribution in LASER

Advantages and Disadvantages of LASER:

 Variables in LASER Welding:

Fig. 15: Relationship between penetration and weld speed

Dependence of depth of Penetration depths on welding speed at different beam power and
different types of steels are shown in the figure 15. Other relevant factors are material (TC),
design of resonator (beam quality), focal position and the applied optics (focal length, focus
diameter) etc..

Fig.16: Typical Joint configurations

Figure 16 shows joint shapes typical for car body production and can be welded by
application of laser beam.
Penetration and
Hardness: High
cooling rate during
LBW consequent to
very low heat input
leads to significantly
higher hardness values
compared to other
methods of welding.

Fig. 17: Hardness profile in different welds

Welding Defects: Caused by the high cooling rate and, in connection with this, the
insufficient degassing of the molten metal, pore formation may occur during laser beam
welding of, in particular, thick plates (very deep welds) or while carrying out welding-in
works (insufficient degassing over the root), Figure 18. However, too low a weld speed may
also cause pore formation when the molten metal picks up gases from the root side

Fig.18: common defects in LBW

The small beam diameter demands very precise manipulation and positioning of the work
piece/ beam and an exact weld preparation. Otherwise lack of fusion, sagged welds or
concave root surfaces are possible weld defects.

Fig. 19: Misalignment problem in LBW

HYBRID WELDING
Concept of Hybrid Process: A joining processes in which two different fundamental
processes are combined to create a new process with extended capability. It combines the
best characteristics of each parent welding process. Synergism, i.e., to achieve an effect
which each is individually incapable is essence. Because it can accomplish new tasks, it is
accepted as a new process.
Typical Hybrid Welding Processes are:
 Plasma arc/gas metal arc welding (1972)
 Laser beam/gas metal arc welding (1991)
 Laser beam/plasma arc welding (1998)
 Laser beam/GTA welding (1979)
 GTA/GMA-assisted laser beam welding (1988)
 Low-power CO2 laser beam/GTA (2001)
 Laser-assisted friction stir welding (2002)
Plasma Arc/GMA Welding: Through a specially designed torch, the gas metal arc
electrode is fed through the center of the Ar- or CO2-shielded plasma stream created from
pure Ar. Under DCEP, the welding wire establishes its own arc (protected and somewhat
constricted or pinched by the surrounding plasma arc), leading to two widely different
operating modes.
At relatively low current in wire, a firm, narrow arc is established, highly suitable for
high-speed welding of thin sheet or for deep penetration of thicker sheet or plate at slower
speeds.
The inherent rotation of the plasma (at about 200 rpm) causes the electrode arc to
swirl in a spiral, causing molten metal transfer in form of a "rain" of fine droplets covering
an area about 8 mm in dia. Low power density on the work piece leads to more flat bead,
shallow penetration & high deposition.
Cross section of the electrode holder combining plasma and gas metal arc systems:
1. Bare wire filler metal
2. Plasma gas
3. Filler metal contact tube
4. Shielding gas
5. Tungsten electrode
6. Water-cooled copper nozzle
7. Plasma arc
8. Gas metal arc
9. Work piece
10. Power source
(11-13) Water cooling system
Fig. 20: Cross section of electrode
holder for PAW/GMA
 The two resulting weld profiles are shown in Fig. 20. Clearly, the hybrid
process offered the options of deep penetration or high speed associated with PAW when the
pinched arc mode was employed or the high deposition rate associated with GMAW when
the rotating arc mode was employed

At low GMAW current on 8-mm thick At high GMAW current on low-carbon steel
stainless steel – Pinched arc mode plate – Rotating arc mode
Fig. 21: Typical welds through Plasma Arc/GMA Welding

LASER-Hybrid welding: A hybrid process

combining the principles of laser beam and arc
welding to act simultaneously on one welding zone,
influencing and supporting each other. Three main
types depending on arc used; TIG, Plasma arc or
MIG augmented laser. Whilst TIG augmented laser
welding was the first to be
researched, MIG is the first to go in to industry Fig. 22: LASER hybrid system
and is commonly known as hybrid laser welding. The study of normal & LASER-
hybrid weldings below brings out clearly the superiority of hybrid process.

