RUNNING HEAD: LAB REPORT 1

Physics Lab Report

Name

Institution Affiliation

Professor

Date
 LAB REPORT 2

Abstract

This lab report gives an explanation to the experimental measures and the results

obtained from the test carried out to study the Hooke’s law on a spring balance subjected to loads

of different masses. It was found that the amount of mass added on the spring is directly

proportional to the displacement (extension) on the spring.

Aims and Objectives of the experiment

 To examine the behavior of a spring when stretched out by an outside force and to

confirm that this scenario is precisely explained by Hooke’s law.

 To prove that a lengthened spring can act as an excellent example to explain behavior of

oscillators with a typical period.

 To investigate the relationship between force and squeeze or stretch of a spring (Hooke’s

Law).

Introduction

Robert Hooke was extensively involved in science field and is principally remembered in

today’s learning for the Hooke’s Law. Currently, most of science textbooks credit Hooke

according to his contribution as the discoverer of the short and snappy spring’s mathematical

relationship F= ─kx.

Hooke’s law experiment is conducted to validate the property of all solid objects to

“stretch” or “squeeze”. All materials that are elastic and obey Hooke’s Law are generally

referred to as harmonic oscillators. This property is referred to elasticity of objects. Elasticity is

applicable today in many set ups such as the oscillating systems: waves and harmonic oscillators.

The elasticity properties of materials are experienced in a lot of physical observable facts. When
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an object is compressed (deformed, stretched, twisted) while the compressing forces are

adequately little, the object will resume to its initial shape immediately when the compressing

forces are detached. In such instances, the compression is said to happen within the boundary of

the object’s elastic limit, thus, there will be no permanent compression. The slender stretching of

a plastic thread or rubber band is a good illustration of an elastic compression. Rods, metal

beams, steel wires, concrete columns and other solid materials can go through elastic

deformations. When an object undergoes linear deformation, i.e. compressing or stretching in

linear direction, the restoring (resisting) force will respond proportionately to the

compression/deformation.

If the string is not stretched until it reaches a point when it becomes permanently

compressed or deformed, the spring’s behavior when subjected to a squeezing force will obey

Hooke’s law. If the spring is stretched beyond its elastic limit, the objects spring is said to be

under a state called plastic range. Therefore, exerting extra force will cause the spring to undergo

permanent displacement.

Hooke’s Law

Hooke’s law therefore states that when you squeeze a string or an elastic material, it will

exert a restoring force that a proportional (equal) magnitude to the deformation or displacement

(distance stretched).

F= ─kx (Equation 1)

In order to show the relationship, the following expression is used:

Fα x; it is read as; force is directly proportional to squeeze or stretch. This expression can

be changed into an equation by including a constant of proportionality. Hence, the

expression will appear in the following form:

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Fs= ─kx

Where; k represents the constant of proportionality (spring constant or force constant).

Here, F stands for the restoring force provided by the material being squeezed or

stretched and x represents the displacement exerted by the material being squeezed. It is

important to put negative sign (-) since it means that the restoring force acts in opposite direction

against the displacement; the acceleration of the material in Simple Harmonic Motion (SMH) is

in the opposite direction. For instance, when a rubber band is stretched upwards by an object, the

string will automatically put forth a negative restoring force but in the downward direction

against the object as shown in the diagram below

Figure 1

The equation above also means that for every object that obeys Hooke’s law for example

a spring and rubber band, the more it is squeezed or stretched, the larger will be the amount of

restoring force provided by the material doing the squeezing or the stretching. The force applied

(F) acting on the Hookean material make it to be moved (squeezed or stretched) by some

quantity (x). However, the ratio resulting from the change in the applied force, denoted by ∆F
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and the subsequent change in displacement, denoted by ∆x is referred to as stiffness coefficient

or spring constant, denoted by k

k=∆F/∆x (Equation 2)

This experiment was done to test the relationship between these forces by using a spring.

Objects of different masses were hanged on the spring and then the force acting on the object

was controlled. The extension (unit) was measured for every weight applied on the spring, the

extent to which the string was able to “stretch”. The relationship between equation 1 and

equation 2 is illustrated using a graph of weight (F) versus the stretch (x) whereby it must

produce a straight line. The slope of the line will be yield k.

