Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Analysis of Plane Mechanisms Study Notes For Mechanical Engineering
Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Analysis of Plane Mechanisms Study Notes For Mechanical Engineering
Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Analysis of Plane Mechanisms Study Notes For Mechanical Engineering
Let a rigid link OA, of length r rotate about a fixed point O with a uniform
angular velocity rad/s in a counter-clockwise direction OA turns through a
small angle δθ in a small interval of time δt. Then, A will travel along the
arcAA’ as shown in figure.
∴ Velocity of A relative to O
i.e., b divides the velocity vector in the same ratio as B divides the link. The
magnitude of the linear velocity of a point on the rotating body at a particular
instant is proportional to its distance fromt the axis of rotation.
From the given configuration, the coupler AB has angular velocity in the counter-
Let us take two links of a turning pair, a pin is fixed to one of the links
whereas a hole is provided in the other to fit the pin. When joined the
surface of the hole of one link will rub on the surface of pin of the other link.
The velocity of rubbing of the two surfaces will depend upon the angular
velocity of a link relative to the other.
Pin at A
The pin at A joins links AD and AB. AD being fixed, the velocity of rubbing
will depend upon the angular velocity of AB only.
Velocity of rubbing = ra ω
(counter-clockwise)
rb = Radius of pin at B
Pin at C
ω bc = ω cb (counter-clockwise)
ω dc = ω cd (clockwise)
rc = Radius of pin at C
Velocity of rubbing = rc (ω bc + ω dc )
Pin at D
where, rd = radius of pin at D
Velocity of rubbing = rd ω cd
Centro
Primary Centro One which can be easily located by a mere observation of the
mechanism.
It state that if three bodies are in relative motion with respect to one
another, the three relative instantaneous centers of velocity ar collinear.
The link AR rotate clockwise and the slider moves radially outward.
The link rotate counter clockwise and the slider moves radially inwards.
Acceleration of slider (f) is positive if
Slider has a deceleration while moving in the inward direction.
Slider has acceleration while moving in the outward direction.
Linkages are the basic building blocks of all mechanisms. All common forms of
mechanisms (cams, gears, belts, chains) are in fact variations on a common
theme of linkages. Linkages are made up of links and joints.
F +(-ma G ) = 0
TeG +(-I G α) = 0
Fi = -ma G
This reflects the fact that a body resists any change in its velocity by an
inertia force proportional to the mass of the body and its acceleration. The
inertia force acts through the center of mass G of the body. The inertia
torque or inertia couple C, is given by:
C i = -I G α
∑T P = ∑TeP + C i + R PG × F t = 0
For a body in plane motion in the xy plane with all external forces in that plane.
Where a Gx and a Gy are the x and y components of a G . These are three scalar
equations, where the sign convention for torques and angular accelerations
is based on a right-hand xyz coordinate system; that is. Counterclockwise
is positive and clockwise is negative. The general moment summation
about arbitrary point P,
Where RPGx and RPGy are the x and y components of position vector RPG . This
expression for dynamic moment equilibrium will be useful in the analyses to be
presented in the following sections of this chapter.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
Figure (A) Derivation of the equivalent offset inertia force associated with
planer motion of a rigid body.
Figure(B) Replacement of the inertia torque by a couple.
Figure(C) The strategic choice of a couple.
Figure(D) The single force is equivalent to the combination of a force and a
torque in figure (A)
Otherwise, the couple is arbitrary and there are an infinite number of p ossibilities
that will work. Furthermore, the couple can be placed anywhere in the plane.
Figure C shows a special case of the couple, where force vector Q is equal
to ma G and acts through the center of mass. Force (- Q) must then be placed as
shown to produce a clockwise sense and at a distance;
Force Q will cancel with the inertia force Fi = - ma G , leaving the single equivalent
offset force, which has the following characteristics:
The usefulness of this approach for graphical force analysis will be demonstrated
in the following section. It should be emphasized, however, that this approach is
usually unnecessary in analytical solutions.. Including the original inertia force
and inertia torque, can be applied directly.
Where T is the input torque on the crank. This set of equations embodies
both of the dynamic-force analysis approaches described in Newton's
Laws. However, its form is best suited for the case of known mechanism
motion, as illustrated by the following example.
Definitions Related to Cam: The following terminologies are used to draw cam
profile
Base Circle: The base circle is the smallest circle (with its centre at the
cam centre) that can be drawn tangential to the cam profile.
Trace Point: A trace point is a theoretical point on the follower, its motion
describing the movement of the follower.
e.g., for a knife edge follower, the trace point is at the knife edge.
