Procedure

The simplified syntax for the CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE statement is as

follows

CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE procedure_name

[(parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN OUT] type [, ...])]

{IS | AS}

BEGIN

< procedure_body >

END procedure_name;

Where,

 procedure-name specifies the name of the procedure.

 [OR REPLACE] option allows the modification of an existing procedure.

 The optional parameter list contains name, mode and types of the
parameters. IN represents the value that will be passed from outside and OUT
represents the parameter that will be used to return a value outside of the
procedure.

 procedure-body contains the executable part.

 The AS keyword is used instead of the IS keyword for creating a standalone

procedure

Example
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE greetings

AS

BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('Hello World!');

END;
produce the following result shown by –

BEGIN

greetings;

END;

Deleting Procedure

DROP PROCEDURE procedure-name;

DROP PROCEDURE greetings;

IN & OUT Mode Example 1

DECLARE

a number;

b number;

c number;

PROCEDURE findMin(x IN number, y IN number, z OUT number) IS

BEGIN

IF x < y THEN

z:= x;

ELSE

z:= y;

END IF;

END;

BEGIN
 a:= 23;

b:= 45;

findMin(a, b, c);

dbms_output.put_line(' Minimum of (23, 45) : ' || c);

END;

Minimum of (23, 45) : 23

IN & OUT Mode Example 2

DECLARE

a number;

PROCEDURE squareNum(x IN OUT number) IS

BEGIN

x := x * x;

END;

BEGIN

a:= 23;

squareNum(a);

dbms_output.put_line(' Square of (23): ' || a);

END;

Square of (23): 529

Function
Syntax for the CREATE FUNCTION statement is as follows:-

CREATE [OR REPLACE] FUNCTION function_name

[(parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN OUT] type [, ...])]
RETURN return_datatype
{IS | AS}
BEGIN
< function_body >
END [function_name];

Where,

 Function-name specifies the name of the function.

 [OR REPLACE] option allows the modification of an existing function.

 The optional parameter list contains name, mode and types of the parameters.
IN represents the value that will be passed from outside and OUT represents the
parameter that will be used to return a value outside of the procedure.

 The function must contain a return statement.

 The RETURN clause specifies the data type you are going to return from the
function.

 Function-body contains the executable part.

 The AS keyword is used instead of the IS keyword for creating a standalone

function.

 Select * from customers;

Create function statement for :

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION totalCustomers

RETURN number IS

total number(2) := 0;

BEGIN

SELECT count(*) into total

FROM customers;

RETURN total;

END;

Calling a Function this function :

DECLARE

c number(2);

BEGIN

c := totalCustomers();

dbms_output.put_line('Total no. of Customers: ' || c);

END;

Example

Demonstrates Declaring, Defining, and Invoking a Simple PL/SQL Function that

computes and returns the maximum of two values

DECLARE

a number;

b number;

c number;

FUNCTION findMax(x IN number, y IN number)

RETURN number

IS
 z number;

BEGIN

IF x > y THEN

z:= x;

ELSE

Z:= y;

END IF;

RETURN z;

END;

BEGIN

a:= 23;

b:= 45;

c := findMax(a, b);

dbms_output.put_line(' Maximum of (23,45): ' || c);

END;

Assignment: Recursive program

Cursors
 Oracle creates a memory area, known as the context area.

 A cursor is a pointer to this context area. PL/SQL controls the context

area through a cursor.

 A cursor holds the rows (one or more) returned by a SQL statement.

 process the rows returned by the SQL statement, one at a time.

There are two types of cursors −

 Implicit cursors
  Explicit cursors

Implicit Cursors
 Implicit cursors are automatically created by Oracle.
 There is no explicit cursor for the statement. Programmers cannot
control the implicit cursors and the information in it.
 INSERT operations, the cursor holds the data that needs to be inserted.
For UPDATE and DELETE operations, the cursor identifies the rows
that would be affected

Attribute & Description

%FOUND

1 Returns TRUE if an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement affected one or

more rows or a SELECT INTO statement returned one or more rows.
Otherwise, it returns FALSE.

%NOTFOUND

The logical opposite of %FOUND. It returns TRUE if an INSERT, UPDATE, or

2
DELETE statement affected no rows, or a SELECT INTO statement returned no
rows. Otherwise, it returns FALSE.
 %ISOPEN

3 Always returns FALSE for implicit cursors, because Oracle closes the SQL
cursor automatically after executing its associated SQL statement.

%ROWCOUNT

4 Returns the number of rows affected by an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE

statement, or returned by a SELECT INTO statement.