The constant k will determine the spring stretchiness. A harder spring will produce a

greater constant while a flexible spring will produce a minimal constant.

The force exerted and displacement obtained is linear as shown the following graph:

Y-axis

Weight
(N)

0 Spring Displacement (M) (x-axis)

Graph Figure 2

Discussion about the behavior of the graph:

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The graph above representing the relationship between the forces applied and the amount of

extension of the elongated elastic spring in meters has a straight line starting from zero mark

(point of origin) because the spring has not reached its elastic limit. If the elastic limit is

exceeded, the graph will begin to curve and stop apparently as shown in the graph below:

Y-axis

Stretching Force

Extension (M) (x-axis)

The behavior of the above graph curves towards the end because the proportionality element is

not fulfilled by the force and extension factors; the sprig has exceeded its elastic limit due to the

larger force applied.

The principle of Hooke’s law depends on the following factors:

Strength of the material used: This factor introduces Hooke’s Law through the

mechanical properties exhibited by materials. It is one of the key factors for choosing any

material to use in a fussy application. Strength focuses on the stiffness of materials when

subjected to comprehensive forces or linear tensile (forces that act in one direction in a specific

line). This factor does not include bulky forces (forces that act in three dimensions or throughout

a given volume) or shearing forces (forces that act in two dimensions or along a plane). The
 LAB REPORT 7

strengths of all materials are measured using a logarithmic scale. The logarithmic scale does not

have a zero reading; it starts with a small value such as 0.01 or 0.001 but it will never get to zero

mark. From the logarithmic scale, some of few materials have been tested and their values have

been recorded for example diamond has logarithmic value from 10,000 to 100,000; glass

material 1000 to 10,000; kevlar, mild steel 100 to 1,000; wood 1 to 100 and formed polymers 0.1

to 1. Tension is direct proportion to the force applied on the material just as stretch is directly

proportional to the amount of displacement in Hooke’s law

That is; F = k Dx

The above formula represents the mathematical statement as used in Hooke’s Law,

whereby k stands for the stiffness of the material subjected to the force. When calculating the

strength of any material, the above statement is therefore equated to material’s tension per

extension as shown below:

F/Dx Nm-1(units). The formula represents the opposite of Hooke’s Law stiffness. The

stiffness of the material (k) will be calculated by plotting a graph of F-Dx, where the slope from

the linear part of the graph will give the stiffness (you need to take the averages for the slope

values on individual data points). An experiment between spring and fibres can be conducted to

determine if they both obey the Hooke’s Law.

Extension and Tension: The Hooke’s Law heavily relies on this factor to show the

behavior of each material. The elasticity of materials measures the extension and tension of the

materials. From Hooke’s Law, a conclusion has been made that Elastic materials can extent

(extension) until a given limit but they will never get damaged (tension). This point has been

referred to as elastic limit of materials. The extension part ends at the elastic limit of the material.
 LAB REPORT 8

Extension and tension factors do not coincide because the behavior can be explained in terms of

mechanism before and beyond elastic limits.

Theoretical Explanation

Loading of several kinds of solid objects such as metals basically will stretch out the

bonds acting between the atoms of every solid material from which the object is made of. There

exist a linear relationship between the amount of load applied and the extension caused; this is

therefore a reflection to verify the fact that the magnitude of the bond’s force is linearly varying

with distance between one atom and the other (separation between atoms). The permanent

displacement results due to plastic behavior of the particular atoms with respect to their original

states. Many polymers for example rubber band display very great extensions. Their extensions

are far too big to be clarified using the theory of bond stretching. Initially, it operates under

straightening and uncoiling out of very long molecules residing within the structure of materials.

As the bonds existing between the material stretches over, the long molecules are pulled out

straightly.

Theory of Elasticity and Stiffness of materials: (Matt, 2015) stated that Hooke’s law is

an extension to explain stiffness and elasticity of materials. This theory is applied in Hooke’s

Law when calculating the elastic energy exerted by a given force on a spring.