Pitch Curve: It is the curve drawn by the trace point assuming that
the cam is fixed and the trace point of the follower rotates around
the cam.
Pressure Angle:It represents the steepness of the cam profile. The angle
between the direction of the follower movement and the normal to the pitch
curve at any point is referred to as the pressure angle.
Key Points
Prime Circle
The following terms are used with reference to the angular motion of the cam
Angle of Ascent (ϕ a ): It is the angle through which the cam turns during
the time the follower rises.
Angle of Dwell (f) Angle of dwell is the angle through which the cam turns
while the follower remains stationery at the highest or the lowest position.
rn = Radius of nose
rr = Radius of roller
The maximum and minimum velocity can be calculated. When the location of
roller on the flank as
rn = Radius of nose
rr = Radius of roller
At θ = β, (β be the angle turned by the cam when the roller loss the flank)
V min = 0 At θ = 0
Acceleration
Roller on the Nose
∴ l = rn + rr
and n = r c + rr
Circular Arc (convex) Cam (with flat-faced follower)
Follower Touching Circular Flank
Acceleration
Follower on the Nose
v is maximum when the follower just touches the nose of the cam.
f = -ω 2 r cos(α-θ)
Gears is a positive drive which transmits exact velocity ratio from one shaft
to another shaft, gear drive is used when the distance between driver and
follower is very less, when two or more gears are made to mesh with each
other to transmit power from one shaft to another, the combination is
calledgear trains.
Gears
Gears are used to transmit motion from one shaft to another or between a
shaft and slide. It is a higher pair mechanism. Gear use to intermediate link
or connector and transmit the motion by direct contact.
Gear Terminology
d = pitch diameter
T = number of teeth
Diametrical Pitch (P)
It is the number of teeth per unit length of the pitch circle diameter in inches.
Module (m)
It is the ratio of pitch diameter in mm to the number of teeth. The term is used SI
units in place of diametrical pitch.
It is the ratio of the number of teeth on the gear to that on the pinion.
where, T = number of teeth on the gear
Velocity Ratio
The velocity ratio is defined as the ratio of the angular velocity of the follower to
the angular velocity of the driver gear.
The following standard proportions are used in 20° full depth system
Standard Proportions
o Addendum h a = m
o Clearance C = 0.25 m
o Whole depth h = 2.25 m
o Tooth space = 1.5700 m
o Dedendum hf = 1.25 m
o Working depth hk = 2m
o Tooth thickness (s) = 1.5708 m
o Fillet radius = 0.4 m
Form of Teeth: The form of teeth in a gear system can be as follows.
Conjugate Teeth: Two curves of any arbitrary shape that fulfill the law of
gearing can be used as the profiles of teeth. Such a gear The profiles of
tooths which are generally used given as
Cycloidal Profile Teeth: As cycloid is the locus of a point on the
circumference of a circle that rolls without slipping on a fixed straight line In
this type, the faces of the teeth are epicycloids and the flanks the
hypocycloids.
Epicycloid Teeth: An epicycloid is the locus of point on the circumference
of a circle that rolls without slipping on a fixed straight line.
An involute is defined as the locus of a point on a straight line which rolls without
slipping on the circumference of a circle. From figure at the start the tracing point
is at A as the rolls on the circumference of the circle, the path ABC traced out by
the point A is the involute.
Cyclodial Teeth
o Pressure angle maximum at beginning of engagement, then reduce
to zero at pitch point and again maximum at end of engagement.
o Less smooth running of gears.
o Involve double curve, epicycloid and hypocycloid for the teeth
o Costier manufacturing
o Exact centre distance is reuired to transmit a constant velocity ratio.
o Phenomenon of interference does not occur at all.
o Spreading flank teeth and strong.
o Convex flank always has contact with a concave face resulting in
less wear.
Involute Teeth
o Pressure angle is constant throughtout the engagement of teeth.
o Smooth running of gears.
o Involve single curve
o Cheaper manufacturing
o A little variation in centre distance does not effect the velocity ratio
o Interference can occur if the condition of minimum number of teeth
on a gear is not followed.
o Raidal flank teeth and weaker compare to cycloidal.
o Two convex surfaces are in contact and thus there is more wear.
Methods of Gear Manufacturing
o Casting, blanking, machining.
o For power transmitting gears (made of steel), the following methods
generally used are milling, rack generation, hobbing, fellow gear
shaper method.
o For good accuracy and surface finish following finishing process are
used grinding, lapping, sharing, barnishing.