Arc Welding Laser Welding Hybrid welding

 Large weld puddle  Small weld puddle High  Arc and laser
 Relies on welding parameters  welding speed Narrow welding
and joint configuration to  weld with deep coupled
determine amount of penetration together as
penetration one process
 Sensitive to weld joint  High travel
 High heat input process-Large fit-up and chemistry of
potential for distortion speeds with
materials increased
 Filler metal addition aids in joint  Laser energy used to penetration
gap filling and influences melt wire with
microstructure addition of filler.

LASER-GTA Welding: A laser beam and a GTAW torch operated simultaneously,

with the arc being placed either above or below the work piece, while the laser is above
the work piece. With both the laser and GTA above the work piece, a combined plasma is
formed with high stability even at low GTAW currents and high welding speeds. With the
laser above and the GTA below the work piece, coupling of the laser to the work piece
increases due to increased surface absorptivity as the work piece is at a higher temperature.
Higher process efficiency is obtained through deeper penetration for a given laser power
level.
LASER-GMA Welding: The process combines energy from a laser with GMA. A 5-kW
CO2 laser augmented by a DCEP GMA has the potential to achieve penetration equivalent to
that of a 20-25 kW laser, yet produces welds with the narrow HAZ and lower distortion
typical of laser beam welding. Increased arc conductivity along the path of the laser ensures
that more arc energy flows along this path. The process is well received by shipbuilding and
automobile industry. It offers greater penetration at higher speeds and better management of
heat input to avoid weld cracking and HAZ hardening & embrittlement, especially for high
YS steels. Aluminum alloys welding in terms of internal quality of the welds and bead
uniformity also improves. High power Laser/GMAW is used for creation of rapid prototypes
by free-form shape welding using 3-D computer-aided design (CAD) data to successively
build layers as slices of 3-D shape. Both CO2 and Nd:YAG lasers are used with GMAW.
LASER-Plasma Arc Welding: Recent development of high-power Nd:YAG laser has
made LASER-Plasma arc welding possible to produce near-net-shape 3-D free- form parts. It
is used to produce functionally gradient materials using computer- controlled and coordinated
powder feeding, x-y table motion, with laser beam & plasma arc control. It offers great
potential for the precision with which welding heat and material deposition can be controlled.
Laser-Assisted FSW: The heat generated through rapidly rotating, non- consumable
(wear-resistant) tool is augmented by a 700-W multimode Nd:YAG laser beam. It acts on
simple principle of preheating to lower plastic flow stress for FSW. The major advantages are
less clamping force for same frictional heating, far less force to move the welding tool and
drastic reduction of tool wear and breakage.
SOLID STATE WELDING PROCESSES

Fig. 23: Classification of Solid State Welding

Ultrasonic Metal Welding:

A solid-state welding
process that produces
coalescence by simultaneous
application of localized high
frequency vibratory energy and
moderate clamping forces.
Ultrasonic vibrations create
frictional action between surfaces
held together under pressure
producing heat and dispersing
oxides & contaminants to give
metal-to-metal contact and
bonding.
Fig. 24: Schematic of USMW
Principle of USMW: Ultrasonic waves (15 to 60 kHz) are transferred to the material
under pressure. In operation, transducer resonates in a half-wavelength acoustical vibration
pattern, with maximum amplitude at the ends of the transducer.
Types of USMW Equipments:
Lateral-drive system
is an inline transducer,
booster and horn, where
the welding tip may be
integral with the horn or
may be removable and
held with some
mechanical fastener.

Fig. 25: Lateral driveSystem

Wedge-reed system: In the wedge- reed

system, the transducer is attached to a reed
that vibrates in flexure and is transmitted by
a tapered heat treated steel tip that fits into a
cavity at the end of the reed

Fig. 26: Wedge-Reed System

Fig. 27: Variations in USMW

USMW Equipment Components:
 Ultrasonic Generator - To generate
electrical signal having 20 KHz
frequency
 Transducer - Piezoelectric materials to
convert electrical signals into
mechanical vibrations.
 Microprocessor - Set values of input
parameters and display output
parameters after each weld.
 Pneumatic Press - To apply force on
work piece Sonotrode
 Booster - To amplify the mechanical
vibrations. Amplification from 0.5 to
2.5µm possible depending on the
booster capacity.
 Sonotrode - Tool to carry out the weld
process. Pressure applied through it.
Made of steel, titanium or aluminium
with knurled tip for gripping purpose
 Anvil - The supporting component with
knurled surface to back the faying Converter and Booster
surfaces during welding
Fig. 28: Main components of USMW