Elasticity is a unique property found in materials or objects such as rubber band and

springs that causes the material to regain its previous shape after deformation. A material is said

to be ore elastic than another if it is able to restore itself to its previous shape configuration more

precisely. From Hooke’s law experiment, springs are considered to be the best materials to

demonstrate the effect of elasticity because, when squeezed or stretched, they exert a strong

restoring force that tends to regain its previous length.

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For a helical spring;

F = C∆L.

Elastic Energy = ½ C∆L2

The elastic energy of every spring only relies on distance (change in length). U = ½

C∆L2.

Stiffness is another characteristic which illustrates the extent to which materials can resist

the deformation effect when a corresponding force is applied. Therefore, the stiffness of an

elastic material depends on the measure of its resistance to deformation forces. For elastic

materials that have a single measure of freedom for example when compressing or stretching a

rod, the stiffness effect is calculated using the formula below:

K = F │𝜕

From the formula above, stiffness is represented by k, the force applied on the material is

represented by F while 𝜕 stands for the displacement (for example the change in spring’s length

when stretched).

Theoretical explanation

Elasticity is better understood by considering the stress and strain exhibited by solid

materials. Stress takes the assumption that the object experiencing elasticity behaves like any

object that has been placed on a Cartesian plane system where there are many forces acting on it.

The stress condition is obtained by summing up all the vector forces acting on the object. The

resulting sum of the forces is zero; this is the stress effect. Therefore, for a spring or any elastic

material subject to stretch or squeezing force, the total force acting on the object behaves like a

stress thus leaving the object with zero forces; this makes it restore its shape after deformation
LAB REPORT 10

after the vectors forces are released. During the condition of vector forces, the elastic object

takes the formula below:

Stress effect can therefore be calculated using the formula:

Stress = F/A (Force per unit cross- sectional Area)

Tij = Tji the object is said to be o an equilibrium state.

Strain refers to the internal regaining (restoring) force that is experienced by any elastic

material that undergoes deformation. The quantity of the resulting force caused by deformation is

called strain and the subsequent force it causes is called stress.

Strain effect is calculated using the formula below:

Strain = ∆ L/ L (the fractional change in length)

Robert Hooke was the first scientist to realize the relationship between strain and stress

forces. Hooke, through the law of elasticity, determined the approximation that states that the

extent by which a material is distorted (the strain effect) relates linearly to force that causes the

distortion (the stress effect) under the normal conditions. Generally the relationship between

strain and stress is written using the formula below:

Tij = Cijkl∈ij

From the formula above, elastic stiffness is represented by Cijkl which is the fourth order tensor.

The strain mechanisms are obtained by overturning the Hooke’s law to utilize the conformity

coefficients: Sijkl. .

Hooke’s law (F α x) can be calculated using a combined formula (using stress and strain effect)

as shown in the formula below:

F/A = Y (∆ L / L).
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Equipment used

The following apparatus were used during the experiment

 Meter Rule

 Ring Stand/ Frame

 A helical Spring (the material subjected to test)

 C-clamps

 Known Mass: 20g,40g, 60g, 80g and 100g

 Rubber band

 Stopwatch

 Ruler support

 A Mass holder

 A supporting base

 A strong holding pin

Safety

While conducting the experiment, it was important to observe safety measures and

considerations. The set up must be designed such that the apparatus are assembled within the

central dimension of the table and on the base of the stand to prevent from toppling over. The

stand used was strong and the masses were hooked to reduce the chances for them to

unintentionally fall off. Also, all the springs did not fall off since they were tightly fixed on the

stand.

Considerations were made to keep my feet and body out of the region where the masses

and the meter stick will fall whenever the rubber band and the spring break. Finally, enough
LAB REPORT 12

masses were hung to the end of the hook so as to obtain a measurable squeeze or stretch. This

was done cautiously as per the instructions to avoid too much weight on the spring which could

cause great damage to the spring. A phenomenon referred by Hooke’s Law as the “elastic limit”

of a spring. In most physics laboratories, it is a rule for students to buy another spring if they

damage whilst the instructions specified the masses to be used. However, it is important to

observe the amount of the force to be exerted on the spring.

Besides the safety measure used for the experiment; there were other general measures

that apply to the laboratory environment, most of which were observed during the experiment

such as:

Everyone in the lab was required to exercise extensive care near radioactive materials,

lasers cryogenic liquids and lasers. Warning signs were placed near the places where such

experiments were conducted.

