Theory of Machines Lab Manual 10122015 030654AM

Lab Manual Theory of Machines
(2151902)
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Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology,

Rajkot
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DARSHAN INSTITUTE OF ENGG. & TECH.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
B.E. Semester – V
Theory of Machines (2151902)
List of Experiments
Sr. Date of
Title Sign Remark
No. Performance
Performance on gravity controlled

1.
governors.
Performance on spring controlled

2.
governors.
3. Analysis of gyroscopic effect.
Measurement of mass moment of

4.
inertia.
Measurement of radius of gyration of

5.
various components.
Power measurement using

6.
dynamometers.
7. Analysis of clutch.
8. Analysis of brakes.
Dynamic force analysis of 4-bar

9. mechanism and slider crank mechanism
(Analytical Methods)
Design of flywheel for IC engine and

10.
Punch press.
Gravity Controlled Governor
Experiment
Governor Apparatus
1. INTRODUCTION:
The function of a governor is to regulate the mean speed of an engine, when there are variations in
loads e.g. when load on an engine increase or decrease, obviously its speed will, respectively
decrease or increase to the extent of variation of load. This variation of speed has to be controlled by
the governor, within small limits of mean speed. This necessitates that when the load increase and
consequently the speed decreases, the supply of fuel to the engine has to be increased accordingly to
compensate for the loss of the speed, so as to bring back the speed to the mean speed. Conversely,
when the load decreases and speed increases, the supply of fuel has to be reduced.
2. THEORY:
The function of the governor is to maintain the speed of an engine within specific limit whenever
there is a variation of load. The governor should have its mechanism working in such a way, that the
supply of fuel is automatically regulated according to the load requirement for maintaining
approximately a constant speed. This is achieved by the principle of centrifugal force. The
centrifugal type governors are based on the balancing of centrifugal force on the rotating balls by an
equal and opposite radial force, known as the controlling force.
1. Centrifugal Governors.
2. Inertia Governors.
The centrifugal governors are based on the balancing of the centrifugal force on the rotating balls by
an equal and opposite radial force, known as controlling force.
In Inertia governors the position of the balls are affected by the forces set by an angular acceleration
or deceleration of the given spindle in addition to centrifugal forces on the balls.
The apparatus is designed to exhibit the characteristics of the spring-loaded governor and centrifugal
governor. The experiments shall be performed on followings centrifugal type governors:
1. Watt governor
2. Porter governor
3. Proell governor
4. Hartnell governor
The drive unit consists of a DC motor connected to the shaft through V belt. Motor and shaft are
mounted on a rigid MS base frame in vertical position. The spindle is supported in ball bearing.
The optional governor mechanism can be mounted on spindle. The speed control unit controls the
precise speed and speed of the shaft is measured with the help of hand tachometer. A counter sunk
has been provided at the topmost bolt of the spindle. A graduated scale is fixed to measure the sleeve
lift.
The center sleeve of the Porter and Proell governors incorporates a weight sleeve to which weights
can be added. The Hartnell governor consists of a frame, spring and bell crank lever. The spring
tension can be increased or decreased to study the governor.
Department of Mechanical Engineering Theory of Machines (2151902)
Darshan Institute of Engineering and Technology, Rajkot Page. 1.1
3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
3.1 STARTING PROCEDURE:
1. Assemble the governor to be tested.
2. Complete the electrical connections.
3. Switch ON the main power.
4. Note down the initial reading of pointer on the scale.
5. Switch ON the rotary switch.
6. Slowly increase speed of governor until sleeve is lifted from its initial position by variac.
7. Let the governor be stabilized.
8. Note down the sleeve’s height and relative RPM (with help of hand tachometer).
9. Increase speed of governor in steps to get different positions of sleeve lift at different RPM.
3.2 CLOSING PROCEDURE:

1. Decrease the speed of governor gradually by bringing the variac to zero position and then
switch off the motor.
2. Switch OFF all switches.
3. Disconnect all the connections.
4. NOMENCLATURE:
a Distance of pivot to center of spindle mm
Ftheo Theoretical centrifugal force kg
Fact Actual centrifugal force Kg
g Acceleration due to gravity m/sec2
H Height of governor mm
h Final height mm
h' Initial height mm
L length of link mm
Ntheo theoretical speed of governor RPM
Nasc Actual speed of governor while ascending RPM
Ndes Actual speed of governor while descending RPM
R radius of rotation mm
w Weight of balls on one side kg
X Final height of Sleeve mm
X' height of sleeve at N rpm mm
X'' initial reading of pointer on sleeve mm
ω Angular velocity rad/sec
W Total weight on sleeve kg
W1 Weight of cast iron sleeve kg
W2 Dead weight applied on sleeve kg
W3 Weight of arms on one side kg
α Initial Angle
γ Initial Angle

Experiment No. 1
Performance on Gravity Controlled Governors.
1. Watt Governor
It is assumed that mass of the arms; links & sleeve are negligible in comparison with the mass of the
balls and are neglected in the analysis.
a a
L H
h'
R
Fc
w = mg h'
L
WATT GOVERNOR
Figure 1
GIVEN DATA:
1. Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81m/sec2

2. Length of link, L = 105 mm
3. Initial height, h' = 100 mm
4. Distance of pivot to centre of spindle, a = 52.5 mm
5. Weight of balls on one side, w = 1.498 kg
OBSERVATION TABLE:
X’’ = mm
Sr. No X’, mm Nasc, rpm Ndes, rpm