Fig. 29: An USM Welding System

Parameters of USMW:
• Frequency
• Amplitude
• Welding time
• Clamping Force
• Electrical Power
• Materials welded
Advantages of USMW:
• Provide strong joints without heat of fusion
• Join dissimilar materials such as copper to aluminium
• Join thin materials to thick materials/ multiple layers of thin materials.
• Require no filler materials or fluxes.
• Require no special cleaning methods.
• Negligible odour & fumes. Environment friendly.
• Low energy consumption
• Short weld times
• Simple equipment operation
Limitations of USMW:
 Overlap joints, no butt welding.
 Mostly used for nonferrous materials.
 Thickness of the top sheet limited to 3mm for Al. and less for many other materials.
 Because the weld is generated by vibratory energy, there must be a gripping surface
between the tooling which may deform the finished parts.
Applications: Widely used in computer, electrical aerospace and automotive industries.
Uniquely useful for encapsulating materials like explosives, pyrotechnics and reactive
chemicals that require hermetic sealing but cannot withstand high- temperature joining
processes.
Diffusion Joining Processes:
Diffusion Welding: A solid-state welding
process that produces coalescence of the faying
surfaces by the application of pressure at elevated
temperature. The process does not involve
macroscopic deformation or relative motion of work
pieces. A solid filler metal may or may not be inserted
between faying surfaces.
Fig. 30: Schematic of Diffusion
Welding
Principle of Diffusion Welding:
 1st stage - Deformation forming interfacial
boundary.
 2nd stage - Grain boundary migration & pore
elimination.
 3rd stage - Volume diffusion & pore elimination

Fig. 31: Stages of Diffusion Welding

Diffusion Welding of Dissimilar Metals: Formation of brittle inter-metallic phase
or inter-metallic compound can be a potential problem. Appropriate filler metal
/ Joint designs may be needed to alleviate it. Formation of low melting phases is also a
possibility which sometime is beneficial. Porosity may form due to unequal rates of metal
transfer by diffusion in the region adjacent to the weld. Proper welding conditions and use of
appropriate filler metal or both may prevent this problem.
Applications of Diffusion Welding: Titanium welding for aero-space vehicles is one of
the important applications. Nickel alloys including Inconel 600, wrought Udimet 700 and
Rene 41 are also welded successfully in this process. Dissimilar metal welding including Cu
to Ti, Cu to Al, and Cu to Cb-1%Zr can also be done through this process. However, care
must be exercised to control brittle inter-metallic compound formation.
Applications of Diffusion Welding

Factors affecting Diffusion:

 Temperature
 Time
 Pressure
Two necessary conditions must be met before a satisfactory diffusion weld can be made;
Mechanical intimacy of the faying surfaces and Disruption and dispersion of surface
contaminants.
Relation between Temperature and Diffusion Coefficient
D = D0 e -Q/KT where
D = Diffusion coefficient
D0 = Diffusion constant
Q = Activation energy
T = Absolute temperature K
= Boltzman’s constant
Relation between Temperature and Diffusion Coefficient
X = C (Dt)1/2 where
X = Diffusion length
C = A constant
D = Diffusion coefficient
t = Time
Pressure: Compressive stress (pressure) must be present in diffusion welding, but should be
well below yield strength at welding temperature.
Explosive Welding: It is a solid state welding process, which uses controlled
explosive detonation to force two metals together at high pressure. The resultant
composite system is joined with a durable, metallurgical bond. The process was
developed by the DuPont Chemical Company through R&D to promote explosives
business following World War II followed by a US patent in 1964.
Working Principle: Prime metal
accelerated across a short
distance with the force of the
explosion collides with a stationary
metal surface. A jet is
formed in the collapsing space
preceding the collision point.
Micro fusion takes place at pure
metallic faying surfaces. Fig. 32: Arrangement for explosion welding
Characteristic of weld: Interface almost alwa s shows a sine-curve waveform. The
wave size is dependent on the collision parameters and the properties of the metals.
The pockets will be ductile if the metal combinations can form solid solutions or may
show discontinuities in metal combinations that form inter-metallic compounds.
Welding variables: There are three essential process variables:
 Standoff distance: Ranges between ½ - 2 times the thickness of the cladder.
 Explosive detonation velocity: Ranges from 1800m/s to 2800m/sec
 Explosive load: Quantity and thickness of explosive layer.
These EXW variables are different for various combinations, types, and thicknesses of
metals.
Explosive Materials: Granular Ammonium nitrate (AN) is used as the primary ingredient.
The energy of ammonium nitrate can be increased by mixing or coating with Fuel Oil. The
blend is then referred to as ANFO. This produces a detonation velocity of 2000 m/s to 3000
m/s, typical for optimal welding.
Metals suitable for EXW application: Metals with elongations of at least 6% in a 51-
mm gauge length and Charpy V-notch impact strengths of 13.6 joules (J).

