Design of Rural Water Supply Schemes

For Engineering Assistants

Training Module No: NWSDB/RWS/TR/04

NATIONAL WATER SUPPLY AND DRAINAGE BOARD

Prepared by Third ADB Assisted Water Supply & Sanitation sector

Project

December 2008

3
 Contents
Page No.

List of Handouts i

Time Table ii-iii

Introduction 1-1A

Objectives 2

Session 1
Water Sources 3

Session 2
Water Quality 6

Session 3
Intakes & Pumps 10

Session 4
Water Treatment 20

Session 5
Design of Pipe Lines 43

4
 List of Handouts

Page No.

1. Water Sources 4

2. Water Quality 7

3. Surface Water Intakes 11

4. Screens 14

5. Pumping 16

6. Introduction to Water Treatment 21

7. Aeration 23

8. Slow Sound Filtration 26

9. Rapid filtration 33

10. Disinfection 35

11. Typical Layout diagrams for a rural water supply scheme 39

12. Water transmission 44

13. Water distribution 52

5
 SESSION TIME TABLE

Day 1
9.00 - 9.30 am Welcome & Introduction to the session

9.30 - 11.00am Session 1

Water Sources

11.00 - 11.15am Tea Break

11.15 am - 1.00 pm Continuation of Session 1

1.00 - 2.00 pm Lunch Break

2.00 - 3.15 pm Continuation of Session 1

3.15 - 3.30 pm Tea Break

3.30 - 4.30 pm Session 2

Water Quality

Day 2

9.00 - 10.00 am Continuation of Session 2

Water Quality

10.00 - 11.00 am Session 3

Intakes & Pumps

11.00 - 11.15 am Tea Break

11.15 am - 12.45 pm Continuation of Session 3

12.45 - 1.45 pm Lunch Break

1.45 - 3.45 pm Continuation of Session 3

3.45 - 4.00 pm Tea Break

4.00 - 5.00 pm Session 4

6
 Water Treatment

Day 3

9.00 - 10.30 am Continuation of Session 4

Water Treatment

10.30 - 10.45am Tea Break

10.45 am - 12.45 pm Continuation of Session 4

12.45 - 1.45 pm Lunch Break

1.45 - 3.15 pm Continuation of Session 4

3.15 - 3.30 pm Tea Break

3.30 - 5.00 pm Continuation of Session 4

Day 4

9.00 - 10.00 am Continuation of Session 4

Water Treatment

10.00 - 10.15am Tea Break

10.15 - 11.15am Session 5

Design of Pipe lines

11.15 am - 12.45pm Continuation of Session 5

12.45 - 1.45 pm Lunch Break

1.45 - 2.15 pm Continuation of Session 5

2.15 - 3.15 pm Discussion at the end of the session

Introduction

7
Providing safe drinking water for the entire population in the country has become a
challenging task of the Governments and all Sector Institutions.

The Government of Sri Lanka is already in the process of implementing several water
supply programmes in order to achieve this challenging task. It is expected to cover the
entire nation with provision for drinking water by year 2010.

Under this background, assisting and guiding to all sector institutions in the country has
been identified as a key responsibility of the Government.

In this context the Third Water Supply & Sanitation (Sector) project implemented by the
National Water Supply & Drainage Board is recognized as a major programme among
several other water supply programmes. This project is funded by the Asian
Development Bank and implemented in rural areas of 6 districts in Sri Lanka to provide
water supply and sanitation facilities for rural population.

In most rural communities in Sri Lanka, the prevailing water supply conditions are very
different from urban installations. Usually the number of people to be served by such a
water supply scheme is small and the low population density makes piped distribution of
the water costly. On the other hand, rural population often is very poor and, particularly
in subsistence farming communities little money can be raised. Thus, in providing water
supply systems to rural communities, factors such as organization, administration,
community involvement and finance are properly blended in order to achieve an
economical water supply system. However, the selection of suitable technology remains
important since the other problems are compounded when techniques, methods and
equipment are used that are not compatible with the conditions and situations of rural
communities. Therefore this training module has been designed to provide a broad
introduction into the technology of rural community water supplies. It provides
information and guidance that should be most readily used by those having some

8
technical background in Civil Engineering, but with no formal training experience in
water supply. Some theoretical explanations have been included but such material has
been kept to a minimum.

Providing water and Sanitation for villages & small towns are carried out in three basic
stages, designing, construction and operation & maintenance with the active participation
of beneficiaries, partner organizations & community based organizations under this
programme. Therefore by developing this module it is intended to improve knowledge &
capability of the Engineering Assistants attached to the Rural Water Supply Section of
National Water Supply & Drainage Board on Rural Water Supply Technology.

OBJECTIVES

The Main Objective of this training module is to impart a good knowledge and
understanding to the Engineering Assistants of the Rural Water Supply Section of
National Water Supply & Drainage Board on following subject areas

(1) Selection of intakes and water sources in designing rural water supply
schemes.

(2) Water quality and its standards and how the standards apply to in designing of
rural water supply schemes.

(3) Designing of treatment units.

(4) Different economical treatment layouts suitable for rural water supply
schemes.

(5) Designing of Transmission & Distribution water lines.

9
 SESSION 1

WATER SOURCES

Objective: 1. To make the participants aware of types of surface water

sources & ground water sources.

2. To explain their identification, selection for water supply purposes

and protection.

Duration: 4 ½ hrs

Handouts: Handout 1

Activities: 1. Ask the participants to name the types of surface water sources and
types of wells, and list them out.

2. Explain how the sources are identified, selected for water supply
purposes and protected from contamination, with the help of
handout 1.

10
 HANDOUT 1

WATER SOURCES

The first step in designing a water supply system is to select a suitable source or a
combination of sources of water. The source must be capable of supplying enough
water for the rural community. If not, another resource or perhaps several sources will
be required.

1.1 Water Source Selection

The process of choosing the most suitable source of water for development into a public
water supply largely depends on the local conditions.

• Ground water as a source

Generally for rural communities in Sri Lanka the best option is exploring ground water
resources. For rural water supplies simple prospecting methods will usually be
adequate, whereas larger supplies, more extensive geo-hydrological investigations using
special methods and techniques are likely to be needed.

Dug wells can be appropriate for reaching ground water at medium depth.

Tube wells are generally most suitable for drawing water from deeper water-bearing
ground strata. Dug wells often are within the local construction capabilities, whereas the
drilling of tube wells will require more sophisticated equipment and considerable
expertise. In some cases, drilling may be the only option available.

11
• Surface water as a source

If ground water is not available, or where the costs of digging a well or drilling a tube
well would too high, it will be necessary to consider surface water from sources. Such
as rivers, streams or lakes. Surface water will almost always require some treatment to
render it safe for human consumption and use. The costs and difficulties associated with
the treatment of water, particular the day to day problems of operation and maintenance
of water treatment plants, need to be carefully considered.

• Rain water as a source

Where the rainfall pattern permits rainwater harvesting, and storage during dry periods
can be provided. Thus Rainwater harvesting may serve well for household and small-
scale rural community supplies. However this source should be considered where
rainfall is heavy in storms of considerable intensity, with intervals during which there is
practically no or very little rainfall.

6
 SESSION 2

WATER QUALITY

Objective: 1. To Introduce Physical, Chemical & Biological parameters used in

water quality assessment and their effects on water users and
analysis.

2. Comparison of surface water quality and ground water quality in

accordance with the standards.

Duration: 2 hrs

Handouts: Handout 2

Activities: Discuss the parameters used to measure water quality, their effects on
users, their standard values and surface and ground water quality, using
handout 2.

7
 HANDOUT 2

WATER QUALITY

An examination of water quality is has basically a determination of the organisms, and

the mineral and organic compounds contained in the water.

The basic requirements for drinking water are that it should be:

a. Free from disease causing (Pathogenic) organisms

b. Fairly clear (low turbidity, little colour)
c. Containing no compounds that cause an offensive taste or smell
d. Containing no compounds that have an adverse effect acute or in the long term,
on human health
e. Not of causing corrosion on encrustation of the water supply system, nor
straining clothes others washed in it

The results of the studies and research on drinking water quality are laid down in
practical guidelines which usually take the form of a table giving number of selected
water quality parameters, the highest desirable level and the maximum permissible level.
Such values should not be taken as absolute standards but as indicative only.

The most important parameter of drinking water quality is the bacteriological quality,
i.e. the content of bacteria and viruses. It is not practicable to test the water for all
organisms that it might possibly contain.