CALCULATIONS:
X  (X'  X'' )
  X 
h  h '    
  2 
h
  cos 1  
L
 a  
H     h
 tan   
60 g 1000
N theo 
2 H
R  a   Lsin  
2    N act

60
w  R  ω2
Fact 
g  1000
w R
Ftheo 
H
RESULT TABLE:
Ascending
Ntheo, ω, Ftheo,
X, mm h, mm α H, mm R, mm Fact, kg R/H
rpm rad/sec kg

Descending
Ntheo, ω, Ftheo,
X, mm h, mm α H, mm R, mm Fact, kg R/H
rpm rad/sec kg
Plot the graph for following curves:-
1. R/H vs Ntho
2. R/H vs Nact
3. X vs Ntho
4. X vs Nact
CONCLUSION:

2. Porter Governor
Porter Governor differs from Watt’s Governor only in extra sleeve weight, else is similar to Watt
Governor.
E a a
L H
h'
R
Fc
w = mg h'
Sleeve Weight L
C
W2
W1
W
2 W
PORTER GOVERNOR
Figure 2
GIVEN DATA:
 Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81m/sec2

 Length of link, L = 105 mm
 Initial height, h' = 100 mm
 Dead weight applied on sleeve, W2 = 1.011+0.542 = 1.553 kg
 Distance of pivot to center of spindle, a = 52.5 mm
 Weight of balls on one side, w = 0.749 +0.749 = 1.498 kg
 Weight of cast iron sleeve, W1 = 2.042 kg
 Weight of arms on one side W3 = 0.165 kg
OBSERVATION TABLE:
X’’ = mm

CALCULATIONS:
X  (X'  X'' )
  X 
h  h '    
  2 
h
  cos 1  
L
 a  
H     h
 tan   
R  a   Lsin  
2  N

60
w  R  ω2
Fact 
g  1000
W  W1  W2  W3
60  w  W g x1000 
N theo    
2  w H 
 W 
Ftheo   w  1  k   tan (k = 1)   w  W   tan α 
 2 
RESULT TABLE
Ascending
Ntheo, ω, Fact, Ftheo,

X, mm h, mm α H, mm R, mm W, kg R/H
rpm rad/sec kg kg

Descending
Ntheo, ω, Fact, Ftheo,

X, mm h, mm α H, mm R, mm W, kg R/H
rpm rad/sec kg kg
Plot the graph for following curves: -
1. R/H vs Ntho
2. R/H vs Nact
3. X vs Ntho
4. X vs Nact
CONCLUSION:

3. Proell Governor
a a
E
H
R
G h'
Fc L
B
w = mg
h'
Sleeve Weight L
C
O D
W2
W1
W W
2
PROELL GOVERNOR
Figure 3
GIVEN DATA:

 Initial height, h' = 100 mm
 Distance of pivot to center of spindle, a = 52.5 mm
 Weight of balls on one side, w = 0.506 +0.506 = 1.012 kg
 Dead weight applied on sleeve, W2 = 0.542 + 1.011 = 1.553 kg
 Weight of arms on one side W3 = 0.165 kg
 Displacement between points G & C of lower link, GC = 155.33 mm
 Initial Angle γ’ = 23.6110
 Initial Angle, α’ = 17.7530
OBSERVATION TABLE:
X’’ = mm

CALCULATIONS:
X  (X'  X'' )
  X 
h  h '    
  2 
h
  cos 1  
L
 a  
H     h
 tan   
   α  α'   γ'
R  a   GCsin  
2  N

60
w  R  2
Fact 
g  1000
DG   GC  cos γ 
  X 
BD  h '    
  2 
W  W1  W2  W3
 BD tan  
Ftheo  W  2 w    w  tan  
 GC cos  
60  F  g  1000 
N theo    theo 
2  wR 
CALCULATIONS TABLE
Ascending

X, h, H, R, ω, Fact, DG, BD, W, Ftheo, Ntheo,

α ϒ R/H
mm mm mm mm rad/s kg mm mm kg kg RPM
Descending
X, h, H, R, ω, Fact, DG, BD, W, Ftheo, Ntheo,

α ϒ R/H
mm mm mm mm rad/s kg mm mm kg kg RPM
1. R/H vs Ntho
2. R/H vs Nact
3. X vs Ntho
4. X vs Nact
CONCLUSION:

Spring Controlled Governor
Experiment No. 2
Performance on Spring Controlled Governors.
Hartnell Governor
R
SPRING
SLEEVE
WEIGHT
b
HARTNELL GOVERNOR
Figure 4
GIVEN DATA:

 Length of vertical arm, a = 75 mm
 Length of horizontal arm, b = 130 mm
 Weight of balls on one side, w = 0.362 + 0.362 = 0.724 kg
 Dead weight applied on sleeve, W2 = 0.542 + 0.441 = 0.983
 Stiffness of spring, s = 0.27 kg/mm
 Initial radius of rotation, R’ = 195 mm
OBSERVATION:
X’’ = mm
Sr. No X’, mm Nasc, rpm Ndsc, rpm

CALCULATIONS:
X  (X'  X'' )
 a
R   R'  X  
 b
2  N act

60
w  R  2
Fc 
g  1000
 a
S   2  Fc    W
 b
2
 a   Fc 
s  2   
 b   R  R' 
If  = 0, then Fc’ = 0
RESULT TABLE
Ascending
X, mm R, mm ω Fc, kg S, kg s, kg/mm