Example:

DECLARE

total_rows number(2);

BEGIN

UPDATE customers

SET salary = salary + 500;

IF sql%notfound THEN

dbms_output.put_line('no customers selected');

ELSIF sql%found THEN

total_rows := sql%rowcount;

dbms_output.put_line( total_rows || ' customers selected ');

END IF;

END;
Explicit Cursors

 Explicit cursors are programmer-defined cursors for gaining more

control over the context area.
 An explicit cursor should be defined in the declaration section of the
PL/SQL Block.
 It is created on a SELECT Statement which returns more than one row.

The syntax for creating an explicit cursor.

CURSOR cursor_name IS select_statement;

Working with an explicit cursor includes the following steps −

 Declaring the cursor for initializing the memory

CURSOR c_customers IS

SELECT id, name, address FROM customers;

 Opening the cursor for allocating the memory

OPEN c_customers;

 Fetching the cursor for retrieving the data

FETCH c_customers INTO c_id, c_name, c_addr;

 Closing the cursor to release the allocated memory

 CLOSE c_customers;

Example:

DECLARE
 c_id customers.id%type;

c_name customers.name%type;

c_addr customers.address%type;

CURSOR c_customers is

SELECT id, name, address FROM customers;

BEGIN

OPEN c_customers;

LOOP

FETCH c_customers into c_id, c_name, c_addr;

EXIT WHEN c_customers%notfound;

dbms_output.put_line(c_id || ' ' || c_name || ' ' ||

c_addr);

END LOOP;

CLOSE c_customers;

END;
DECLARE

c_id customers.id%type;

c_name customerS.name%type;

c_addr customers.address%type;

CURSOR c_customers is

SELECT id, name, address FROM customers;

BEGIN
 OPEN c_customers;

LOOP

FETCH c_customers into c_id, c_name, c_addr;

EXIT WHEN c_customers%notfound;

dbms_output.put_line(c_id || ' ' || c_name || ' ' || c_addr);

END LOOP;

CLOSE c_customers;

END;

Records
 A record is a data structure that can hold data items of different
kinds.
 Records consist of different fields, similar to a row of a database
table.

SQL can handle the following types of records −

 Table-based

 Cursor-based records

 User-defined records

Table-based
 %ROWTYPE attribute enables a programmer to create table-
based and cursor based records.
Example:

DECLARE
 customer_rec customers%rowtype;

BEGIN

SELECT * into customer_rec

FROM customers

WHERE id = 5;

dbms_output.put_line('Customer ID: ' || customer_rec.id);

dbms_output.put_line('Customer Name: ' || customer_rec.name);

dbms_output.put_line('Customer Address: ' || customer_rec.address);

dbms_output.put_line('Customer Salary: ' || customer_rec.salary);

END;

Cursor-based records:
Using the cursor , retrieved the record and example :

DECLARE

CURSOR customer_cur is

SELECT id, name, address

FROM customers;

customer_rec customer_cur%rowtype;

BEGIN

OPEN customer_cur;

LOOP

FETCH customer_cur into customer_rec;

EXIT WHEN customer_cur%notfound;

DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line(customer_rec.id || ' ' || customer_rec.name);

END LOOP;
END;

User-Defined Records:
 User-defined record type that allows you to define the different
record structures.
 These records consist of different fields,
 Suppose you want to keep track of your books in a library.
 following attributes about each book −

Title

Author

Subject

Book ID

Syntax of the record types −

TYPE
type_name IS RECORD
( field_name1 datatype1 [NOT NULL] [:= DEFAULT EXPRESSION],
field_name2 datatype2 [NOT NULL] [:= DEFAULT EXPRESSION],
...
field_nameN datatypeN [NOT NULL] [:= DEFAULT EXPRESSION);
record-name type_name;

The Book record is declared in the following way:-

DECLARE

TYPE books IS RECORD

(title varchar(50),

author varchar(50),

subject varchar(100),

book_id number);

book1 books;

book2 books;
Example: Accessing this field

DECLARE

type books is record

(title varchar(50),

author varchar(50),

subject varchar(100),

book_id number);

book1 books;

book2 books;

BEGIN

-- Book 1 specification

book1.title := 'C Programming';

book1.author := 'Nuha Ali ';

book1.subject := 'C Programming Tutorial';

book1.book_id := 6495407;

-- Book 2 specification

book2.title := 'Telecom Billing';

book2.author := 'Zara Ali';

book2.subject := 'Telecom Billing Tutorial';

book2.book_id := 6495700;

-- Print book 1 record

dbms_output.put_line('Book 1 title : '|| book1.title);

dbms_output.put_line('Book 1 author : '|| book1.author);

dbms_output.put_line('Book 1 subject : '|| book1.subject);

dbms_output.put_line('Book 1 book_id : ' || book1.book_id);

 -- Print book 2 record

dbms_output.put_line('Book 2 title : '|| book2.title);

dbms_output.put_line('Book 2 author : '|| book2.author);

dbms_output.put_line('Book 2 subject : '|| book2.subject);

dbms_output.put_line('Book 2 book_id : '|| book2.book_id);

END;

Exceptions

 An exception is an error condition during a program execution.