Advantages of EXW: The process can bond many dissimilar, normally unweldable
metals. Fixture/ jig requirement is minimum. The process is simple and extremely large
surfaces can be bonded in one go. Wide range of thicknesses can be explosively clad
together with no effect on parent properties. The strength is equal to or greater than that of
the weaker of the two metals joined.
Limitations of EXW: The metals must have high enough impact resistance and
ductility. Noise and blast can require operator protection, vacuum chambers, buried in
sand/water. The use of explosives in industrial areas is restricted by the noise and ground
vibrations caused by the explosion. The geometries of material to be welded must be simple –
flat, cylindrical or conical.
Applications of EXW:
 Joining of pipes and tubes.
 Heat exchanger tube sheets and pressure vessels.
 Remote joining in hazardous environments.
 Joining of dissimilar metals - Aluminium to steel, Titanium alloys to Cr – Ni
steel, Cu to stainless steel, Tungsten to Steel, etc.
 Attaching cooling fins.
 Other applications are in chemical process vessels, ship building industry,
cryogenic industry, etc.
Typical metal combination that can be explosion welded
MAGNETICALLY IMPELLED ARC BUTT WELDING (MIAB)
Magnetically Impelled Arc Butt Welding is also referred to as Rotating Arc Welding.
Employs forging to produce finished weld. Though classified as an electric arc welding, it
utilises pressure from forging to complete the weld. Typical application is in automotive
industry for fabrication of tubular-section butt welds and, to a lesser extent, tube-to-plate
weld. The process is suitable for joining circular or noncircular cross sections with wall
thickness ranging from 0.5 to 5 mm or more in steel as well as aluminum alloy. Because of
high quality, it is quite suitable for safety-critical applications.
Process principle: The process is fully automated. An arc is drawn between aligned but
properly gapped tube ends. The arc is impelled to rotate around the joint line by an
interaction of the arc current and an externally applied magnetic field. Magnitude of force F
on arc is proportional to Magnetic flux density (B), Arc current (I) and Arc length (L) and is
given by:
F= I*L X B

Fig. 33: Schematic of Magnetically Impelled Arc Butt (MIAB) process

Process Control Parameters: Main control parameters are Arcing current, Magnetic
field strength and Heating cycle time. In addition, geometry of the magnetic field, initial arc
gap and forging velocity must also be considered.
Benefits over other processes:
 No rotation of either component, thus overcoming problems encountered with
asymmetrical parts in many friction welding processes)
 Short welding times (2-4 s for 2 to 4-mm thick low-carbon steel tube)
 Low material loss
 Low fumes and spatter
 Relatively low arc current required
Applications:
 Low and medium carbon steel and low alloy steel
 Drive shafts, Propeller shafts, Beam axles & Axle casings
 Refrigerator condenser tubes

References:
• Messler Jr, Robert W. Principles of welding: processes, physics, chemistry,
and metallurgy. John Wiley & Sons, 2008.
• AWS Welding Handbook ,Chapter 8 Ultrasonic Welding of Metals
• Janet Devine, Ulrasonic Welding Vol 6A
• ASM handbook, ASM International 2011
• AWS Handbook Volume3 Part2 Chapter 9