Descending
X, mm R, mm ω Fc, kg S, kg s, kg/mm
1. X vs Nact
CONCLUSION:

Gyroscope
Experiment No. 3
Analysis of gyroscopic effect of a rotating disc
AIM: Experimental justification of the equation T = I..p for calculating the gyroscopic couple by
observation and measurement of results for independent variation in applied couple T and precession
p.
INTRODUCTION:
AXIS OF SPIN:
If a body is revolving about an axis, the latter is known as axis of spin (Refer Fig.1, where OX is the
axis of spin).
PRECESSION:
Precession means the rotation about the third axis OZ (Refer Fig. 1) that is perpendicular to both the
axis of spin OX and that of couple OY.
AXIS OF PRECESSION:
The third axis OZ is perpendicular to both the axis of spin OX and that of couple OY is known as
axis of precession.
GYROSCOPIC EFFECT:
To a body revolving (or spinning) about an axis say OX, (Refer Fig.1) if a couple represented by a
vector OY perpendicular to OX is applied, then the body tries to process about an axis OZ which is
perpendicular both to OX and OY. Thus, the couple is mutually perpendicular.
The above combined effect is known as processional or gyroscopic effect.
GYROSCOPE:
It is a body while spinning about an axis is free to rotate in other directions under the action of
external forces.
Fig. 1- OX – Axis of spin, OY – Axis of Couple, OZ – Axis of Precession

Gyroscope
NOMENCLATURE
dθ Angle of precession
dt Time required for this precessions sec
g Acceleration due to gravity m/sec2
I Moment of inertia of disc kg m /sec2
L Distance of weight for the center of disc m
N Revolution of Disc spin RPM
r Radius of disc m
Tthe Theoretical Gyroscopic couple kg-m
Tact Actual Gyroscopic couple kg-m
W Weight of rotor disc kg
w Weight on pan kg
 Angular velocity of disc rad/sec
p Angular velocity of precession of yoke about vertical axis rad/sec
Fig. 2

Gyroscope
THEORY:
GYROSCOPIC COUPLE OF A PLANE DISC:
Let a disc of weight ‘W’ having a moment of inertia I be spinning at an angular velocity  about axis
OX in anticlockwise direction viewing from front (Refer Fig.2). Therefore, the angular momentum
of disc is I. Applying right–hand screw rule the sense of vector representing the angular momentum
of disc which is also a vector quantity will be in the direction OX as shown.
Fig. 3
A couple whose axis is OY perpendicular to OX and is in the plane Z, is now applied to prices the
axis OX.
Let axis OX turn through a small angular displacement from OX to OX’ in time t. The couple
applied produces a change in the direction of angular velocity, the magnitude & the magnitude
remaining constant. This change is due to the velocity of precession.
Therefore, ‘OX’ represents the angular momentum after time dt.
Change of angular momentum = OX’ – OX = XX’
X X ' OX  d
Angular displaceme nt  
dt dt
As, XX '  OX  d in direction of XX’
Now as rate of change of angular momentum
Couple applied = C = T
d
T  OX
We get dt

Gyroscope
But OX  I 
Where
I = Moment of Inertia of disc
 = Angular Velocity of disc.
d
T  I .
dt
And in the limit dt is very small
d
 P
We have dt
Where ωP = Angular velocity of precession of yoke about vertical axis.
Thus, we get –
T  I   p
The direction of the couple applied on the body is clockwise when looking in the direction XX’ and
in the limit this is perpendicular to the axis of  and of  p.
The reaction couple exerted by the body on its frame is equal in magnitude to that of C, but opposite
in direction.
DESCRIPTION:
The set up consists of heavy disc mounted on a horizontal shaft, rotated by a variable speed motor.
The rotor shaft is coupled to a motor mounted on a trunion frame having bearings in a yoke frame,
which is free to rotate about vertical axis. A weight pan on other side of disc balances the weight of
motor. Rotor disc can be move about three axis. Weight can be applied at a particular distance from
the center of rotor to calculate the applied torque. The gyroscopic couple can be determined with the
help of moment of inertia, angular speed of disc and angular speed of precession.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
 Set the rotor at zero position.

 Start the motor with the help of rotary switch.
 Increase the speed of rotor with dimmer stat & stable it & measure the R.P.M. with the help
of tachometer.
 Put the weight on weight pan then yoke rotate at anticlockwise direction.
 Measure the rotating angle (30o, 40o) with the help of stopwatch.
 Repeat the experiment for the various speeds and loads.
 After the test is over set dimmer stat to zero position and switch off main supply.

Gyroscope
OBSERVATION & CALCULATION:
GIVEN DATA:
 Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81 m/sec2

 Radius of disc, r = 0.15 m
 Weight of rotor disc, W = 5.42 kg
 Distance of weight for the center of disc, L = 0.185 m
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. N w d dt
No (RPM) (kg) (degree) (sec)
CALCULATIONS:
2   N

60
d 
p  
dt 180
W r2
I 
g 2
T the  I  p
T act wL
RESULT TABLE
Sr. No. I, kg m/sec2 , rad/sec p, rad/sec Tthe, kg m Tact, kg m
PRECAUTION & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:
 Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 200Volts and above 230 Volts
 Before start the motor set dimmer stat at zero position.
 Increase the speed gradually.
CONCLUSION:
We concluded from experiment that when the right turns under CW condition the effect of reactive
gyroscopic couple will be to dip nose and rise the tail & anticlockwise condition effect of reactive
gyroscopic couple will be to raise the nose and dip the tail.