Therefore water is examined for a specific type of bacteria which originates in large
numbers from human and animal excreta and whose presence in water is indicative of
faecal contamination. Suitable indicator bacteria of faecal contamination are those
coliforms known as E-Coli and faecal streptococci. Either one or both of these
coliforms may be used as indicator organisms.

8
In almost all small rural water supply systems faecal bacteria are likely to be found. The
following bacteriological quality criteria are generally applicable for small drinking
water supplies.

Coliform - Less than 10 per 100ml

E-Coli - Less than 2.5 ml per 100ml

In reality there are cases where the water from rural community water supply is
bacteriologically acceptable, yet unfit as drinking water due to excessive organic or
mineral contents. The main problems are caused by Iron, Manganese, fluoride, nitrate,
turbidity and colour. Following table gives guidelines for a number of these and other
water quality parameters.

Water Quality Measured as Highest desirable Maximum

parameter (units) level permissible level
Turbidity FTH 5 25
Colour mg Pt/l 5 50
Iron mg Fe+/l 0.1 1.0
Manganese mg Mn+2/l 0.05 0.5
Total dissolved mg/l 500 2000
solids
Nitrate mg NO3-1/l 50 100
Nitrite mg N/l 1 2
Sulphate mg SO4-2/l 200 400
Fluoride mg F-1/l 1 2
Sodium mg Na+/l 120 400
Arsenic mg AS+/l 0.05 0.1
Chromium mg Cr+6/l 0.05 0.1
(hexavalent)
Cyanide (Free) mg CN-/l 0.1 0.2
Lead Pb/l 0.05 0.10
Mercury Hg/l 0.001 0.005
Cadmium Cd/l 0.005 0.010

9
For small rural water supplies which frequently are to be provided from individual wells
where the water quality criteria given above, may have to be relaxed and should always
be applied with common sense. When the choice of source and the opportunities for
treatment are limited, the criteria should not in themselves be the basis for rejection of a
ground water source having some what higher values for iron, manganese, sulphates or
nitrates than in table. On the other hand care must be exercised in respect of toxic
substances such as heavy metals. In other words, in all instances everything possible
should be done to limit hazards of contamination of the water. Using relatively simple
measures such as the lining and covering of a well, it should be possible to reduce
bacterial content of water (measured as coliform count) to less than 10 per 100 ml, even
for water form a shallow well. Persistent failure to achieve this and particularly if E-coil
is repeatedly found, should as a general rule lead to condemnation of the supply.

10
 FIRST SESSION

WATER SOURCES

Objective: 1. To make the participants aware of types of surface water

sources & Ground Water Sources.

2. To explain how they are identified, selected for Water Supply

Purpose and protected.

Duration: 4 ½ hrs

Handouts: Handout 1

Activities: 1. Ask the participants to name the types of surface water sources
types of wells and list the out.

2. Explain how the sources are identified, selected for water supply.
purposes and protected from contamination.

11
 HANDOUT 2

WATER QUALITY

An examination of water quality is has basically a determination of the organisms, and

the mineral and organic compounds contained in the water.

The basic requirements for drinking water are that it should be:

f. Free from disease causing (Pathogenic) organisms

g. Fairly clear (low turbidity, little colour)
h. Containing no compounds that cause an offensive taste or smell
i. Containing no compounds that have an adverse effect acute or in the long term,
on human health
j. Not of causing corrosion on encrustation of the water supply system, nor
straining clothes others washed in it

The results of the studies and research on drinking water quality are laid down in
practical guidelines which usually take the form of a table giving number of selected
water quality parameters, the highest desirable level and the maximum permissible level.
Such values should not be taken as absolute standards but as indicative only.

The most important parameter of drinking water quality is the bacteriological quality,
i.e. the content of bacteria and viruses. It is not practicable to test the water for all
organisms that it might possibly contain.

Therefore water is examined for a specific type of bacteria which originates in large
numbers from human and animal excreta and whose presence in water is indicative of
faecal contamination. Suitable indicator bacteria of faecal contamination are those
coliforms known as E-Coli and faecal streptococci. Either one or both of these
coliforms may be used as indicator organisms.

12
In almost all small rural water supply systems faecal bacteria are likely to be found. The
following bacteriological quality criteria are generally applicable for small drinking
water supplies.

Coliform - Less than 10 per 100ml

E-Coli - Less than 2.5 ml per 100ml

In reality there are cases where the water from rural community water supply is
bacteriologically acceptable, yet unfit as drinking water due to excessive organic or
mineral contents. The main problems are caused by Iron, Manganese, fluoride, nitrate,
turbidity and colour. Following table gives guidelines for a number of these and other
water quality parameters.

Water Quality Measured as Highest desirable Maximum

parameter (units) level permissible level
Turbidity FTH 5 25
Colour mg Pt/l 5 50
Iron mg Fe+/l 0.1 1.0
Manganese mg Mn+2/l 0.05 0.5
Total dissolved mg/l 500 2000
solids
Nitrate mg NO3-1/l 50 100
Nitrite mg N/l 1 2
Sulphate mg SO4-2/l 200 400
Fluoride mg F-1/l 1 2
Sodium mg Na+/l 120 400
Arsenic mg AS+/l 0.05 0.1
Chromium mg Cr+6/l 0.05 0.1
(hexavalent)
Cyanide (Free) mg CN-/l 0.1 0.2
Lead Pb/l 0.05 0.10
Mercury Hg/l 0.001 0.005
Cadmium Cd/l 0.005 0.010

13
For small rural water supplies which frequently are to be provided from individual wells
where the water quality criteria given above, may have to be relaxed and should always
be applied with common sense. When the choice of source and the opportunities for
treatment are limited, the criteria should not in themselves be the basis for rejection of a
ground water source having some what higher values for iron, manganese, sulphates or
nitrates than in table. On the other hand care must be exercised in respect of toxic
substances such as heavy metals. In other words, in all instances everything possible
should be done to limit hazards of contamination of the water. Using relatively simple
measures such as the lining and covering of a well, it should be possible to reduce
bacterial content of water (measured as coliform count) to less than 10 per 100 ml, even
for water form a shallow well. Persistent failure to achieve this and particularly if E-coil
is repeatedly found, should as a general rule lead to condemnation of the supply.

14
 HANDOUT 1

WATER SOURCES

The first step in designing a water supply system is to select a suitable source or a
combination of sources of water. The source must be capable of supplying enough
water for the rural community. If not, another resource or perhaps several sources will
be required.

1.2 Water Source Selection

The process of choosing the most suitable source of water for development into a public
water supply largely depends on the local conditions.

• Ground water as a source

Generally for rural communities in Sri Lanka the best option is exploring ground water
resources. For rural water supplies simple prospecting methods will usually be
adequate, whereas larger supplies, more extensive geo-hydrological investigations using
special methods and techniques are likely to be needed.

Dug wells can be appropriate for reaching ground water at medium depth.

Tube wells are generally most suitable for drawing water from deeper water-bearing
ground strata. Dug wells often are within the local construction capabilities, whereas the
drilling of tube wells will require more sophisticated equipment and considerable
expertise. In some cases, drilling may be the only option available.

15
• Surface water as a source

If ground water is not available, or where the costs of digging a well or drilling a tube
well would too high, it will be necessary to consider surface water from sources. Such
as rivers, streams or lakes. Surface water will almost always require some treatment to
render it safe for human consumption and use. The costs and difficulties associated with
the treatment of water, particular the day to day problems of operation and maintenance
of water treatment plants, need to be carefully considered.

• Rain water as a source

Where the rainfall pattern permits rainwater harvesting, and storage during dry periods
can be provided. Thus Rainwater harvesting may serve well for household and small-
scale rural community supplies. However this source should be considered where
rainfall is heavy in storms of considerable intensity, with intervals during which there is
practically no or very little rainfall.

16
 HANDOUT 3

SURFACE WATER
INTAKES

3.1 River water intake

The quality of river water will usually not differ much across the width and depth of the
riverbed. The intake, there fore, may be sited at any suitable point where the river water
can be withdrawn in sufficient quantity. Generally the design of a river water intake
should be such that both clogging and scouring will be avoided. The suitability at the
intake structure should be secured, even under flood conditions.

Type of intakes available

(a) Where the river transports no boulders or rolling stones (fig. 3.1)

17
 (b) Where protection of intake is necessary (fig. 3.2)

When designing, the bottom of the intake structure should be at least 1m above the river
bed to prevent any boulders or rolling stones from entering. A baffle may be needed to
keep out debris and floating matter such as tree trunks at branches.