According to the figure, the path of the contact is given by the relation
where, r = pitch circle radius of pinion
Arc of Contact
From the figure, the arc of the contact as given by
arc
(p = circular pitch)
To avoid interference GE ≥ a r m
For standard
addendum,
Undercutting
When gear teeth are produced such that interference is eliminated then this effect
is called undercutting.
Gear Train
A gear train is a combination of gears used to transmit motion from one shaft to
another. Gear trains are used to speed up or stepped down the speed of driven
shaft. The following are main types of gear trains.
Series of gears, capable of receiving and transmitting motion from one gear to
another is called a simple gear train.
Train value
Speed ratio
The intermediate gears have no effect on the speed ratio and therefore they are
known as idlers.
When a series of gears are connected in such a way that two or more gears
rotate about an axis with the same angular velocity.
Train
value
If the axis of first and last wheel of a compound gear coincide, it is called
asreverted gear train.
Train valve,
If r is the pitch circle radius of a gear
r1 r2 = r3 + r4
Planetary or Epicyclic Gear Train
o A gear train having a relative motion of axes is called a planetary or
an epicyclic gear train. In an epicyclic train, the axis of at least one of
the gears also moves relative to the frame.
o If the arm a is fixed the wheels S and P constitute a simple train.
However if the wheel S is fixed so that arm a can rotate about the
axis of S. The P would be moved around S therefore it is an epicyclic
train.
Let NS, Na , Np , and N A be the speeds and T S, T a , Tp , and T A the external transmitted
by S, a, P and A
∑T = 0
TS + Ta + Tp + TA = 0
Since planet P can rotate on its our pin fixed to a but is not connected to anything
outside.
Tp = 0
TS + Ta + T A = 0
TS NS + TaN a + T AN A = 0
If efficiency η to deliver power to S.
Tabular Method
Flywheel
ω max and ω min are the maximum and minimum angular speed respectively.
E = kinematic energy of the flywheel at mean speed.
If t = thickness of job
v = velocity of tool
s = stroke of the punch (2r)
Maximum fluctuation of energy,
Governors
Types of Governors
The broad classification of governors is given below.
Centrifugal Governor
o In this type of governor, the action of governor depends upon the
centrifugal effects produced by the masses of two balls.
o The balls are operated by actual change of engine speed in case of
centrifugal governor.
Inertia Governor
o In this type of governor, positions of the balls are effected by the
forces set up by an angular acceleration or deceleration of the given
spindle in addition to centrifugal forces on the balls.
o The balls are operated by the rate of change of speed. So,
response of inertial governors is faster than that of centrifugal
types.
N = Speed in rpm
Height h is independent of mass of ball. As the speed increases, sensitivity
decreases.
Porter Type Governor
M = mass of sleeve
from figure,
Proell Type Governor
Taking r’ = r
Hartness Governor
In this type, balls are controlled by a spring as shown in figure. By neglecting
obliquity effects of the arms of the ball crank levers (assume θ small)
a 1 = a 2 = a, b 1 = b, c 1 = c 2 = 0
Spring force = Fs
Let s = Stiffness of the spring,
Pickering Governor
o Let, m = mass fixed to each spring
o e = distance between spindle axis and centre of mass when the
governor is at rest
o ω = angular speed of the sleeve
o f = deflection of the centre of the leaf spring for spindle speed ω
Inertial Governor
o This type of governor is a rotating governor. The inertial governor
can be shown in the figure
o r = radial distance OG
o ω = angular velocity of the disc
o v = tangential velocity of G
o Centrifugal force of the rotating mass
If the engine shaft is accelerated due to increase in speed, the ball mass does not
get accelerated at the same amount on account of its inertia, the in ertia force
being equal to
Sensitiveness of a Governor
Huning
Isochronism
If a governor is at equilibrium only for a particular speed, it is called
isochronous governor, for which we can say that an isochronous governor
is infinitely sensitive.
Stability
The effort of the governor is the mean force acting on the sleeve to raise or
lower it for a given change of speed capacity.
The power of governor is defined as the work done at the sleeve for a given
percentage change of speed.
Controlling Force
When the balls of a governor rotate in their circular path, the centrifugal
force on each ball tends to move in outwards. This is resisted by an
equal and opposite forces acting radially inwards and is known as
the Controlling force.
∴ Controlling force,
The controlling force is provided by the weight of the sleeve and balls as in
Porter governor and by the spring and weight as in Hartness governor (or
spring controlled governor).
When the graph between the controlling force (F C) as ordinate and radius of
rotation of the balls (r) as abscissa is drawn, then the graph obtained is
known as controlling force diagram.