Mass Moment of Inertia
Experiment No. 4
Measurement of mass moment of inertia of Various Components.
AIM: Measurement of mass moment of inertia of a steel bar.
NOMENCLATURE:
Kact Radius of gyration m
Ktheo Radius of gyration about the C.G. m
L Length of suspended pendulum m
N Nos. of oscillations
OG Distance of Centre of Gravity of the rod from support m
Tact Actual time period sec
Ttheo Theoretical time period sec
DESCRIPTION:
The compound pendulum consists of a steel bar. The bar is supported by knife -edge. Two
pendulums of different lengths are provided with the set-up.

 Support the rod on knife -edge.

 Note the length of suspended pendulum and determine OG.
 Allow the bar to oscillate and determine T by knowing the time for say 10 Oscillations.
 Repeat the experiment with different length of suspension.
 Complete the observation table given below.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. No. L, m m, Kg OG, m n t, sec
1 0.64 1.240 0.315 10
2 0.84 1.520 0.415 10
CALCULATIONS:
t
Tactual 
n
2
T 
  act   g  OG   OG 
2
K act
 2 
L
kTheo 
2 3
I  mk 2
CALCULATION TABLE:
Sr. No Kact, m Ktheo, m

AIM: Measurement of mass moment of inertia of a connecting rod.
DESCRIPTION:
The connecting rod is suspended by end bearing.
NOMENCLATURE:
Kact Radius of gyration m

Ktheo Radius of gyration about the C.G. m
d1 Diameter of small end bearing m
d2 Diameter of big end bearing m
L1 Length of equivalent compound pendulum when suspended from the top of small m
end bearing
L2 Length of equivalent compound pendulum when suspended from the top of big end m
bearing
h1 Distance of centre of gravity, G, from the top of small end bearing m
h2 Distance of centre of gravity, G, from the top of big end bearing m
L Centre distance of connecting rod m
G Centre of Gravity of the connecting rod
Ttheo Theoretical time period sec

 Suspend the connecting rod from small end bearing on apparatus.

 Note the centre distance between small end and big end bearing of connecting rod.
 Allow the connecting rod to oscillate and determine T by knowing the time for say 10
Oscillations.
 Repeat the experiment with connecting rod suspended from big end bearing.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Time for 10 Oscillations, t (sec)

Sr. No.
Suspended from small end bearing Suspended from big end bearing
CALCULATIONS:
For suspended from small end bearing,
Average time = sec
No. of oscillation
Frequency, f 
time
1
Time period t p1 
f
For suspended from big end bearing,
Average time = sec
No. of oscillation
Frequency, f 
time
1
Time period t p2 
f

L
Now, t p  2
g
L1
t p1  2
g
L1 =
L2
t p2  2
g
L2 =
k 2  h2
L
h
k 2  h12
L1 
h1
k 2  h2 2
L2 
h2
k 2  0.2688h1  h12
k 2  0.2243h2  h2 2
d1 d 2
h1  h2  304.5  
2 2
h1  355.2  h2
Put this value in equation (i)
k 2  95.4778  0.2688h2  126167.04  710.4h2  h2 2 
k 2  126071.56  710.13h2  h2 2
126071.56  710.13h2  h2 2  0.2243h2  h2 2
126071.56  709.9069h2
h2  177.88 mm  0.177 m
h1  355.2  177.58  177.62 mm  0.177 m
k 2  0.2688 0.1776   0.1776 2
k 2  0.0477  0.0315  0.127 m
I  mk 2

Radius of Gyration
Experiment No. 5
Measurement of Radius of Gyration of Various Components.
Part 1: To determine the radius of gyration of given plate by using Bi-Filar suspension.
Fig. 1 Bi-Filar suspension system
DESCRIPTION:
A uniform rectangular section bar is suspended from the pendulum support frame by two parallel
cords. Top ends of the cords pass through the two small chucks fitted at the top. Other ends are
secured in the Bi-Filer bar. It is possible to adjust the length of the cord by loosening the chucks.
The suspension may be used to determine the radius of gyration of any body. In this case, the body
under investigation is bolted to the center. Radius of gyration of the combined bar and body is then
determined.
 Suspend the bar from chuck, and adjust the length of the cord ‘L’ conveniently. Note that the
suspension length of each cord must be same.
 Allow the bar to oscillate about the vertical axis passing through center and measure the
periodic time T by knowing the time for say 10 oscillations.
 Repeat the experiment by mounting the weights at equal distance from center.

Radius of Gyration
NOMENCLATURE:
a Half of the distance between the two strings. m

G Acceleration due to gravity m/sec2
Kact Actual radius of gyration of Bi – Filar suspension m
Ktheo Theoretical radius of gyration of Bi – Filar suspension m
L Length of the suspended string m
T time taken for 10 oscillations sec
DATA :
a= m
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. No L, m n t, sec
CALCULATIONS:
t
Tact 
n
Tact  a
K act 
L
2
g
L
ktheo 
2 3
CALCULATION TABLE:
Sr. No Kact, m Ktheo, m

Radius of Gyration
Part 2: To determine the Radius of Gyration of Trifilar Suspension.
DESCRIPTION:
A uniform circular disc is suspended from the pendulum support frame by three parallel cords. Top
ends of the cords pass through the three small chucks fitted at the top. Other ends are secured in the
Tri-Filer disc. It is possible to adjust the length of the cord by loosening the chucks.
 Suspend the disc from chucks, and adjust the length of the cord ‘L’ conveniently.
 Note that the suspension length of each cord must be same.
 Allow the disc to oscillate about the vertical axis.
 Measure the oscillation with time.
 Repeat the experiment for different lengths & different radius.
NOMENCLATURE:
fa Actual frequency sec-1