It was the responsibility of everyone inside the lab to secure his/her owns safety and also

the safety of the other colleagues in the lab.

It was a rule that no one starts an experiment or start working in a particular area without

the authority of the laboratory demonstrators or supervisor.

We were instructed not to touch any equipment apart from the ones indicted in the

instructions for the experiment.

For any query or uncertainty about the safety rules and procedures in the lab, we were

instructed to consult the lab demonstrator. Uncertainty issues include the health condition where

someone might think he/she may be affected by the techniques used to conduct the Hooke’s Law

experiment.
LAB REPORT 13

Lastly, as an important rule, it was advisable for everyone working in the lab to report

accidents arising in the working area to the lab demonstrator immediately, who will then take the

necessary action.

Method

The apparatus for the experiment were assembled on the table and the set up was placed in the

correct position. The ruler (half meter) was supported using a clamp stand. A helical spring was

attached to the clamp stand at the point having a jutting screw; the pointer was then suspended

below the screw. The mass (load) hanger was clasped under the spring’s pointer. A paper

containing blank table was prepared to note down the results in an organized. Ray diagrams used

or any other diagrams were not used in this experiment.

Formula and terms used

The Hooke’s Law is given by the formula below:

F= ─kx

Where;

F refers to the quantity of Force applied on the spring; it is measured in Newton’s (N)

x refers to the amount of displacement on the spring; it is measured in meters (M)

k refers to the force constant or spring constant or stiffness coefficient

The formula is further expanded to calculated different unknowns as shown below:

Fx = ─k (x ─ xo) Force

𝐹x
k= the spring constant or force constant
x ─ xo)

𝐹𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 ─ the distance (Length) from equilibrium
𝑘
LAB REPORT 14

𝐹𝑥
𝑥𝑜 = +𝑥 the equilibrium position of the spring
𝑘

The potential energy of the spring can be obtained using the following formulas:

1𝑘𝑥 2
𝑈= Total potential Energy of the spring
2

2𝑈
𝑥= Force constant of the spring
𝑥2

√2U
𝑥= Stretch Length of the spring
𝑘

U = ½ mv2 this is the total kinetic energy

The total energy for an elastic object is the sum of potential energy of the spring and the total

kinetic energy as shown below:

E = ½ mv2 + ½ kr2

Where

Fx =Force

K = spring or force constant

x =Distance (M) from the equilibrium

xo =Equilibrium position of the spring.

Procedure

The appropriate apparatus were provided for the experiment. The materials were arranged to

meet the following conditions

Only elastic materials such as helical spring and rubber band are used. The equation for

any elastic material is assumed to be Hookean (linear-elastic).

LAB REPORT 15

The force exerted on the elastic material should not be too large nor too small to facilitate

logical readings of the material and to stay within the elastic limit.

The experiment was done by following the steps below:

Experiment steps:

1. Hang up the spring by attaching on the spring stand.

2. Attach the hook and the pointer with its pan to the edge of the spring.

3. Place the meter rule to stand vertically (along the vertical stand provided) in a way that

the arrow of the pointer keeps up a correspondence to the readable markings on the meter

ruler.

4. Note down on paper the preliminary reading of the arrow pointer on the ruler (call it x).

make sure that the spring is not bouncing whenever you are taking the readings against

the ruler.

5. Attach a known mass of 20g on the spring hook.

6. Measure the time taken for the oscillations (T). Repeat this step to obtain two trials for

the oscillations (x oscillations) and the time taken for a single (1) oscillation; call it T.

You will develop a column in your table to find T2

7. Note down on your paper the displacement of the pointer after adding the weight (call it

x-x0).

8. Use masses of different weights (40g, 60g, 80g and 100g) and repeat steps 6 and 8.

9. Draw a graph of displacement (x─xo) cm against mass (g). For each scenario, calculate

the spring or force constant (k) by using the formula k =mg÷x; where m stands for the
LAB REPORT 16

mass of material used, g refers to the gravity (9.8 m/s2). Calculate the average of the

spring or force constants.