A river intake always requires a sufficient depth of water in the river bed. A submerged
weir across the river may have to be constructed down stream of the intake to ensure that
the necessary depth of water will be available, even in dry periods.

10
Frequently pumping is used for the intake of water from river sources. If the variation
between the high and low water level in the river is not more than 3.5m - 4.0m, a suction
pump is placed as shown below (fig. 3.3)

3.2 Typical Intake Construction for rural community supply

For small rural community water supplies system, the quantity of water needed being
small, often very simple intake structures can be used. With a per capita water use of 30
litres/day and if the peak intake is 4 times the average water demand, 1000 people would
require an intake capacity of only 1.4l/sec. A 150mm intake pipe would be sufficient to
keep the entrance velocity of flow below 0.1 m/s. If an entrance we can reduce the flow
velocity up to 0.5 m/s, a pipe diameter of 60mm is adequate for small capacity intakes,
simple arrangements using flexible pipe can be used as shown below. (Fig. 3.4)

11
 SESSION 3

INTAKES & PUMPS

Objective: 1. To explain the participants designing of intakes.

2. To broaden the participants knowledge on selection, installation and

operation & maintenance of pumps.

Duration: 4 1/2 hrs

Handouts: Handout 3,4 & 5

Activities: 1. Explain the participants how to design intakes for various water
sources discussed in session 1, with the help of handout 3 & 4.
2. Discuss with them types of pumps used in water supply and their
selection, installation and operation & maintenance, with the use of
handout 5.

12
 HANDOUT 3

SURFACE WATER
INTAKES

3.1 River water intake

The quality of river water will usually not differ much across the width and depth of the
riverbed. The intake, there fore, may be sited at any suitable point where the river water
can be withdrawn in sufficient quantity. Generally the design of a river water intake
should be such that both clogging and scouring will be avoided. The suitability at the
intake structure should be secured, even under flood conditions.

Type of intakes available

(b) Where the river transports no boulders or rolling stones (fig. 3.1)

13
 (b) Where protection of intake is necessary (fig. 3.2)

When designing, the bottom of the intake structure should be at least 1m above the river
bed to prevent any boulders or rolling stones from entering. A baffle may be needed to
keep out debris and floating matter such as tree trunks at branches.

A river intake always requires a sufficient depth of water in the river bed. A submerged
weir across the river may have to be constructed down stream of the intake to ensure that
the necessary depth of water will be available, even in dry periods.

14
Frequently pumping is used for the intake of water from river sources. If the variation
between the high and low water level in the river is not more than 3.5m - 4.0m, a suction
pump is placed as shown below (fig. 3.3)

4.2 Typical Intake Construction for rural community supply

For small rural community water supplies system, the quantity of water needed being
small, often very simple intake structures can be used. With a per capita water use of 30
litres/day and if the peak intake is 4 times the average water demand, 1000 people would
require an intake capacity of only 1.4l/sec. A 150mm intake pipe would be sufficient to
keep the entrance velocity of flow below 0.1 m/s. If an entrance we can reduce the flow
velocity up to 0.5 m/s, a pipe diameter of 60mm is adequate for small capacity intakes,
simple arrangements using flexible pipe can be used as shown below. (Fig. 3.4)

15
 HANDOUT 4

SCREENS

Screening of water is done by passing the water through closely spaced bars, gratings or
perforated plates. Screening does not change the chemical or bacteriological quality of
water. It serves to retain coarse material and suspended matter larger than screen openings.
Even when screened out material forms a filtering mat deposits, the screening still is purely
of mechanical nature.

Screens are used for various purposes such as;

a. Removal of floating and suspended matter of large size which other wise might
clog pipe lines damage pumps and other mechanical equipments or interfere with
satisfactory operation of the treatment processes. Generally fixed screens are used
for this purpose and they are cleaned on site by hand or mechanically.

b. Removal of suspended matter even of small size, to lighten the load on the
subsequent treatment processes.

In particular they are used to prevent filters from becoming clogged to rapidly.

Bar screens usually consist of steel strips or bars spaced at 0.5 to 5m. If the amount
of material expected to be screened out is small the bars are set quite steeply, at an
angle 600-750 to the horizontal, and cleaning is done by hand using rakes. If larger
amounts will be retained, the cleaning by hand should still be feasible, to facilitate
cleaning work, the bars should be place at an angle of 300-450 to the horizontal.
(fig. 4.1)

16
 SESSION 4

WATER TREATMENT

Objective: 1. To explain the participants designing, operation & maintenance

of
the components of a water treatment plant.

2. To describe low cost water treatment options for rural water

supply schemes.

Duration: 8 1/2 hrs

Handouts: Handout 6,7, 8,9,10, & 11

Activities: 1. Discuss with the participants components of a water treatment

plant and explain their designing, operation & maintenance with the
use of handout 6,7,8,9 & 10.

2. Describe low cost water treatment options for rural water

supply schemes with the help of handout 11.

17
 HANDOUT 5

PUMPING

For smaller communities, manpower is the most readily available power for pumping
water, particularly in rural areas. However if the necessary fuel or electricity supplies are
available and secured, together with adequate maintenance and spare parts, centrifugal
pumps can also accommodated to pump water.

In addition to man power and electricity /diesel driven pumps. We can use wind power or
animal power to pump water to the community.

5.1 Power sources for pumping

a. A Manual pumping device (Hand pump) is any simple device powered by human
power. They are capable of lifting relatively small amounts of water.
Using human power for pumping water has certain features that are important under the
conditions of small and rural communities.

(i) The capital cost of manually operated pump is generally low

(ii) The discharge capacity of one or more manual pumping devices is usually
adequate to meet the domestic water requirements of a rural small community.
(iii)The power requirements can be met form within the user group

b. Electric Motors of Diesel Engines

Electric motors generally need less maintenance and more reliable than diesel engines.

They are therefore, to be preferred as a source of power for pumping if a reliable electricity
supply is available. In such cases electric motors can be used to drive pumps.

18
On the other hand, Diesel engines have the important advantage that they can operate
independently at remote sites. The principle requirement is a supply of gasoil and
lubricants and these, once obtained, can be easily transported to almost any place. Diesel
engines, because of their capability to run independent of electrical power supplies, are
especially suitable for driving isolated pumping units such as raw water intake pumps.

Main applications of pumps in small rural

community water supply system

- Pumping water from wells

- Pumping water from surface water intakes
- pumping water into storage reservoirs

5.2 Principle behind the selection of a pump driven by a electric motor or a diesel
engine

When selecting a pump we must see whether the pump has the capacity to elevate water
to the desired level in the desired optimum efficiency range.

19
As shown in fig (5.1) it is obvious that without a pump, it is impossible to elevate water
from elevation A to Elevation B, so a pump is needed to elevate water from elevation A to
elevation B and the energy to be generated is said to be Hs meters for a unit weight of
water. However this amount of energy is not sufficient to reach unit weight of water to
the elevation B since percentage of energy given being taken to avoid friction along the
pipelines. Therefore further energy is to be added in order to avoid friction along the
pipeline.

If l - length of pipe line

v- Velocity alone the pipe line
d- Diameter of the pipe line
λ - A constant (usually we take as 0.04)

g- acceleration due to gravity (usually we take as 9.81m/s2)

Energy to be supplied by the pump due to friction is given by the following

formula

∆H=Hf = λ (l /d) v2/2g

Now, the total energy to be generated by the pump is (Hs+Hf). In this context, if we draw
the curve (Hs + Hf )vs Discharge, Q on graph paper following curve could be expected and
this curve is referred to as the system head curve. (see fig.5.2)

However, pump has its own characteristic head development against the discharge and
when the characteristic head that can be developed by the pump is plotted against
discharge. Characteristic curve could be plotted as shown in fig. 5.2.

Pt A is referred as the operating pt and the next task is to check whether this point lies
near the optimum efficiency or selected efficiency range. For this purpose, as shown in
fig (5.2) the operating point A is checked, whether it lies on the selected range of the
efficiency curve.

20
Hence, power of the pump "P" could be calculated.

P = (Q0H0 / ) Watts

21
 SESSION 5

DESIGN OF PIPE LINES

Objective: To explain the participants designing of transmission & distribution

pipe lines.

Duration: 3 hrs

Handouts: Handout 12 &13

Activities: 1. Explain the participants how to design a water transmission line

with the use of handout 12.