L Length of the cord m
Kact Actual radius of gyration m
Ktheo Theoretical radius of gyration m
R Radius of disc m
T Time taken for n oscillations sec
OBSERVATION TABLE
Sr. No R, m n t, sec L, m
CALCULATIONS:
t
Tact 
n
1
fa 
T

Radius of Gyration
1 gR 2
kact 
2 f a L
L
ktheo . 
2 3
CALCULATION TABLE:
Sr. No Tact, sec fa, sec-1 Kact, m Ktheo, m
CONCLUSION

Dynamometer
Experiment No. 6
Dynamometer
INTRODUCTION
A Dynamometer is a brake but in addition it has a device to measure the frictional resistance.
Knowing the frictional resistance, may obtain the torque transmitted and hence the power of the
engine.
TYPES OF DYNAMOMETERS:
There are mainly two types of dynamometers:
1. Absorption Dynamometers: In this type, the work done is converted into heat by friction
while being measured. They can be used for the measurement of moderate powers only.
Examples are prony brake dynamometer and rope brake dynamometer.
2. Transmission Dynamometers: In this type, the work is not absorbed in the process, but is
utilised after the measurement. Examples are the belt – transmission dynamometer and the
trosion dynamometer.
PRONY BRAKE DYNAMOMETER:
Fig. 6.1
A prony brake dynamometer consists of two wooden blocks clamped together on a revolving pulley
carrying a lever (Fig. 6.1). The friction between the blocks and the pulley tends to rotate the blocks
in the direction of rotation of the shaft. However, the weight due to suspended mass at the end of the
lever prevents this tendency. The grip of the blocks over the pulley is adjusted using the bolts of the
clamp until the engine runs at the required speed. The mass added to the scale pan is such that the
arm remains horizontal in the equilibrium position; the power of the engine is thus absorbed by the
friction.
Frictional torque  W l  M g l
2N
Power of the machine under test  T   M g l
60
MNk
where k is a constant for a particular brake.
Note that the expression fro power is independent of the size of the pulley and the coefficient of
friction.

Dynamometer
ROPE BRAKE DYNAMOMETER:

In a rope brake dynamometer (Fig. 6.2), a rope is wrapped over the rim of a pulley keyed to the shaft
of the engine. The diameter of the rope depends upon the power of the machine. The spacing of the
ropes on the pulley is done by 3 to 4 U-shaped wooden blocks which also prevent the rope from
slipping off the pulley. The upper end of the rope is attached to a spring balance where as the lower
end supports the weight of suspended mass.
Power of the machine  T 
  Ft  r  
2N
 M g  s r
60
Fig. 6.2
If the power produced is high, so will be the heat produced due to friction between the rope and the
wheel, and a cooling arrangement is necessary. For this, the channel of the flywheeel usually has
flanges turned inside in which water from a ripe is supplied. An outlet pipe with a flattenend end
takes the water out.
A rope brake dynamometer is frequently used to test the power of engines. It is easy to manufacture,
inexpensive, and requires no lubrication.
If the rope is wrapped several times over the wheel, the tension on the slack side of the rope, i.e., the
spring balance reading can be reduced to a negligible value as compared to the tension of the tight
side (as T1 / T2 = eµθ and θ is increaased). Thus, one can even do away with the spring balance.
BELT TRANSMISSION DYNAMOMETER:

The belt transmission dynamometer occupies a prominent position among transmission
dynamometers. When a belt transmits power from one pulley to another, there exists a difference in
tensions between the tight and slack sides. A dynamometer measures directly the difference in
tensions (T1 – T2) while the belt is running.

Dynamometer
Fig. 6.3
Fig. 6.3 shows a Tatham dynamometer. A continuous belt runs over the driving and the driven
pulleys through two intermediate pulleys. The intermediate pulleyshave their pins fixed to a lever
with its fulcrum at the midpoint of the two pulley centres. As the lever is not pivoted at its midpoint,
a mass at the left end is used for its initial equilibrium. When the belt transmits power, the lever
tends to rotate in the counter – clockwise direction due to the difference of tensions on the tight and
slack sides. To maintain its horizontal position, a weight of the required amount is provided at the
right end of the lever. Two stops, one on each side of the lever arm, are used to limit the motion of
the lever.
Taking moments about the fulcrum,
M g l  2 T1a  2 T2a  0
M g l  2a  T1  T2   0
Mgl
T1  T2 
2a
Power, P   T1  T2  v
where v =belt speed in metres per second.
EPICYCLIC - TRAIN DYNAMOMETER:

An epicyclic – train dynamometer is another transmission type of dynamometer. As shown in Fig.
6.4, it consists of a simple epicyclic train of gears. A spur gear A is the driving wheel which drives
an annular driven wheel B through an intermediate pinion C. The intermediate gear C is mounted on
a horizontal lever, the weight of which is balanced by a counterweight at the left end when the
system is at rest. When the wheel A rotates counter – clockwise, the wheel B as well as the wheel C
rotates clockwise. Two tangential forces, each equal to F, act at the ends of the pinion C, one due to
the driving force by the wheel A and the other due to reactive force of the driven wheel B. Both
forces are equal if friction is ignored. This tends to rotate the lever in the counter – clockwise
direction and it no longer remains horizontal. To maintain it in the same position as earlier, a
balancing weight W is provided at the right end of the lever. Two stops, one on each side of the lever
arm, are used to limit the motion of the lever.