10. Draw a graph to show the values for T2 against mass (g).

Results from the experiment

Recording of the results: in order to record both the oscillation’s results and the mass

against extension results and also to capture all the calculations, a table with seven columns

was prepared. The experiment used masses which were hung on the spring; therefore, the

table required a column to record the masses of different magnitudes. The extension

column was needed to record the readings from the meter ruler. To increase the likelihood

of obtaining accurate results for the oscillations, the table provided three columns whereby,

results for two trials were recorded and the average (mean) for the two trials were recorded.

Table 1 showing the displacement and oscillations against different masses

Mass Extension Time taken for x oscillations (unit) Time taken T2

(unit) (unit) for 1

oscillations

Trial 1 Trial 2 Mean (unit) T

20g 6.4 cm 2.71 sec 2.85 sec 2.78 sec 0.554 sec 0.307 sec

40g 12.9 cm 3.87 sec 3.81 sec 3.84 sec 0.768 sec 0.590 sec

60g 19.0 cm 4.47 sec 4.63 sec 4.55 sec 0.910 sec 0.828 sec

80g 25.0 cm 5.31 sec 5.19 sec 5.25 sec 1.050 sec 1.103 sec

100g 31.6 cm 5.88 sec 5.75 sec 5.82 sec 1.163 sec 1.355 sec

Table 1

Observations
LAB REPORT 17

When the masses were loaded on the spring, the spring pulls or pushes the masses

downwards and upwards until an equilibrium state is achieved when the spring is brought

to halt. The time taken by the oscillations are counted and recorded by setting a timer. It

was noted that when the mass is increased (using a load of bigger mass). The oscillations

were proportional to the amount of masses added for example the mass of 40 g results in

oscillation approximately twice as when the mass of 20 g is added.

Workings for the mean values

Weight 20g Weight Weight 60g Weight 80g Weight 100g

40g

2.71+2.8 3.87=3.81 4.47+4.6 25.31+5. 5.88+5.7

5=5.56 =7.68 3=9.10 19=10.5 5=5.56

Mean= Mean=7.6 Mean= Mean= Mean=

5.56÷2 8÷2 9.10÷2 10.5÷2 11.63÷2

=2.78 =3.84 =4.55 =5.25 =5.815

seconds seconds seconds seconds seconds

Table 2
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Y-axis A graph for Extension (cm) against Mass (g)

∆ in x
35

30

25

20

15

10

20 40 60 80 100 Mass (g) (X-axis)

Figure 3

Calculation for the gradient

The gradient was calculated as follows:

(22.00 – 6.25) × 10-2 ÷ (70 - 20) × 10-3

= 3.15
mkg-1
 LAB REPORT 19

2
80 g = 4 𝜋 × (3.15 ÷ 14)

= 8.882 ms-2 (3 decimal places)

A graph for Extension (cm) against Mass (g) Figure 4

T2
Y-axis
1.4

1.3

1.2

1.1

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3
0.3

0.2

0.1

20 40 60 80 100 Mass (g) (x-axis)

Calculation for the gradient of the graph

(1.110 – 0.550) ÷ (80 - 40) × 103 = 14 s2kg-1

Explanation to the graph:

LAB REPORT 20

1. It was found that the spring or force constant is truly calculated from the slope of the

graph (Force against stretch). This was done by calculating the gradient of the slope.

2. When the force is increased, the stretch or the squeeze of the spring increases in a

proportionate manner.

3. Based on the readings from the pointer scale, it was found that the force/spring constant

is quite proportional for both masses.

Uncertainties involved in the experiment

Error analysis for the experiment

In most physics laboratories, you must compare the results you obtain with experimental

or other known results. These other calculations will guide you in evaluating the relevance of the

results, thus, you will be able to make correct inferences and conclusions. It is important to know

the extent by which your experimental results differ from other values obtained in laboratories

concerning the same phenomenon. Most scientific experiments accept values that are within the

of less than 10 % error. If the comparison of your results shows a percentage difference that is

greater than 10%, there is a high likelihood that you have many mistakes. This comparison will

help you to look back to your experiment and identify the potential sources to the errors. The

calculations used will constitute the integral part of your discussion and the analysis. A greater

percentage error should be taken into consideration during error analysis. In most cases, great

error percentage will indicate that the objective of the lab experiment has not been achieved.