Key Points
Balancing
Balancing is defined as the process of designing a machine in which
unbalance force is minimum. The rotating and reciprocating parts of a high
speed engine if are not properly balanced, the dynamic forces will be setup.
If the centre of mass of rotating machines does not lie on the axis of
rotation, the inertia force is given by F 1 = mω 2 e
Let a shaft carry an unbalanced mass m1 with the centre of mass located at
distance e from the axis of rotation. The shaft can be completely balancing
by adding a mass m1 at a distance e 1 from the axis of rotation diametrically
opposite to m so that,
mω 2 e = m1 ω 2 e 1
In this case RA = 0, R B = 0
The shaft will also be free from dynamic bending stress. This situation is referred
to as internal balancing.
The dynamic reactions R A and R B can be reduced to zero, by adding two
balancing masses m1 and m2 at distances e 1 and e 2 respectively from the shaft in
the same axial plane as m but on the opposite side of the axis of rotation.
m e = m 1 e 1 + m2 e 2
mea = m1 e 1 a 1 + m2 e 2 a
This situation is referred as external balancing where the entire length
of the shaft is not from dynamic bending stresses.
Static Balancing
Balancing Forces
and
= cmr ω 2 cos θ
= (1-c)mr ω 2 cos θ
Vertical component of centrifugal force which remains unbalanced
= cmr ω 2 sin θ
Secondary force
Primary forces must balance i.e., primary force polygon is enclosed.
Primary couples must balance i.e., primary couple polygon is enclosed.
Secondary forces must balance i.e., secondary force polygon is enclosed.
Secondary couples must balance i.e., secondary couple polygon is
enclosed.
The in-line engine is a multi-cylinder engine in which the line of stroke of all
reciprocating parts are placed parallel to each other. The net force acting
on inline is equal to zero. For this, the line of action of the forces must be
same, or in other words, the centre of mass of the system lie on the line.
Primary force = mr ω 2 [cos θ + cos(180°+θ)]=0
Primary couple = mr ω 2 l cos θ
Primary couple
Balancing of V-Engines
Primary Force
o Total primary force along x-axis = 2 mr ω 2 cos 2 α cos θ
o Total primary force along z-axis = 2 mr ω 2 sin 2 α cos θ
o Resultant primary force
In case of 2α = 90°
tanβ = tanθ
and resultant force = mr ω 2 i.e., β=θ or it acts along the crank and it can be
complete balance volume by diametrically opposite mass such that mr rr = mr.
Secondary Force
If 2α = 90° or α = 45°
Secondary force
tanβ’ = ∞ ⇒ β’=90
This means that at α = 45 o , the force out along z-axis and is a harmonic force and
special methods are needed to balance it.
Component of centrifugal force due to rotating mass along the line of stroke are
given below
Due to mass at
Due to mass at
Thus total force along line of stroke = mr ω 2 cosθ
Component of centrifugal force due to rotating mass along the line of stroke are
given below
Due to mass at
Due to mass at
A gyroscope has three axes. First, a spin axis, which defines the gyroscope
strength or moment. Let us call the other two the primary axis and the secondary
axis. These three axis are orthogonal to each other.
The spin axis rotates around the vertical line. The primary axis rotates the whole
gyroscope in the plane of the page, and the secondary axis rotates the gyroscope
up-and-over into the page.
PP = - P S
i.e. the work done on one axis must appear on the other.
First apply a forcing torque to the primary axis; at this stage in the argument
imagine that the primary axis presents no stiffness against the forcing torque.
The secondary axis would precess at an infinite frequency, but for a limiting
mechanism that comes into play; just as torque creates precession, so precession
creates torque.
So as the secondary axis precesses it creates a reverse torque T PF on the primary
axis:
T PF = -v S.G
The precession rate always runs at that point where T PF is exactly equal and
opposite to T P. At this point:
T PF = -v S.G
= - (T P / G).G
= - TP
The reverse torque generated by the precession exactly opposes the applied
torque so that the net torque is zero. If it was more the work would be done by the
gyroscope. If it was less the primary axis would give way under the applied torque
and work would be done with no outlet for it. Both conditions violate conservation
of energy principles.
If the secondary axis is locked against rotation and the primary axis is driven, no
opposing torque will appear on the primary axis, it is free to rotate without
hindrance.
No work is transferred through the gyroscope; there is motion without torque on
the primary axis.