Dynamometer
Fig. 6.4
For the equilibrium of the lever,
Wl
2 Fa  Wl or F 
2a
and torque transmitted = F . r where r is the radius of the driving wheel
Thus power,
2N
P  T    F r 
60
BEVIS – GIBSON TORSION DYNAMOMETER:
Fig. 6.5
A Bevis – Gibson torsion dynamometer consists of two discs A and B, a lamp and a movable torque
finder arranged as shown in Fig. 6.5(a). The two discs are similar and are fixed to the shft at a fixed
distance from each other. Thus, the two discs revolve with the shaft. The lamp is masked and fixed
on the bearing of the shaft. The torque finder has an eyepiece capable of moving circumferentially.
Each disc has a small radial slot near its periphery. Similar slots are also made at the same radius on
the mask of the lamp and on the torque finder.

Dynamometer
When the shaft rotates freely and does not transmit any torque, all the four slots are in a line and a
ray of light from the lamp can be seen through the eyepiece after every revolution. When a torque is
transmitted, the shaft twists and the slot in the disc B shifts its position. The ray of light can no
longer pass through the four slots. However, if the eyepiece is moved circumferentially by an amount
equal to the displacement, the flash will again be visible once in each revolution of the shaft. The
eyepeice is moved by a micrometer spindle. The angle of twist may be measured up to one
hundredth of the degree.
In case the torque is varied during each revolution of the shaft as in reciprocating engines and it is
required to measure the angle of twist at different angular position, then each disc can be perforated
with several slots arranged in the form of a spiral at varying radii [Fig. 6.5(b)]. The lamp and the
torque finder have to be moved radiallly to and from the shaft so that they come opposite each pair of
slots in the discs.

Flywheel
Experiment No. 10
Design of flywheel for IC engine and Punch press
INTRODUCTION
 A flywheel used in machines serves as a reservoir, which stores energy during the period
when the supply of energy is more than the requirement, and releases it during the period
when the requirement of energy is more than the supply.
 In case of steam engines, internal combustion engines, reciprocating compressors and pumps,
the energy is developed during one stroke and the engine is to run for the whole cycle on the
energy produced during this one stroke.
 For example, in internal combustion engines, the energy is developed only during expansion
or power stroke which is much more than the engine load and no energy is being developed
during suction, compression and exhaust strokes in case of four stroke engines and during
compression in case of two stroke engines.
 The excess energy developed during power stroke is absorbed by the flywheel and releases it
to the crankshaft during other strokes in which no energy is developed, thus rotating the
crankshaft at a uniform speed.
 A little consideration will show that when the flywheel absorbs energy, its speed increases
and when it releases energy, the speed decreases. Hence a flywheel does not maintain a
constant speed, it simply reduces the fluctuation of speed.
 In other words, a flywheel controls the speed variations caused by the fluctuation of the
engine turning moment during each cycle of operation.
 In machines where the operation is intermittent like punching machines, shearing machines,
rivetting machines, crushers, etc., the flywheel stores energy from the power source during
the greater portion of the operating cycle and gives it up during a small period of the cycle.
Thus, the energy from the power source to the machines is supplied practically at a constant
rate throughout the operation.
THE TURNING MOMENT DIAGRAM (also known as crank-effort diagram) is the graphical
representation of the turning moment or crank-effort for various positions of the crank. It is plotted
on cartesian co-ordinates, in which turning moment is taken as ordinate and crank angle as abscissa.
Turning Moment Diagram for a Single Cylinder Double Acting Steam Engine
A turning moment diagram for a single cylinder double acting steam engine is shown in Fig. 10.1.
The vertical ordinate represents the turning moment and the horizontal ordinate represents the crank
angle. The turning moment on the crankshaft,
 sin 2 
T  FP  r  sin   
 2 n2  sin 2  
where FP = Piston effort,
r = Radius of crank,
n = Ratio of the connecting rod length and radius of crank, and
 = Angle turned by the crank from inner dead centre.

Flywheel
Fig. 10.1. Turning moment diagram for a single cylinder, double acting steam engine.
 From the above expression, we see that the turning moment (T ) is zero, when the crank angle
() is zero. It is maximum when the crank angle is 90° and it is again zero when crank angle
is 180°. This is shown by the curve abc in Fig. 16.1 and it represents the turning moment
diagram for outstroke. The curve cde is the turning moment diagram for instroke and is
somewhat similar to the curve abc.
 Since the work done is the product of the turning moment and the angle turned, therefore the
area of the turning moment diagram represents the work done per revolution. In actual
practice, the engine is assumed to work against the mean resisting torque, as shown by a
horizontal line AF.
 The height of the ordinate aA represents the mean height of the turning moment diagram.
Since it is assumed that the work done by the turning moment per revolution is equal to the
work done against the mean resisting torque, therefore the area of the rectangle aAFe is
proportional to the work done against the mean resisting torque.
Turning Moment Diagram for a Four Stroke Cycle Internal Combustion Engine
Fig. 10.2. Turning moment diagram for a four stroke cycle internal combustion engine.