Percentage error: this is used when comparing the results obtained to an accepted value or a

known result. Percentage error is the supreme value of the deviation from the two results divided

by the known value; it is expressed in percentage form as shown below:

LAB REPORT 21

│𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒│
% error = (100 %)
𝐾𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛

Percentage Difference:

Percentage difference is obtained by comparing the results with other experimental results. It

shows the fixed value of the deviation from the results divided by the average of the two; it is

normally expressed as a percentage as shown in the formula below:

│𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒│
% difference = (100 %)
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒

Hooke’s Law experiment involve a measurement of physical quantities, hence, it mostly

relies on approximation. This introduces uncertainties during its measurement that arises due to

many types of errors. During the experiment, there were three kinds of errors which prone to

deter the objectives of the experiment: Random errors, Reliability errors (systemic and parallax)

and personal errors.

Random errors

These errors are difficult to trace because their causes are indeterminate or

unknown. Random errors are normally small errors that follow the rules of chance. These

errors are reduced and avoided by taking the averages of large amount of observations.

While taking the experiment on Hooke’s law, the following types of random errors were

considered:

1. Instrument resolution: All instruments used in physics labs have restricted precision

that confines the capability to resolve little measurement differences. In this case, the

meter stick used in the experiment cannot differentiate distances (length) to exactness

much better than when using a meter rule which uses smaller units such as (0.5 mm). one
LAB REPORT 22

of the best ways to avoid this error is to use the null difference method which yields more

accurate measurements. The balance or null method is quite different from measuring

quantities directly because it uses instrumentation to determine the difference between

two or more similar quantities. The degree of unknown quantity will be found by

comparing the sample using the difference between the two samples. However, this

method helps in eliminating the problems associated with source instability. With this

method, the instruments will be very susceptible and will not require a scale.

While conducting the experiment on Hooke’s Law, instrument resolution errors

were experienced by when using a meter rule with larger units thus ignoring smaller units

that could have provided decimal places.

2. Incomplete definition: One of the reasons why it is difficult to make precise

measurements during lab experiments is that there are no clear measurement definitions.

For example, when two students are given the same thread to measure, they would

probably produce different results since each student might stretch the thread with

different strength of tension. In order to reduce these errors, it is advisable to carefully

specify and consider the state of affairs that will affect the accuracy of the measurement.

While taking the Hooke’s law experiment, incomplete definitions resulted from the

springs used. The degree of stretching the spring was not uniform for all the masses, that

is, there were other factors that contributed to the stretching of the spring other than the

force exerted by the masses; for example holding the spring by hand caused small stretch

to the spring.

3. Physical variations: this error usually occurs when limited measurement trials are

conducted. It is important to obtain several measurements over a large range of the

LAB REPORT 23

phenomena being investigated when doing any scientific practical. Doing so will help to

reveal hidden variations that might perhaps go undetected. The variations will therefore

call for detailed examination; these variations can be pooled to get an average figure. The

experiment on Hooke’s Law suffered physical variation error since it only involved two

trials. The trials were limited to discover other variations in measuring the length and the

time taken by the oscillations.

4. Instrument drift error: most readings on electronic instruments drift over a period of

time. This type of error is usually not a big concern but it is significant if the amount of

deviation is larger. Therefore, it is advisable for students and scientists to regularly check

the readings of any electronic device used for experiments to adjust these drift errors.

When conducting the lab experiment about Hooke’s Law, the sources of drift error

resulted from the stopwatch used. Small drift error occurred the time between readings

thus making the readings inconsistent.

5. Hysteresis and Lag time errors: most measurement instruments require more time to

attain its equilibrium state. Measurements that are taken when the device is still in motion

will produce results that are generally low and vague, hence resulting in lag time error.