2. Explain the participants how to design a water distribution

network with the use of handout 13.

22
 6 SESSIONS

WATER SOURCES

Objective: 1. To make the participants aware of types of surface water

sources & Ground Water Sources.

2. To explain how they are identified, selected for Water Supply

Purpose and protected.

Duration: 4 ½ hrs

Handouts: Handout 1

Activities: 1. Ask the participants to name the types of surface water sources
types of wells and list the out.

2. Explain how the sources are identified, selected for water

supply.
purposes and protected from contamination.

23
 HANDOUT 6

WATER TREATMENT

The purpose of water treatment is to convert the water taken form a ground or surface
source the “raw water”, into a drinking water suitable for domestic use. Most
important is the removal of pathogenic organisms and toxic substances such as heavy
metals causing health hazards. Other substances may also need to be removed or at
least considerably reduced. These include suspended matter causing turbidity, iron and
manganese compounds imparting a bitter taste or staining laundry, and excessive
carbon dioxide corroding concrete and metal parts, on the other hand in view of a rural
small community water supply scheme, other water quality characteristics such as
hardness, total dissolved solids and organic content would generally be less important.
They should be reduced to acceptable levels but the extent to which the water is treated
will be limited to economic and technical considerations.

6.1 Ground water quality and treatment

For most part, ground water originals from infiltrated rain water which after reaching
the aquifer flows through the under ground. During infiltration, the water will pick up
many impurities such as inorganic and organic soil particles, debris from plant and
animal life, microorganisms, natural or man made fertilizers, pesticides, etc. During its
flow under ground, however, a great improvement in water quality will occur.
Ground water if properly withdrawn, will be free from turbidity and pathogenic
organisms. When it originates from a clean sand aquifer, other hazardous or
objectionable substances will also be absent. In these cases, a direct use of the water as
drinking water may be permitted without any treatment. When the water comes from
aquifer containing organic matter, oxygen will have been consumed and the carbon
dioxide content of water is likely to be high. In cases where the amount of organic
matter in the aquifer is high, the oxygen content maybe completely depleted. The
water containing no oxygen (anaerobic water) will dissolve iron, manganese and heavy
metals from the underground. Thorough treatment (for eg: Using Aerator) these
substances can be removed.

24
6.2 Surface water quality and treatment

Surface water can be taken from streams, rivers, lakes or irrigation channels. Water in
such surface sources originates partly from ground water outflows and partly from
rainwater that has flowed over the ground to the receiving bodies of surface water. The
ground water out flows will bring dissolved solids into the surface water. The surface
runoff is the main contributor of turbidity and organic matter, as well as pathogenic
organisms. In the surface water bodies, the dissolved mineral particles will remain
unchanged but the organic impurities are degraded through chemical and micro bial
processed. Sedimentation in impounded or slow flowing surface water results in
removal of suspended solids. Pathogenic organisms will die off due to lack of food.
Generally clear water from rivers, and lakes might require no treatment to make it
suitable for drinking water. However taking into account the incidental contamination,
Chlorination, as a safety measure should be provided when ever feasible.

Unpolluted surface water of low turbidity may be purified by slow sand filtration as a
single treatment process, or rapid sand filtration followed by Chlorination only.
Particularly in Rural Water Supply schemes slow sand filters have the great
advantage since the local workmen can build them with locally available materials
and without much expert supervision.

25
 HANDOUT 6

INTRODUCTION TO WATER
TREATMENT

The purpose of water treatment is to convert the water taken form a ground or surface
source the “raw water”, into a drinking water suitable for domestic use. Most
important is the removal of pathogenic organisms and toxic substances such as heavy
metals causing health hazards. Other substances may also need to be removed or at
least considerably reduced. These include suspended matter causing turbidity, iron and
manganese compounds imparting a bitter taste or staining laundry, and excessive
carbon dioxide corroding concrete and metal parts, on the other hand in view of a rural
small community water supply scheme, other water quality characteristics such as
hardness, total dissolved solids and organic content would generally be less important.
They should be reduced to acceptable levels but the extent to which the water is treated
will be limited to economic and technical considerations.

6.1 Ground water quality and treatment

For most part, ground water originals from infiltrated rain water which after reaching
the aquifer flows through the under ground. During infiltration, the water will pick up
many impurities such as inorganic and organic soil particles, debris from plant and
animal life, microorganisms, natural or man made fertilizers, pesticides, etc. During its
flow under ground, however, a great improvement in water quality will occur.
Ground water if properly withdrawn, will be free from turbidity and pathogenic
organisms. When it originates from a clean sand aquifer, other hazardous or
objectionable substances will also be absent. In these cases, a direct use of the water as
drinking water may be permitted without any treatment. When the water comes from
aquifer containing organic matter, oxygen will have been consumed and the carbon
dioxide content of water is likely to be high. In cases where the amount of organic
matter in the aquifer is high, the oxygen content maybe completely depleted. The
water containing no oxygen (anaerobic water) will dissolve iron, manganese and heavy
metals from the underground. Thorough treatment (for eg: Using Aerator) these

26
6.2 Surface water quality and treatment

Surface water can be taken from streams, rivers, lakes or irrigation channels. Water in
such surface sources originates partly from ground water outflows and partly from
rainwater that has flowed over the ground to the receiving bodies of surface water. The
ground water out flows will bring dissolved solids into the surface water. The surface
runoff is the main contributor of turbidity and organic matter, as well as pathogenic
organisms. In the surface water bodies, the dissolved mineral particles will remain
unchanged but the organic impurities are degraded through chemical and micro bial
processed. Sedimentation in impounded or slow flowing surface water results in
removal of suspended solids. Pathogenic organisms will die off due to lack of food.
Generally clear water from rivers, and lakes might require no treatment to make it
suitable for drinking water. However taking into account the incidental contamination,
Chlorination, as a safety measure should be provided when ever feasible.

Unpolluted surface water of low turbidity may be purified by slow sand filtration as a
single treatment process, or rapid sand filtration followed by Chlorination only.
Particularly in Rural Water Supply schemes slow sand filters have the great
advantage since the local workmen can build them with locally available materials
and without much expert supervision.

27
 HANDOUT 7

AERATION

Aeration is the treatment process where by water is brought into intimate contact with
air for the purpose of

(a) Increasing the oxygen content

(b) Reducing the carbon dioxide and
(c) Removing Hydrogen sulfide, methane and various volatile organic
compounds responsible for taste an o dour
Generally treatment results mentioned under (a) & (c) are always useful in the
production of good drinking water.

Aeration is widely used for the treatment of ground water having too high an iron and
manganese content. These substances import a bitter taste to the water, discolor rice
cooked in it and give brownish-black stains to clothes washed. The atmospheric
oxygen brought into the water through aeration will react with the dissolved ferrous
and Manganese compounds changing them into insoluble ferric and manganic oxide
hydrates. These can be removed by filtration for the treatment of surface water,
aeration would only be useful when the water has a high content of organic matter.

Aeration can be obtained in a number of ways for drinking water treatment it is mostly
achieved by
(a) Dispersing the water through the air in thin sheets or fine droplets
or
(b) by mixing the water with dispersed air

In view of rural water supply scheme a multiple tray aerator or a spray aerator could be
used since it provides a simple and inexpensive arrangement and it occupies little
space. Fig 7.1 shows a multiple tray aerator.

28
When designing a multiple tray aerator system following factors are considered

(a) No. of trays to be used

(b) Perforated bottom intervals
(c) Rate of water passing from the tray surface

Generally this type of aerator consists of 4-8 trays with perforated bottoms at intervals
of 30-50 cm. Through perforated pipes the water is divided evenly over the upper tray,
from where it trickles down at a rate of about 0.02m3/sec/m2 of tray surface. The

29
Spray Aerator

Spray aerators consist of stationary nozzles, connected to a distribution grid through

which the water is sprayed into the surrounding air, at velocities of 5-7 m/s.

A very simple spray aerator is shown in fig 7.2, which the water discharging
down wards through short pieces of pipe, of some 25cm length and with a
diameter of 15-30 mm. A circular disk is placed a few centimeters below the
end of each pipe, so that thin circular films of water are formed which further
disperse into a fine spray of water droplets.

HANDOUT 8

30
SLOW SAND FILTRATION
The main purpose of slow sand filtration is the removal of pathogenic organisms from
the raw water, in particular the bacteria and viruses responsible for water-related
diseases. Slow sand filters are also very effective in removing suspended matter from
the raw water. However, the clogging of the filter bed may be too rapid necessitating
frequent cleanings.