 SQL supports programmers to catch such conditions
using EXCEPTION block in the program and an appropriate action is
taken against the error condition.

There are two types of exceptions −

 System-defined exceptions

 User-defined exceptions

Syntax for Exception Handling

The default exception will be handled using WHEN others THEN.

DECLARE

<declarations section>

BEGIN

<executable command(s)>

EXCEPTION
 <exception handling goes here >

WHEN exception1 THEN

exception1-handling-statements

WHEN exception2 THEN

exception2-handling-statements

WHEN exception3 THEN

exception3-handling-statements

........

WHEN others THEN

exception3-handling-statements

END;

Example:

DECLARE

c_id customers.id%type := 8;

c_name customerS.Name%type;

c_addr customers.address%type;

BEGIN

SELECT name, address INTO c_name, c_addr

FROM customers

WHERE id = c_id;

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Name: '|| c_name);

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Address: ' || c_addr);

EXCEPTION

WHEN no_data_found THEN

dbms_output.put_line('No such customer!');

 WHEN others THEN

dbms_output.put_line('Error!');

END;

Raising Exceptions:

 Database server automatically whenever there is any internal database

error, but exceptions can be raised explicitly by the programmer by
using the command RAISE
Syntax of the User define Exception

DECLARE

exception_name EXCEPTION;

BEGIN

IF condition THEN

RAISE exception_name;

END IF;

EXCEPTION

WHEN exception_name THEN

statement;

END;

Example :

DECLARE

c_id customers.id%type;

c_name customers.name%type;

c_addr customers.address%type;
 -- user defined exception

ex_invalid_id EXCEPTION;

BEGIN

IF c_id <= 0 THEN

RAISE ex_invalid_id;

ELSE

SELECT name, address INTO c_name, c_addr

FROM customers

WHERE id = c_id;

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Name: '|| c_name);

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Address: ' || c_addr);

END IF;

EXCEPTION

WHEN ex_invalid_id THEN

dbms_output.put_line('ID must be greater than zero!');

WHEN no_data_found THEN

dbms_output.put_line('No such customer!');

WHEN others THEN

dbms_output.put_line('Error!');

END;

DECLARE

c_id customers.id%type := &cc_id;

c_name customerS.Name%type;

c_addr customers.address%type;

-- user defined exception

ex_invalid_id EXCEPTION;

BEGIN
 IF c_id <= 0 THEN

RAISE ex_invalid_id;

ELSE

SELECT name, address INTO c_name, c_addr

FROM customers

WHERE id = c_id;

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Name: '|| c_name);

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Address: ' || c_addr);

END IF;

EXCEPTION

WHEN ex_invalid_id THEN

dbms_output.put_line('ID must be greater than zero!');

WHEN no_data_found THEN

dbms_output.put_line('No such customer!');

WHEN others THEN

dbms_output.put_line('Error!');

END;

Triggers

Benefits of Triggers
Triggers can be written for the following purposes −

 Generating some derived column values automatically

 Enforcing referential integrity

 Event logging and storing information on table access

  Auditing

 Synchronous replication of tables

 Imposing security authorizations

 Preventing invalid transactions

The syntax for creating a trigger is :-

CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name

{BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF }

{INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}

[OF col_name]

ON table_name

[REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n]

[FOR EACH ROW]

WHEN (condition)

DECLARE

Declaration-statements

BEGIN

Executable-statements

EXCEPTION

Exception-handling-statements

END;

Where,

 CREATE [OR REPLACE] TRIGGER trigger_name − Creates or replaces an existing

trigger with the trigger_name.

 {BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF} − This specifies when the trigger will be
executed. The INSTEAD OF clause is used for creating trigger on a view.

 {INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE} − This specifies the DML operation.

 [OF col_name] − This specifies the column name that will be updated.
 [ON table_name] − This specifies the name of the table associated with the
trigger.

 [REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n] − This allows you to refer new and old values
for various DML statements, such as INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE.

 [FOR EACH ROW] − This specifies a row-level trigger, i.e., the trigger will be
executed for each row being affected. Otherwise the trigger will execute just once
when the SQL statement is executed, which is called a table level trigger.

 WHEN (condition) − This provides a condition for rows for which the trigger would
fire. This clause is valid only for row-level triggers.