Flywheel
 A turning moment diagram for a four stroke cycle internal combustion engine is shown in
Fig. 10.2. We know that in a four stroke cycle internal combustion engine, there is one
working stroke after the crank has turned through two revolutions, i.e. 720° (or 4π radians).
 Since the pressure inside the engine cylinder is less than the atmospheric pressure during the
suction stroke, therefore a negative loop is formed as shown in Fig. 10.2. During the
compression stroke, the work is done on the gases, therefore a higher negative loop is
obtained.
 During the expansion or working stroke, the fuel burns and the gases expand, therefore a
large positive loop is obtained. In this stroke, the work is done by the gases. During exhaust
stroke, the work is done on the gases, therefore a negative loop is formed. It may be noted
that the effect of the inertia forces on the piston is taken into account in Fig. 16.2.
Turning Moment Diagram for a Multi-cylinder Engine

 A separate turning moment diagram for a compound steam engine having three cylinders and
the resultant turning moment diagram is shown in Fig. 10.3. The resultant turning moment
diagram is the sum of the turning moment diagrams for the three cylinders.
 It may be noted that the first cylinder is the high pressure cylinder, second cylinder is the
intermediate cylinder and the third cylinder is the low pressure cylinder. The cranks, in case
of three cylinders, are usually placed at 120° to each other.
Fig. 10.3. Turning moment diagram for a multi-cylinder engine.
FLUCTUATION OF ENERGY
 The fluctuation of energy may be determined by the turning moment diagram for one
complete cycle of operation. Consider the turning moment diagram for a single cylinder
double acting steam engine as shown in Fig. 10.1. We see that the mean resisting torque line
AF cuts the turning moment diagram at points B, C, D and E. When the crank moves from a
to p, the work done by the engine is equal to the area aBp, whereas the energy required is
represented by the area aABp.

Flywheel
 In other words, the engine has done less work (equal to the area a AB) than the requirement.
This amount of energy is taken from flywheel and hence the speed of the flywheel decreases.
 Now the crank moves from p to q, the work done by the engine is equal to the area pBbCq,
whereas the requirement of energy is represented by the area pBCq. Therefore, the engine has
done more work than the requirement.
 This excess work (equal to the area BbC) is stored in the flywheel and hence the speed of the
flywheel increases while the crank moves from p to q. Similarly, when the crank moves from
q to r, more work is taken from the engine than is developed. This loss of work is represented
by the area C c D.
 To supply this loss, the flywheel gives up some of its energy and thus the speed decreases
while the crank moves from q to r. As the crank moves from r to s, excess energy is again
developed given by the area D d E and the speed again increases. As the piston moves from s
to e, again there is a loss of work and the speed decreases. The variations of energy above and
below the mean resisting torque line are called fluctuations of energy.
 The areas BbC, CcD, DdE, etc. represent fluctuations of energy. A little consideration will
show that the engine has a maximum speed either at q or at s. This is due to the fact that the
flywheel absorbs energy while the crank moves from p to q and from r to s.
 On the other hand, the engine has a minimum speed either at p or at r. The reason is that the
flywheel gives out some of its energy when the crank moves from a to p and q to r. The
difference between the maximum and the minimum energies is known as maximum
fluctuation of energy.
Determination of Maximum Fluctuation of Energy

A turning moment diagram for a multi-cylinder engine is shown by a wavy curve in Fig. 10.4. The
horizontal line AG represents the mean torque line. Let a1, a3, a5 be the areas above the mean torque
line and a2, a4 and a6 be the areas below the mean torque line. These areas represent some quantity
of energy which is either added or subtracted from the energy of the moving parts of the engine.
Let the energy in the flywheel at A = E, then from Fig. 10.4, we have
Energy at B = E + a1
Energy at C = E + a1– a2
Energy at D = E + a1 – a2 + a3
Energy at E = E + a1 – a2 + a3 – a4
Energy at F = E + a1 – a2 + a3 – a4 + a5
Energy at G = E + a1 – a2 + a3 – a4 + a5 – a6
= Energy at A (i.e. cycle repeats after G)
Let us now suppose that the greatest of these energies is at B and least at E. Therefore,
Maximum energy in flywheel = E + a1
Minimum energy in the flywheel = E + a1 – a2 + a3 – a4
Maximum fluctuation of energy,
E = Maximum energy – Minimum energy
= (E + a1) – (E + a1 – a2 + a3 – a4) = a2 – a3 + a4
Flywheel
Fig. 10.4. Determination of maximum fluctuation of energy.
COEFFICIENT OF FLUCTUATION OF ENERGY

It may be defined as the ratio of the maximum fluctuation of energy to the work done per cycle.
Mathematically, coefficient of fluctuation of energy,
Maximum fluctuation of energy
CE 
Workdone per cycle
The work done per cycle (in N-m or joules) may be obtained by using the following two relations:
1. Work done per cycle = Tmean × θ
where, Tmean = Mean torque, and
θ = Angle turned (in radians), in one revolution.
= 2π, in case of steam engine and two stroke internal combustion engines
= 4π, in case of four stroke internal combustion engines.
The mean torque (Tmean) in N-m may be obtained by using the following relation:
P  60 P
Tmean  
2 N 
where, P = Power transmitted in watts,
N = Speed in r.p.m., and
ω = Angular speed in rad/s = 2πN/60
2. The work done per cycle may also be obtained by using the following relation :
P  60
Workdone per cycle 
n
where n = Number of working strokes per minute,
= N, in case of steam engines and two stroke internal combustion engines,
= N /2, in case of four stroke internal combustion engines.
The following table shows the values of coefficient of fluctuation of energy for steam engines and
internal combustion engines.