Slow sand filters have many advantages for use in rural communities. They produce
clear water, free from suspended impurities and hygienically safe. They can be built
with local materials using local skills and labour. Much of the complex mechanical and
electrical equipment required for most other water treatment process can be avoided.
Slow sand filter occupy more land and cleaning calls for ample labour, however in view
of rural communities, these requirements generally should be no drawbacks.

8.2 Theory of slow sand filtration

In slow sand filters, the removal of impurities from the raw water is brought about by a
combination of different processes such as sedimentation, adsorption, straining and,
most importantly, bio-chemical and microbial actions. The purification processes start
in the supernatant water but the major part of removal of impurities from the water and
the microbial and bio chemical processes take place in the top layer of the filter bed
(Schmitz decke-the filter skin or layer of deposited material that forms on top of a sand
filter.)

Straining removes those suspended particles that are too large to pass through the pores
of the filter bed. It takes place almost exclusively at the surface of the filter where the
impurities are straining efficiency but it also increases the resistance against the
downward water flow. Periodically the accumulated impurities have to be removed by
scraping off the top layer. In this way the operating head of the filter bed is brought
back to original value.

31
8.3 Principle of operation

Basically a slow sand filter consists of a tank. open at the top and containing the bed of
sand. The depth of the tank is about 3 m and the area can very from a few tens to several
hundreds of square metes. At the bottom of the tank an under drain system (the “filter
bottom”) is placed to support the filter bed. The bed is composed of fine sand, usually
ungraded, free from clay and loam, and with as little as possible organic matter in it.

The filter bed normally is (1.0-1.2) m thick and the water to be treated (the “supernatant
water “) stands to a depth of 1.0-1.5 m above the filter bed.

Generally, the slow sand filter is provided with a number of influent and effluent lines
fitted with valves and control devices. These have the function of keeping both raw
water level and the filtration rate constant.

8.4 Design considerations

For the actual design of a slow sand filter four dimensions

have to be chosen in advance
a. the depth the filter bed
b. The grain size distribution of the filter material
c. The rate of filtration
d. The depth of supernatant water

As far as possible, these design factors should be based on experience obtained with
existing treatment plants which use the same water source of water of comparable
nature.
Following procedure could be suggested in order to design a slow sand filter which is
capable to a rural water supply scheme

32
(a) For the initial design, the bed thickness is chosen at 1.0-1.2m. This is sufficient
to allow for the necessary filter bed scrapings before the maximum thickness of
0.7m is reached.
(b) Analyse the grain size distribution of locally available sand and determine the
effective size and coefficient of uniformity. (see fig 8.2)

Select sand with an effective size of about 0.2. When such sand is not available a
coefficient of uniformity up to 5 may be accepted, and an effective size of the sand
ranging from 0.15 to 0.35mm. Alternatively burnt rice husks of 0.3 to 1.0mm size
are used.

(c) For the initial design fix the depth of supernatant water at between 1.0 m and 1.5 m

33
 (d) Provide at least 2 and preferably 3 filter units. The combined surface area
should be so large that with one filter out of operation for cleaning, the
filtration rate in the operating units will not exceed 0.2m/hr.
(e) Provide space for additional filter units
(f) As soon as operations start, carefully note the length of the filter urns. An
average filter run of about 2 months is most appropriate. When filter runs prove
to be much longer, filtration rates can be raised allowing a greater plant out put.
If filter runs are shorter than expected, additional units will have to be
constructed at an earlier date than was anticipated

In slow sand filters water pressure under/below atmospheric (under-pressure) must be

avoided under all circumstances as this might give serious problems. Air bubbles would
form and accumulate in the filter bed increasing. The resistance against filtration flow.
Air bubbles of large size may even break up the filter bed and create fissures through
which the water would pass without adequate purification. The minimum allowable
head loss over the filter bed at the minimum filtration rate. In order to make the
occurrence of under-pressure completely impossible, and over flow weir way be
provided in the effluent line. The difference in level between the supernatant water and
overflow weir should not exceeded the maximum allowable head loss plus the head
losses in the effluent piping, again for the minimum rate of filtration.

8.5 Construction

As regards the construction of a slow sand filter, various elements may be distinguished
the most important being the filter tank, the filter bottom, the filter bed, the supernatant
water and the influent and effluent lines. Attention should also be given to the layout of
the slow sand filtration plant as a whole.

34
A very simple slow sand filter which suites to a rural water supply scheme, which is
constructed in ground is shown in fig (8.3)

8.6 Cleaning

The time proven method of cleaning a slow sand filter is by scraping off the sand surface
with hand shovels to remove the top layer of dirty sand over a depth of 1.5-2.0 cm. The
scraped off mixture of sand and impurities is piled in ridges of the filter using barrows or
hand-carts wheeled over wooden planks. It may also be taken out of the filter with the
help of baskets hosted up with rope and tackle.

The penetration of the impurities in the tilter bed is largely contained to the upper layer.
Scraping away the top layer removes the major part of the clogging but some will
remains the deeper layer of the filter bed. These deposits accumulate little by little and
also penetrate gradually deeper into the filter bed. This could cause problems if the sand
remains place for a long time. When after many scrapings the minimum filter bed
thickness is reduced, it is therefore necessary to remove an additional 0.3m of the filter
sand before the new sand is brought in. The removed sand layer contains all the
organisms necessary for the proper biochemical functioning of the slow sand filter and
should be placed on top of the new sand in order to promote the ripening process. (See
fig 8.4)

35
 HANDOUT 9

RAPID FILTRATION

9.1 Introduction

For rapid filtration, sand is commonly used as the filter medium but the process is
quite different from slow sand filtration. This is so because much courser sand is used
with an effective grain size in the range 0.4-1.2 mm, and the filtration rate is much
higher, generally between 5-15m3/m3/hr. Due to the course sound used, the process of
the filter bed will be relatively large and the impurities contained in the raw water will
penetrate deep into the filter bed. Thus the capacity of the filter bed to store deposited
impurities is much more effectively utilized and even very turbid river water can be
treated with rapid filtration. For cleaning a rapid filter bed, it is not sufficient to
scrape off the top layer. Cleaning of rapid filters is effected by back washing. This is
directing a high rate flow of water back through the filter bed where by it expands and
is scoured. The back wash water carries the deposited cloggings out of the filter. The
cleaning of a rapid filter can be carried out quickly, it need not take more than about
half an hour. It can be done as frequently as required, if necessary each day.

In the treatment of groundwater, rapid filtration is used for the removal of iron and
manganese. To assist the filtration process, aeration is frequently provided as a
pretreatment to form insoluble compounds of iron & manganese.

However, because of their complex design and construction, and the need for expert
operation rapid filters are not very well suited for application in rural community
water supply scheme.

9.2 Roughing Filtration

Some time a more limited treatment than rapid filtration using a sand beds, can be
adequate for treating the raw water. This can be obtained by using gravel or plant
fibers as filter material. Roughing filter have large pores that are not liable to clog
rapidly. A high rate of filtration up to 20m/hr, may be used.

36
The large pores also allow cleaning at relatively low back-wash rates since no
expansion of the filter bed is needed. The back washing of roughing filters takes a
relatively long time, about 20-30 minutes.
Another possibility is the use of horizontal filter as shown in fig (9.1)

These have a depth of 1-2m subdivided into three zones, each a bout 5m long and
composed of gravel with sizes of 20-30mm, 15-20mm, and 10-15mm. The horizontal
water flow rate computed over the full depth will be 0.5-1.0 m/hr. A large area will
be required, but the advantage is that clogging of the filter will take place very slowly,
so that cleaning will be needed only after a period of years. This cleaning is carried
out by excavating and washing the filter material after which it is put back in place.

On the other hand coconut fiber can be suggested to use as an alternative for using
sand. In such a situation, filter bed is only 0.3-0.5m thick and the depth of the
supernatant water is about 1m. The filter is operated at rates of 0.5-1.0m/hr which
gives a length of filter run of several weeks. To clean the filter it is first drained after
run of several weeks. To clean the filter it is first drained after which the coconut
fibers are taken out and discarded. The filter is repacked with new material that has
previously been soaked in water for 24 hours to remove as much organic matter as
possible. Coconut fiber filters appear to be able to cope with considerable fluctuations
in their loading while producing an effluent of almost constant quality. Using such
filters overall turbidity removal can be expected between 60-80 percent.