From the experiment on Hooke’s Law, lag time errors were involved when waiting for

the oscillations to stop. Some readings both from stopwatch and the meter scale were

taken whilst the masses were still oscillating. Additional errors were encountered when

the readings were done long time after the oscillating masses had reached a balance since

it was difficult to tell when the masses had come to a stop. Hysteresis effect happens

when the devices undergo memory effect such that it moves up or down or stops

subsequently when taking the records of values. When doing the Hooke’s Law
LAB REPORT 24

experiment, hysteresis effect was experienced with the stopwatch device when taking the

values for the oscillations. This effect was commonly associated to the material

incorporated with the stopwatch components. The components get magnetized, thus there

were changes in the magnetic fields, therefore resulting in the change.

Reliability Errors

A reliability error affects the quality of measurement. In the experiment, reliability errors

resulted repeatability and consistency of the measurements.

1. Systematic error

This error usually occur when there faulty equipment in the laboratory or when some of

the apparatus have not been accurately calibrated in order to robust with the experiment.

Systematic errors resulted from environmental conditions inside the laboratory. For

example, when the doors and windows were open, air from outside interrupted with spring’s

oscillations thus manipulating with the swinging of the spring or it cause unnecessary

oscillations when the student is taking the scale readings. Thus, the incorrect measurements were

observed and recorded from the experiment.

In Hooke’s law experiment, systemic errors often happen when the lab technicians

provide meter rulers containing “zero errors”. Zero error will either make the readings on the

scale to become lower or higher than the genuine result. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the

lab technicians to ensure that the rulers do not contain any zero error before the supplying to the

students. Furthermore, it is mandatory for the students to check all the apparatus as listed in the

instructions.
LAB REPORT 25

The helical spring should be in good condition since an inelastic or damaged spring will

change the force or spring constant of the experiment. Inaccurate spring will lead to deviations in

the spring constant for the different masses used.

2.Parallax Error: This error occurs due to the difference or displacement of actual

reading of the apparatus used for the experiment. Since our eyes are not positioned

perpendicularly with the readings of the objects.

From the Hooke’s law experiment, parallax errors resulted when students who managed

to observe and read the results did not put total concentration on the amount of decimal places

during the calculation. When taking the readings from the spring pointer, the student who is

handling the experiment should position his/her eyes directly to the level of the measurement

reading.

Personal errors

These errors occur due the poor technique, bias and carelessness on the side of the

experimenter. This error can be minimized by avoiding and correcting blunders or human

mistakes. This experiment was taken while considering the correct procedures; therefore there

were no human errors or biasness such as inadvertently forcing the graph values to fit the line.

The table values correspond to the values in the graphs provided.

The following strategies were employed to minimize the experimental errors:

 The readings from the ruler were carefully observed from all the angles. This was done so

that the readings could appear vertical unlike when the readings are viewed from right

angle.
LAB REPORT 26

 The ruler and the stopwatch were adjust at the end of every trial readings and

immediately before the start of every experiment. This was done to avoid reading repeat

errors (reading the values obtained during the previous experiment).

 The experiment readings were taken when the spring arrangement had attained a

stationary position.

 The values were obtained from the observations on the experiment and there were no

mental arithmetic fixed to the results. Readings from the stopwatch and the ruler were

noted down and calculations were done later after the end of the experiment.

 The eye level had to be matched with the pointer scale and also the stopwatch’s scale to

avoid parallax error. The pointer assisted in reading the tiny values on the scale.

Discussion of the results

The figure 2 (graph of extension against mass) provided us with scattered points. This

was a clear indication that the readings were precise and no external data were used to

manipulate the graph. It also showed that the trend values of the experiment were changing due

to the factors related to the theory. A line of best fit was drawn and it touched majority of the

circled points on the graph. These majority points along the line designated a trend line of

proportionality, therefore, an even straight line extending from the zero origin was drawn. The

general pattern of the graph and the results was a major consideration while drawing the graph.

Using the Newton’s second Law: F = ma; the Hooke’s Law can be futher explained by

relating the two laws since they apply the same concept. Therefore;

(F = ma) = (F = k∆x)

F = ma = k∆x;
LAB REPORT 27

Where; a stands for the acceleration exerted by the mass (load) on the spring. When the mass is

suspended on the spring, the acceleration occurs due to the forces of gravity that acts on the

mass, thus pulling it down. Because the spring is elastic (ideal spring), when the mass is

displaced by the gravity, it will start oscillating with more than two oscillations depending on the

weight of the load.