Flywheel
COEFFICIENT OF FLUCTUATION OF SPEED

The difference between the maximum and minimum speeds during a cycle is called the maximum
fluctuation of speed. The ratio of the maximum fluctuation of speed to the mean speed is called the
coefficient of fluctuation of speed.
Let N1 and N2 = Maximum and minimum speeds in r.p.m. during the cycle, and
N1  N 2
N  Mean speed in r.p.m. 
2
Coefficient of fluctuation of speed,
N1  N 2 2( N1  N 2 )
CS  
2 N1  N 2
1  2 2(1  2 )
  (In terms of angular speeds)
 1  2
v1  v2 2(v1  v2 )
  (In terms of linear speeds)
v v1  v2
The coefficient of fluctuation of speed is a limiting factor in the design of flywheel. It varies
depending upon the nature of service to which the flywheel is employed.
The reciprocal of the coefficient of fluctuation of speed is known as coefficient of steadiness and is
denoted by m.
1 N
m 
CS N1  N 2
ENERGY STORED IN A FLYWHEEL

A flywheel is shown in Fig. 10.5. We have discussed in Art. 16.5 that when a flywheel absorbs
energy, its speed increases and when it gives up energy, its speed decreases.
Let m = Mass of the flywheel in kg,
k = Radius of gyration of the flywheel in metres,
I = Mass moment of inertia of the flywheel about its axis of rotation in kg-m2 = m.k2,
N1 and N2 = Maximum and minimum speeds during the cycle in r.p.m.,
1 and 2 = Maximum and minimum angular speeds during the cycle in rad/s,
N  N2
N  Mean speed in r.p.m.  1
2
  2
  Mean angular speed during the cycle in rad/s  1
2
N  N 2 1  2
CS  Coefficient of fluctuation of speed  1 or
N 
We know that the mean kinetic energy of the flywheel,
1 1
E  I . 2  m.k 2 . 2
2 2
As the speed of the flywheel changes from 1 to 2, the maximum fluctuation of energy,

Flywheel
E = Maximum K.E. – Minimum K.E.

1 1 1
 I .(1 )2  I .(2 )2  I (1 )2  (2 ) 2 
2 2 2
1
 I 1  2 1  2   I . 1  2  ……………………….(i)
2
   2 
 I . 2  1 
  
 I . 2CS  m.k 2 . 2CS …………………………..(ii)
 2.E.CS ….……………………….(iii)
The radius of gyration (k) may be taken equal to the mean radius of the rim (R), because the
thickness of rim is very small as compared to the diameter of rim. Therefore, substituting k = R, in
equation (ii), we have
E  m.R 2 . 2 .CS
 m.v 2 .CS
v = Mean linear velocity (i.e. at the mean radius) in m/s


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Lab Manual Theory of Machines

Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology,

This is to certify that, Mr. / Ms.__________________________

Place: _________ Date: _____________

Subject Coordinator Head of the Department

Performance on gravity controlled

Performance on spring controlled

3. Analysis of gyroscopic effect.

Measurement of mass moment of

Measurement of radius of gyration of

Power measurement using

Dynamic force analysis of 4-bar

Design of flywheel for IC engine and

3.2 CLOSING PROCEDURE:

Department of Mechanical Engineering Theory of Machines (2151902)

1. Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81m/sec2

Department of Mechanical Engineering Theory of Machines (2151902)

Department of Mechanical Engineering Theory of Machines (2151902)

Plot the graph for following curves:-

Department of Mechanical Engineering Theory of Machines (2151902)

 Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81m/sec2

Department of Mechanical Engineering Theory of Machines (2151902)

Ntheo, ω, Fact, Ftheo,

Department of Mechanical Engineering Theory of Machines (2151902)

Ntheo, ω, Fact, Ftheo,

Plot the graph for following curves: -

Department of Mechanical Engineering Theory of Machines (2151902)

 Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81m/sec2

Department of Mechanical Engineering Theory of Machines (2151902)

   α  α'   γ'

Department of Mechanical Engineering Theory of Machines (2151902)

X, h, H, R, ω, Fact, DG, BD, W, Ftheo, Ntheo,

X, h, H, R, ω, Fact, DG, BD, W, Ftheo, Ntheo,

Plot the graph for following curves: -

Department of Mechanical Engineering Theory of Machines (2151902)

 Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81m/sec2

Department of Mechanical Engineering Theory of Machines (2151902)

Department of Mechanical Engineering Theory of Machines (2151902)

Plot the graph for following curves: -

Department of Mechanical Engineering Theory of Machines (2151902)

The above combined effect is known as processional or gyroscopic effect.

Fig. 1- OX – Axis of spin, OY – Axis of Couple, OZ – Axis of Precession

Department of Mechanical Engineering Theory of Machines (2151902)

Department of Mechanical Engineering Theory of Machines (2151902)

GYROSCOPIC COUPLE OF A PLANE DISC:

Therefore, ‘OX’ represents the angular momentum after time dt.

Change of angular momentum = OX’ – OX = XX’

As, XX '  OX  d in direction of XX’

Now as rate of change of angular momentum

Department of Mechanical Engineering Theory of Machines (2151902)

I = Moment of Inertia of disc

 = Angular Velocity of disc.

And in the limit dt is very small

Where ωP = Angular velocity of precession of yoke about vertical axis.

 Set the rotor at zero position.

Department of Mechanical Engineering Theory of Machines (2151902)

OBSERVATION & CALCULATION:

 Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81 m/sec2

Place: _ Date: _____