37
 HANDOUT 10

DISINFECTION

10.1 Introduction

The single most important requirement of drinking water is that it should be free from
any microorganisms that could transmit disease or illness to the consumer. Processes
such as storage, filtration reduces to varying degrees the bacterial content of water.
However these processes can not assure that the water they produce is bacteriological
safe. Final disinfections will frequently be needed. In cases where no other methods
of treatment are available, disinfections may be resorted to as a single treatment
against bacterial contamination of drinking water.

Ground water obtained from shallow dug wells contains to be the major source of
supply for rural communities. Most of surveys have revealed that dug wells become
quite frequently contaminated. Surface water source such as pounds, canals and rivers
are usually also polluted. While it is neither feasible nor always necessary to establish
complete treatment of the water from these sources, proper disinfections should at
least be provided in order to protect public health.

10.2 Chlorination technology for rural water supply

Disinfections by chlorination can give a satisfactory solution for rural & small
community water supplies. Disinfections by gaseous chlorine is generally not feasible
for small water supplies, due to the problems of applying small quantities of gas
accurately and on a continuous basis. The choice is likely to fall on chlorine
compounds.

(a) Bleaching Powder

Chlorinated lime or bleaching powder is a readily available and cheap chlorine
compound. This chemical is easy to transport and not dangerous to handle and it is
supplied in a suitable container. It is a free flowing white or yellowish powder
containing about to 37 percent available chlorine. It is unstable and will lose chlorine

38
during storage. In the presence of moisture, bleaching powder becomes corrosive, it
is necessary to use corrosion resistant containers made of wood, ceramic or plastic.
These should be stored in a dark, cool and dry place. In order to minimize the loss of
Chlorine a maximum percent of concentration is recommended for bleaching powder
solution.

(b) Disinfections of open Dug wells

As open dug well will continue to be used in considerable numbers of sources of

drinking water in rural communities, it is desirable to employ simple method for
disinfecting the water of these wells.

(c) Pot Chlorination

An earthen pot of 7 to 10 liters capacity with 6 to 8 mm diameter holes at the bottom
is half filled with pebbles and pea gravel of 20 mm size. Bleaching powder and sand
(In a 1 to 2 mixture) is placed on top of the pea gravel and then pot is further filled
with pebbles up to the neck (fig.10.1). The pot is then lowered into the well.

For a well from which water is taken at a rate of 1000-1200 l/day, a pot containing
1.5kg of bleaching powder should provide adequate chlorination for about one week.

39
Double pot system

When a single chlorination pot is used in a small house-hold well, it may be found to
give too high a chlorine content to the water ( i.e over chlorination). In such
situations, a unit consisting of two cylindrical pots one inside the other has been found
to work well. (fig. 10.2)

The inner pot is filled with a moistened mixture of 1 kg of bleaching powder with 2
kg of course sand to a little below the level of the hole and is then place inside the
outer pot. The mouth of outer pot is tried with a polythene sheet and the unit lowered
into the well with the help of rope. Such a unit can be work effectively for 2-3 weeks
in household wells of 4500 liters capacity from which water is withdrawn at a rate of
400-450l/day.

40
Proportioning Devices for pumped Supplies

When water from the source is pumped to an elevated service reservoir and supplied
by gravity to the distribution system, a bleaching powder solution may be dosed as
shown in fig 10.3.

From the bleaching powder solution prepared earlier and allowed to settle to
impurities, is filled in the solution container. It should provide a supply sufficient for
more than one-day air entry at the suction side of the pump must be prevented. It is
necessary to close the solution feed line when the pump is stopped

41
 HANDOUT 11

TYPICAL LAYOUT DIAGRAMS FOR A

RURAL WATER SUPPLY SCHEME

Surface water treatment

11.1 Source: Stream, river, lake, irrigation channel
Water quality: Slightly polluted, Medium turbidity

Surface water with medium turbidity should initially lowered to a desired value by using a
rapid sand filter. (fig. 11.1) . Typical layout is as shown in fig 11.2. With refer to this
layout diagram, water treated from the rapid filter will then allowed to pass through sand
filters, where turbidity can be reached to the desired standards. On the other hand,
destruction of pathogens takes place while water passing through sand filters.

42
Treated water will then allowed to collect to a clear well under gravity. In order to
distribute water to the consumers, filtered water pumps could be accommodated and
using such pumps water can be pumped to a service reservoir and /or to consumers
directly. Suppose if a service reservoir is used water can be delivered to higher elevations
without any difficulty.

If the intake is located at a higher elevation compared with the distribution network, the
above mentioned layout could be used excluding raw water pumps, filtered water pumps
and the service reservoir.

If the water quality is slightly polluted with low turbidity, rapid sand filter is not needed.
Therefore layout explained under fig. 11.2 could be used without a rapid filter. However,
raw water pumps, filtered water pumps and a service reservoir could be selected while
considering the elevations of the intake, treatment units (slow sand filter) and consumer
end points.

Ground Water Treatment

11.2 Source: Ground water well (for eg: Dug well)
Water quality: Anaerobic, soft, corrosive with Iron and Manganese

Ground water could be extracted using a dug well or a tube well. To lift water a manual
pump or an electric pump can be used (fig. 11.3). If the water is without O2
(Anaerobic) it is essential to have a spray aerator to increase the oxygen content in water.
Also aerator could be used to remove dissolved CO2 (Softness). In addition ground water
may contain Iron and Manganese. Using an aerator these Irons can be oxidized to form
precipitates so that they could collect/trap in filters. If the water contains Iron and
Manganese it is possible to have spray aerator followed with a rapid filter. (fig. 11.4)

43
44
However for rural water supply schemes, use of rapid filters is rare, because of its
complex design & construction, and back washing process. It is uneconomical to use
a wash water pump with considerable investment and high operating costs. In such a
situation a good solution will be to use an elevated service reservoir for back washing
filter. No separate pumps would be needed. A typical layout is shown in fig.
(fig.11.5). This layout is ideal for a situation where water quality is anaerobic, soft
and corrosive with having Iron and Manganese.

However if the ground water is not heavily contaminated with iron and manganese,
rapid filter could be exempted. Also decision should make whether filtered pumps &
a supply reservoir are constructed for distribution of water. If the consumer points are
located at a considerably lower elevation, filtered water pumps are not required.

45
 HANDOUT 12

WATER TRANSMISSION

12.1 Introduction
Water transmission frequently forms part of a small community water supply scheme,
in that they do not differ from large schemes. The water needs to be transported form
the source to the treatment plant, if there is one, and onward to the area of distribution.
Depending on the topography and local conditions, the water may be conveyed
through

a. Free flow conduit (fig. 12.1)

b. Pressure conduits (fig. 12.2)
c. Combination of both (fig. 12.3)

46
Generally transmission of water will be either under gravity or by pumping.

Free flow conduits must be laid under a uniform slope in order to follow closely the
hydraulic grade line.

Note: - The slope of the hydraulic grade line is the Hydraulic gradient.
For open channels it is the slope of the water surface. For closed conduits
under pressure (eg. pipe lines) the hydraulic grade line slopes according to
the head loss per unit length of pipe.

Pressure pipelines can be laid up - and down hill as needed, as long as they remain a
sufficient distance below the hydraulic grade line.

For rural community water supply purposes, pipe lines are most common means of
water transmission but cannels, aqueducts and tunnels are also used. Whether for free
flow or under pressure, water transmission conduits generally require a considerable
capital investment. A careful consideration of all technical options and their costs is,
therefore, necessary when selecting the best solution in a particular case.

47
Types of water conduits

Canals
Canals generally have a trapezoidal cross section but the rectangular form is more
economical when canal traverses solid rock. Flow conditions are more or less
uniform when a channel has the same size, slope and surface lining throughout its
length.
Open channels have limited application in water supply practice in view of the
danger that the water will get contaminated. Open chanels are never appropriate for
the conveyance of treated water but they may be used for transmission of raw
water.

Aqueducts or tunnels
Aqueducts and tunnels should be of such a size that they flow about three quarters
full at the design flow rate. Tunnels for free flow water transmission frequently are
horseshoe shaped. Such tunnels are constructed to shorten the overall length of a
water transmission route, and to circumvent the need for any aqueducts and
conduits traversing uneven terrain. To reduce head losses and infiltration seepage,
tunnels are usually lined. However, when constructed in stable rock they require no
lining.