The figure 1 shows the behavior of a spring as subjected to forces of different magnitudes

(F and 2F). The spring is shorter when not stretched and maintains its structure unlike the spring

under F and 2F forces. The displacement for the spring under F force is x while under 2F force it

reads 2x. x and 2x represents the elasticity of the spring. The force 2F is twice force F thus their

displacement 2x and x respectively indicates that there exist a linear relationship between the two

forces applied. This implies that when a force is applied, the spring will be displaced

proportionately according to the magnitude of the force.

F is an intricate function to cause the displacement 2x and x in the figure. The first spring

is at equilibrium position where there are no forces acting on it. The net force in this case is said

to be zero; x = 0. So,

W0 = mg/k ; when we subject this equilibrium to Hooke’s Law, we can define the equation for

equilibrium state as follows:

F = mg/w0 = (0 kg × 9.8 m/s2) ÷ 0.0 m

F = 0 kg/s2

We can calculate the potential energy for the equilibrium state as shown below:

U = ½kw2 ─ ½ k ( x + w0) 2 ─ mg(x + w0) =

= ½ kx2 + (kw0 ─ mg) x + ½ kw02 ─ mgw0 =

= ½ kw2 ─ ( m2g2 ÷ 2k2)

LAB REPORT 28

For minimal displacements away from the equilibrium, any F can be placed with a

polynomial of x as indicated by Taylor series formula as shown below:

F = A + Bx + Cx2 +Dx3 . For minimal displacements away from the equilibrium, any F can be

placed with a polynomial of x as indicated by Taylor series formula as shown below:

F = A + Bx + Cx2 +Dx3 . For minimal displacements away from the equilibrium, any F can be

placed with a polynomial of x as indicated by Taylor series formula as shown below:

F = A + Bx + Cx2 +Dx3 . For minimal displacements away from the equilibrium, any F can be

placed with a polynomial of x as indicated by Taylor series formula as shown below:

F = A + Bx + Cx2 +Dx3 + …

Because at F(0) = Equilibrium (0), A = 0; Hence,

F = Bx + Cx2 + Dx2 …

From our figure 1, when the displacement is x (small displacement), using the formula

above for this case, if we add higher powers of x we will still get a smaller value. Therefore, to

obtain a good approximation, we have to neglect them all. We will then get a better

approximation force with the statement shown below:

F = Bx

When a positive value of B is supplied, the resultant force will thrust downwards with

respect to the direction depicted by the displacement. This thrust movement will speed up the

mass attached to the spring to move away from its point of equilibrium as indicated by the arrow

in the diagram. This scenario is referred to as unstable equilibrium of an object; a good example

is when a ball is placed on top of a sharp hill with it having balanced equilibrium. However,

when the value of B supplied is negative, the resultant force will try to maintain the direction and
LAB REPORT 29

restore the entire system of the spring to a stable an equilibrium state. This scenario is referred to

as stable equilibrium.

When calculating the effect of Hooke’s Law, we have to make the value of B to be negative and

define our formula to be B = -k (because this is the area we have much interest). Therefore we

will be able to derive the Hooke’s law as follows:

B = -k

F = -k

Conclusion

The results from the above experiment can be used to confirm the truth of the Hooke’s

Law. Data from table one and the summary provided in the graph showed that the spring has

conformed to the Hooke’s law whereby the line drawn was straight; meaning that the extent to

which the spring stretch is directly proportional to the quantity of weight added to the spring

hanger. In order to observe and record accurate behavior of the spring during the experiment, it is

important to consider other factors that contribute to correct conclusion such as errors during the

set up.
LAB REPORT 30

References

Matt,W. (2015). What Is Hooke’s Law?: The Universe Today. London: Nova Science

Publishers, pp. 5-13.

OpenStax College. (2012). “Hooke’s Law: Stress and Strain Revisited”: creative Commons

Attribution.

Bird, R. (2012). Mechanical Engineering Principles, 2nd edition. London and New York:

Routledge, pp. 21-59.

Croft, A., and Davison, R. (2008). Mathematics for Engineers,3rd edition. London : Pearson

Ward, J. (2013). “Hooke’s Law Experiment”, Jacob Ward {Online}.