The secondary axis has no motion; it is locked but instead experiences a torque
T SF :
T SF = v P.G
Introduction of Vibrations
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Vibrations: Vibration refers to mechanical oscillations about an equilibrium point.
In its simplest form, vibration can be considered to be the oscillation or repetitive
motion of an object around an equilibrium position.
Time Period: Time taken for one oscillation is called time period.
Simple Pendulum: If time period of the pendulum is 1s, then pendulum is called
simple pendulum.
[large amplitude (θ 0 )]
If the time period of a simple pendulum is 2s, it is called second pendulum.
If a simple pendulum is in a carriage which is accelerating with
accelerationa r then g eff = g-a
If the acceleration a is upward
g eff = g+a
Free vibration: When there is no external force acts on the body after giving an initial
displacement, then the body is said to be under free or natural vibration.
Forced vibration: When the body vibrates under the influence of external force the body
is said to be under forced vibration. The frequency of forced vibration is called forced
frequency.
Notes:
then , ,
Note that as ω → 0, .
motion), since is the distance a force of F 0 would stretch a spring with spring
constant k.
Plugging this value of the frequency into the amplitude formula gives us:
If , then the maximum value of R occurs for ω = 0.
Resonance is the name for the phenomenon when the amplitude grows very large
because the damping is relatively small and the drive frequency is close to the undriven
frequency of oscillation of the system.
Translation:
(a mass-spring system)
Solution:
Frequency:
Period:
Rotation:
(a pendulum)
Damping factor:
Solution:
C1 and C 2 are the constants that are lengthy in closed-form. They can be found
numerically by the initial conditions.
I=m(k 2 +l2 )
(a)
(b)
(c)
Time period and natural Frequency
Note:
Solution:
: Natural frequency : Period of motion
Damped system:
Underdamped solution:
Forced Vibration:
Or:
sin(ωt+φ)where and
Base excitation:
Rotating Unbalance:
Measuring devices:
The device becomes an accelerometer for low frequencies (r<0.2) and a seismometer
(r>3) for high frequencies.
Periodic Excitation: A periodic function F(t) with period T can be expressed in Fourier
series as:
Single DOF system:
where:
onvolution integral:
Damped frequency
X = constant
ωd = damped frequency
ξ = damping factor
ωn = natural frequency
Logarithmic Decrement: In an underdamped system, arithmetic ratio of two
successive oscillations is called logarithmic decrement (constant).
Since,
Logarithmic decrement,
or or In
MF [Function H(ω)]
For small values of damping, the peak can be assumed to be at which define the
quality factor.
For the peak amplitudes occur at
Vibration Isolation Study Notes for Mechanical
Engineering
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Force Transmissibility
Transmissibility of motion
Let us find the motion of the mass m in fig. when the support is given a
motion
y = y0 sin ωt → (1)
It is clear that because of the presence of damping the mass m will have a
displacement lagging behind that of the support.
Transmissibility
At resonance
The amplitude of the resonance peak decreases and the peak occurs at a
lower frequency.
Phase and resonance
The phase relationship between the driving oscillation and the the
oscillation of the object being driven is different at different frequencies.
o Below resonance they are in phase with each other.
o At resonance the phase relationship is 90 o or π/2 rad.
o Above resonance the phase relationship is 180 o or π rad.
All structures have a resonant frequency.
If you impact the structure with enough force to make it move, it will vibrate
briefly at its natural frequency.
A structure will have a resonant frequency in each of its 3 directional
planes (x, y and z, or as we call them, horizontal, vertical and axial).
Resonance serves to amplify the vibration due to whatever vibration force
is present at (or near) that resonant frequency.
It is important to note that resonance does not cause vibration, it amplifies
it.
Resonance problems occur in two primary forms. They are:
Critical speeds
Structural resonances
Stiffen the structure - This method raises the resonant frequency of the
structure.
Add mass to the structure - This method lowers the resonant frequency.
Change exciting frequency - Change the speed of the machine.
Add a dynamic absorber to the structure - This method attaches the
equivalent of a tuning fork to the structure. This attachment is tuned to
have the same resonant frequency as the structure and sets up an out -of-
phase signal that has the effect of cancelling out (reducing) the signal
being generated by the structure. The dynamic absorber must be properly
sized to handle the forces being generated.
Critical Speed
For equilibrium,
ky = m(y+e) ω 2
y→∞, when ω n = ω
Critical speed,
k = stiffness of shaft
m = Mass of rotor
rω = Re i(ωt-φ)
where,
mω 2 a = cωR
Distance of the centre of gravity from the bearing axis or whirl amplitude
Critical Speed for Multi-mas System