The velocity of flow in these aqueducts and tunnels ranges between 0.3-0.9m/s for
unlined conduits and up to 2m/s for lined conduits.

Free flow pipelines

In free-flow pipe lines, there being no pressure, simple materials may be used.
Glazed clay pipes, asbestos cement and concrete should be adequate. Theses
pipelines must be closely follow the hydraulic grade line.

Pressure pipelines
Obviously, the routing of pressure pipeline is much less governed by the
topography of the area to be traversed, than is the case with canals, aqueducts and
free flow pipelines. A pressure pipeline may run up and down hill, there is
considerable freedom in selecting the pipeline alignment. A routing along side
roads

48
roads or public ways is often preferred to facilitate inspection (for detection of
any leakage, un operative valves, damage, etc) and to provide ready access for
maintenance and repair.

12.2 Design Considerations

(a) Design Flow
The water demand in a distribution area will fluctuate considerable during a day.
Usually a service reservoir is provided to accumulate and even out the water
demand fluctuation. The service reservoir is supplied from the transmission main,
and is located at a suitable.

Position to be able to supply the distribution system (see fig. 12.4). The
transmission main is normally designed for the carrying capacity that is required
to supply the water demand on the maximum day at a constant rate basis. All
hourly variations in the water demand during the day of maximum consumption,
are then assumed to be leveled out by the service reservoir

The number of hours the transmission main operates per day is another important
factor. For a water supply with diesel or electric motor-driven pumps, the daily
pumping often limited to 16 or less hours. In such a case the design flow rate for
the transmission main needs to be adjusted accordingly.

49
(b) Design pressure
The design pressure, of course, is only of relevance for pressure pipe lines. Such
pipe lines generally follow the topography of the ground quite closely. Follow the
topography of the ground quite closely. The hydraulic grade line indicates the
water pressure in the pipe line under operating conditions. The hydraulic grade
line should lie above the pipe line, over its entire length, and for all rates of flow,
in fact nowhere should the operating head of water in the pipe line be less than 4m
(fig 12.5)

The pipe material must be selected to withstand the highest pressure that can occur
in the pipeline. The maximum pressure frequently does not occur under operating
conditions but it is the static pressure when the pipe is shut. In order to limit the
maximum pressure in a pipe line and, thus, the cost of the pipes, it can be divided
into sections separated by a break-pressure tank. The function of such a break-
pressure tank is to limit the static pressure by providing an open water surface at
certain places along the pipe line. The flow from the upstream section can be
throttled when necessary.

50
12.3 Hydraulic design
For a given design flow rate (Q) the velocity of flow (V) and consequently the
required size of the water transmission conduit may be consequently the required
size of the water transmission conduit may be computed using the following
formulae.

(a) Open conduits

The Mannings formula is widely used in the hydraulic design of open conduits with
free flow conditions.

⅔
V=CR I½
where: V=Average velocity of flow in water conduit (m/s)
C=Coefficient of roughness of conduit walls and bottom (mm)
R= Hydraulic radius (m)
I = Hydraulic gradient (m/m)

For design purposes, following table provides indicative values of the coefficient of
roughness for various types of linings in clean straight channels.

Type of Lining Coefficient of roughness (K)

Concrete, trowel finished 80
Masonry
• Neat cement plaster 70
• Brick work, good finish 65
• Brick work; rough 60
Excavated
• Earth 45
• Gravel 40
• Rock out, smooth 30
• Rock out, jagged 25

51
(b) Pipe lines
The most accurate formula for computing the head loss of water flowing through a
pipe line is the Universal formula as shown below

H= (8λ/ π2 g ) (Q2.L/D5)= (i)L

Where
H= Head Loss (m)
L=Length of pipe line (m)
λ =Frication coefficient
D=Internal pipe diameter (m)
Q=Flow rate (m3/s)
g=Gravitational factor (≈9.8 m/s2)
q.= Hydraulic gradient (m/m or m/km)

The factor λ is the friction coefficient which is a function of the pipe all roughness
(K), the (kinematics) viscosity of water (υ), the flow velocity (V), and the internal
pipe diameter (D). However it can be easily found using tables and monograms
prepared for different values of pipe wall roughness.

12.4 Pipe Materials

Pipe lines frequently represent a considerable investment, and selection of the right
type of pipe is important. Pips are available in various materials, sizes and pressures
classes. The most common materials are cast iron (C.I) ductile iron, steel, asbestos
cement (A.C). Poly Vinyl Chloride (P.V.C.) and High density polyethylene (P.E).

A part form these, indigenous materials such as bamboo some times have limited
application. The suitability of any type of pipe in a given situation is influenced by its
availability on the market, cost, available diameters and pressure a classes and
susceptibility to corrosion or mechanical damage

52
Generally for pipelines of small diameter (less than 150 mm) P.E. and P.V.C may be
the best. For medium size pipe lines (diameters upto 300 mm to 400 mm) asbestos
cement should be considered. Cast Iron, ductile iron and steel are generally only used
for large diameter mains, and also in cases where very high-pressures necessaries their
use in small diameter pipes.

Following Table 12.1 lists the comparative characteristics of pipe materials for
pipelines.

Table 12.1
Comparison of pipe materials
Pipe P.V.C A.C C.I and D.I. Steel Cement
material & P.E Unlined Cement Unlined lined
lined
1 Cost of pipe + + - - - -
2 Availability - +- + + + +
of large
diameters
3 Mechanical +- + ++ ++ ++ ++
strength
4 Resistance + - ++ ++ ++ ++
against
bursting
when
illegally
tapped
5 Corrosion ++ +- +- + - +
resistance

++: Very well suited

+ : Well suited
+- : Suitable
- : Less suitable

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 Handout 13

WATER
DISTRIBUTION

13.1 Introduction

The water distribution system serves to convey the water drawn from the water source
and treated when necessary, to the point where it is delivered to the users. In rural
community water supply scheme the distribution system and any provision for water
storage (eg. Service reservoir) will kept simple. Even so, it may represent a substantial
capital investment and the design must be done properly.

Generally, the distribution system for a rural community water supply is designed to
cater for the domestic and other residential water requirements.

Service reservoirs serve to accumulate and store water during the night so that it can be
supplied during the day time hours of high water demand.

On the other hand, it is necessary to maintain a sufficient pressure in the distribution

system in order to protect it against contamination by the ingress of polluted seepage
water. For a rural community water supply scheme minimum pressure of 6m head of
water should be adequate in most instances.

13.2 Types of distribution systems

There are basically two main types of distribution system:

(1) Branched system (fig. 13.A)
(2) Looped net work system (fig. 13.B)

54
In general, branched systems are only to used for small/Rural community supplies
delivering the water mostly through public stand pipes and having few house
connections, if any. For larger distribution systems looped network grids are more
common.

Branched systems have the advantage that their design is straight forward. The
direction of the water flow in all pipes and the flow rate can be readily determined.
This is not so easy in the looped distribution network (or grid). Where each secondary
pipe can be fed from two sides.

The number and type of the points (service connections) at which the water is delivered
to the users, have considerable influence on the design of a water distribution system.

Types of service connections available are,

(a) House connection

(b) Yard connection and
(c) Public stand pipe

(a) House connection is a water service pipe connected with in-house plumbing to
one or more taps

55
(b) Yard connection is quite similar to a house connection, the only difference being
that the tap (s) are placed in the yard outside the house (s).
Generally plastic pipes (PVC or polyethylene), cost iron and galvanized steel pipes are

used for both house connections and yard connections

56
 (c) Public stand pipes have long been in use for the distribution of water, and for
reasons of costs and technical feasibility, they will have to continue serving this purpose
for a long time to come. Each stand pipe is situated at a suitable point within the
community area is order to limit the distance the water users have to go to collect their
water.

Capacity of a standpipe normally is about 14-18-l/ minute at each out let. Public
standpipes can have one or more taps (see fig. 12.2)
Single tap and double tap standpipes are the most common types suited for rural areas.
They are made of brickwork, masonry, concrete, or use wooden poles and similar
materials.

57
Public standpipes are really the only practical option for water distribution at
minimum cost to a large number of people who cannot afford the much higher costs of
house or yard connections. The housing infact, is frequently not suitably construct to
allow the installation of internal plumbing. Further more, it would often be
impossible for a rural community to obtain the substantial capital for a water
distribution system with house connections. Also, the costs of adequate disposal of
the considerable amount of wastewater generated by a house-connected water supply
service would place an additional heavy financial burden on the rural community.
Consequently, public standpipes will have to be provided and the principle concern
should be to lesson their inherent shortcomings as such as possible.

13.3 Design Considerations

The daily water demand in a community area will vary during the year due to seasonal
pattern of the climate, the work situation (eg harvest time) and other factors such as
cultural or religious occasions. The max daily demand is usually estimated by adding
10 to 30 percent to the average daily demand. Thus peak factor for daily water
demand (K1) is taken as 1.1 to 1.3.

The hourly variation in the water demand during the day is frequently much greater.
Generally two peak periods can be observed, one in the morning and one in the
afternoon (fig. 13-3)

58
The peak hour demand can be expressed as the average hourly demand multiplied by
the hourly peak factor (K2). The hourly peak factor tends to be very high for small
rural community, it is usually less for larger communities. Usually K2 is chosen in the
1.5-2.0 range. A water distribution system typically is designed to cater for the
maximum hourly demand. This peak hour demand may be computed as
K1xK2 x Average hourly demand.

13.4 Storage reservoir

If there would be no storage of water in the distribution area, the source of supply and
the water treatment plant would have to be able to follow all fluctuations at the water
demand of the community served. This is generally not economical, and some times
not even technically feasible.

The design capacities of the various components of a water supply system are usually
as shown in fig. 13.4

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System component Design capacity

• Water source, raw water main Peak day water demand

water treatment plant

• Distribution system Peak hour water demand

The service reservoir is provided to balance the (constant) supply rate from the
source/treatment plant with the fluctuating water demand in the distribution area. The
storage volume should be large enough to accommodate the cumulative difference
between water supply and demand.

Example
For a particular distribution area, the average daily water demand is estimated as
500,000l/day.

Q avg = 500,000 l/d

Q peak= 1.2 x 500,000=600,000 l/d

q avg hour on peak day = 600,000/24

= 25,000l/d

q peak hour = 1.8 x 25,000 l/d

= 45,000 l/d

This estimated hourly demand is expressed as a percentage of the total demand over
the peak day and plotted in cumulative water demand curve (fig. 13.5)

60
Constant supply is drawn in the same diagram as a straight line.

The required volume of storage can now be read from the graph.

For a constant –rate supply, 24-hour day, the required storage is represented by A-A'
plus B-B' (About 28% of the total peak day demand)

If supply capacity is so high that daily demand can be met with 12 hours pumping a day,
the required storage is found to be C-C' plus D-D' (about 22% of the total peak day
demand).

The reservoir should be situated as close to the distribution area as possible. It should be
situated at a higher elevation than the distribution area. If such a site is available only at
some distance, the reservoir should place there fig 13.6 shows two possible
arrangements.

61
In flat areas where no suitable hill sites or other high points for ground reservoirs are
available, water towers or elevated tanks have to be used. In principle, such towers or
tank should have the same storage volumes as a ground reservoir. However, water
towers and elevated tanks have relatively small volumes because they are much more
costly construct than a ground reservoir.

Ground reservoirs of some size are normally of reinforced concrete, small ones can be
made of mass concrete or brick masonry. Elevated reservoirs are of reinforced concrete
or brickwork on concrete columns. Example of a small service reservoir is shown in
fig 13.7

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13.5 Distribution System design

After establishing the general layout of a distribution system and its main
components, the distribution area should be divided into a number of sectors
according to topography, land use classification and density of population.
Boundaries may be drawn along rivers roads, high points or other features which
distinguish each sector. The distribution mains and secondary pipes can the than be
plotted in the plan.

Once all sectors are fixed, the population number for each sector can be estimated or
computed form any data available. The water demand by sector is than computed
using per capita water usage figures for domestic water consumption and selected
values for the other, non-domestic water requirements. Having determined the draw
offs in the nodal points, a flow distribution over the various pipes can be assumed
and the required pipe diameters estimated. One may to make the first assumption for
the required pipe diameters is to make imaginary sections over the entire distribution
network.

The total water demand at the down stream end of the section being known, the
selected design velocity of flows gives a first estimate of the total cross sectional area
of the pipes that are cut by imaginary section (Fig. 13.8)

63
The individual pipes can then be so sized that together they would provide the required
cross sectional area.

For the preliminary design of simple distribution systems, a quite simple method may
be employed using the water consumption rate per linear meter of distribution pipe.

The following example illustrates this simplified design method. (Fig. 13.9)

64
 Design data
Number of persons serve = 1750
Total length of pipes = 600m
Average daily water use 50l/day/person
Daily water demand peak factor K1 = 1.2
Hourly water demand peak factor K2 = 1.5

Calculation
Average flow of water carried by QAvg = 1750x50=87500 l/d
Distribution system
= 1.0 l/s

Peal flow carried by the system Q peak = 1.2 x 1.5 x 1.0

= 1.8l/s
Water use rate per linear meter of distribution system

q unit = 1.8/600=0.003 l/s/m

Multiplying the cumulative length of pipe for each individual section, with the unit
flow rate gives the tentative design flow from which the pipe diameter can be
computed for a selected velocity of flow. The maximum flow carried by plastic pipes
is for a design velocity of 0.75 m/s tabulated in following Table 12.1

Diameter Max. Flow Hydraulic

(mm) (l/s) gradient
30 0.6 0.023
40 0.9 0.020
50 1.5 0.015
60 2.1 0.011
80 3.4 0.009
100 6.0 0.007
150 13.3 0.004

Table 13.1: Maximum carrying capacity of plastic pipes (for V=0.75m/s)

65
Tentative determination of pipe size in distribution system
Section length Cumulative Design flow Pipe diameter
(m) length (m) (l/s) (mm)
A-C 80 80 0.24 30
B-C 80 80 0.24 30
C-F 100 260 0.78 40
D-E 100 100 0.30 30
E-F 80 180 0.54 30
F-C 160 600 1.86 60

13.6 Pipe materials

The pipes commonly used in small rural community water distribution systems are of
Cast Iron (C.I), asbestos cement (A.C), rigid polyvinyl chloride (P.V.C.) and flexible
polyethylene (P.E) plastic.

C.I. pipes have been and continue to be used in spite of their high initial cost because
they have a long service life and require hardly any maintenance. C.I. is corrosion
resistant even for water that is somewhat corrosive. For more protection a coating
may be applied.

Asbestos cement pipes are very corrosion resistant, light and easy to handle. They
are widely used in sizes up to 300mm mainly for secondary pipes and for low-
pressure mains.

66
Table 13.2 is provided for ready reference on the available diameters and pressure
classes for various types of pipes.

Material Class Test Working Diameter

pressure of pressure Available size
m water m of water range (mm)
A 120 60 50-900
C.I A 180 90 50-900
B 240 120 50-900
5 50 25 80-300
A.C 10 100 50 80-300
15 150 75 80-300
2.5 kg/cm2 50 25 90-315
P.V.C 4.0 80 40 50-315
6.0 120 60 40-315
10.0 200 100 16-125

Table 13.2: Pipe material selection data

67
Handout 13
13.0 Typical layout diagrams for a Rural Water Supply Scheme

Surface water treatment

13.1 Source: Stream, river, lake, irrigation channel
Water quality: Slightly polluted, Medium turbidity

Surface water with medium turbidity should initially lowered to a desired value by
using a rapid sand filter. (fig. 13.1) . Typical layout is as shown in fig 13.2. With
refer to this layout diagram, water treated from the rapid filter will then allowed to
pass through sand filters, where turbidity can be reached to the desired standards. On
the other hand, destruction of pathogens takes place while water passing through sand
filters.

68
 PROPOSED COURSE CONTENT

TITLE OF TRAINING COURSE: Design of Rural Water Supply Schemes

TARGET GROUP: Engineering Assistant- RWS Section

DURATION: Five (05) Days

CONTENT : 1. Course Introduction - 1hr

2. Rural Water Supply in Sri Lanka
(An over view) - 1½
hrs
3. Handout 1

A) Surface Water Sources

(Types, Flow, Identification,
Selection, Protection etc.) - 1½

B) Ground Water Sources

(Basic concepts of Ground Water
Flow, Types of wells, Identification, -
3hrs
Selection, Development and
Preservation, Maintenance of wells)

4. Handout 2

(Physical, Chemical, Biological, Parameters, - 02

hrs
effects Standards, Analysis, Surface Water
Quality and Ground Water Quality)

5. Intakes:

Design of;

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70