Grade 11 Physics Module3

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
GRADE 11
PHYSICS
MODULE 3
FORCE AND MOTION (DYNAMICS)
PUBLISHED BY FLEXIBLE OPEN AND DISTANCE EDUCATION

PRIVATE MAIL BAG, P.O. WAIGANI, NCD
FOR DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
2017
Writer
Tommy Sariaman
Content Editors
Science Department
Subject Review Committee
Language Editor
Dr. Mirzi. L. Betasolo
Course Format Editor

Elizabeth. W. Aimundi
GR 11 GR 11 PHYS M3 TITLE
GRADE 11
PHYSICS
MODULE 3
FORCE AND MOTION (DYNAMICS)
IN THIS MODULE YOU WILL LEARN ABOUT:
11.3.1: FORCE
11.3.2: NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
11.3.3: MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE
11.3.4: APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S LAWS
1
GR 11 GR 11 PHYS M3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT & ISBN
Acknowledgement
We acknowledge the contribution of all Lower and Upper Secondary teachers who
in one way or another helped to develop this Course.
Our profound gratitude goes to the former Principal of FODE, Mr. Demas Tongogo
for leading FODE towards this great achievement.
Special thanks are given to the staff of the Science Department of FODE who played
active roles in coordinating writing workshops, outsourcing of module writing and
editing processes involving selected teachers of Central Province and NCD.
We also acknowledge the professional guidance and services provided through-out

the processes of writing by the members of:
Science Subject Review Committee-FODE

Academic Advisory Committee-FODE
Science Department- CDAD
This book was developed with the invaluable support and co-funding of the GO-PNG
and World Bank.
DIANA TEIT AKIS

Principal-FODE
Flexible Open and Distance Education

Papua New Guinea
Published in 2017
©Copyright 2017, Department of Education
Papua New Guinea
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or any
other form of reproduction by any process is allowed without the
prior permission of the publisher.
Printed by the Flexible, Open and Distance Education

ISBN 978-9980-89-543-1
National Library Services of Papua New Guinea
2
GR 11 GR 11 PHYS M3 CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Title………………………………………………………………………………….......................................... 1
Acknowledgement & ISBN….…………………………………………………………………………………... 2
Contents……………………………………………………………………………………….………………….…….. 3
Secretary’s Message…………………………………………………………………………………….….……… 4
MODULE 11.3: FORCE AND MOTION (DYNAMICS) 5 - 72

Course Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………...….….. 5
Learning Outcomes…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 6
11.3.1: Force……………………………………………………………………………………..…….…….……. 7 - 27
Types and Properties of Forces…………………………..…….…………….………………. 7 - 10
Adding Forces……………………………………………………………………………….………... 11 - 20
Friction……………………………………………………………………………………….…………… 21 - 28
11.3.2: Newton’s Laws of Motion……………….………………………………………...……..….. 29 - 46

Newton’s First Law of Motion………………………………………………………….……… 29 - 33
Newton’s Second Law of Motion…………………………………………………….………. 34 - 43
Newton’s Third Law of Motion….…………………………………….……………….………6 44 - 46
11.3.3: Momentum and Impulse…………………………………………………………………..……. 47 - 60

Momentum…………………………………………………………………………………….………. 47 - 52
Impulse………………………………………………………………………………………….……….. 53 - 58
Elastic and Inelastic Collisions……………………………………..…………………………… 58 -60
11.3.4: Applications of Newton’s Laws………………………………………….…….……………… 61 - 68

Applications of Newton’s Laws ……………………………………………………………..…9 61 - 68
Summary……………………………………….…………………………………………………………………..…… 69
Answers to Learning Activities…………………………………………………………………….………….. 70 - 79
References………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 80
3
GR 11 GR 11 PHYS M3 MESSAGE
SECRETARY’S MESSAGE
Achieving a better future by individual students, their families, communities or the nation as
a whole, depends on the kind of curriculum and the way it is delivered.
This course is part of the new Flexible, Open and Distance Education curriculum. The
learning outcomes are student-centred and allows for them to be demonstrated and
assessed.
It maintains the rationale, goals, aims and principles of the National Curriculum and
identifies the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that students should achieve.
This is a provision by Flexible, Open and Distance Education as an alternative pathway of

formal education.
The Course promotes Papua New Guinea values and beliefs which are found in our
constitution, Government policies and reports. It is developed in line with the National
Education Plan (2005 – 2014) and addresses an increase in the number of school leavers
affected by lack of access into secondary and higher educational institutions.
Flexible, Open and Distance Education is guided by the Department of Education’s Mission
which is fivefold;
 To develop and encourage an education system which satisfies the requirements of

Papua New Guinea and its people
 To establish, preserve, and improve standards of education throughout Papua New
Guinea
 To make the benefits of such education available as widely as possible to all of the
people
 To make education accessible to the physically, mentally and socially handicapped as
well as to those who are educationally disadvantaged
The College is enhanced to provide alternative and comparable path ways for students and
adults to complete their education, through one system, two path ways and same learning
outcomes.
It is our vision that Papua New Guineans harness all appropriate and affordable technologies
to pursue this program.
I commend all those teachers, curriculum writers, university lecturers and many others who
have contributed so much in developing this course.
UKE KOMBRA, PhD

Secretary for Education
4
GR 11 GR 11 PHYS M3 INTRODUCTION
Module 11.3 Force and Motion (Dynamics)
Introduction
In the previous module on Kinematics, we looked at motion in a straight line without

considering what causes it. We will now be looking at the question of why an object initially
at rest starts to move, accelerate, decelerate or move around in a circle.
For instance, a game of tug-of-war is the ultimate test of strength between two groups of
people. It is also a good example of how forces work in nature. A game of tug-of-war
between evenly matched teams often ends up in a stalemate where no one moves. What is
the Physics behind a tug-of-war game and its winners and losers? The answers to these and
some other similar questions lies in the subject of dynamics, the study of motion and the
forces that cause it.
This module will help you to understand what makes an object move the way it does. We
will discuss the kinematic quantities displacement, velocity and acceleration along with two
new concepts force and mass. The topics will help you to learn motion that involves a
change in position at a certain time.
There are four topics in this module. These are Force, Newton’s Laws of Motion, Momentum
and Impulse and Applications of Newton’s Laws. As we go through each topic, you will
answer questions in the Learning Activities to help you recall some important concepts and
theories. The solutions to all these activities are at the end of the module. Try to answer all
the questions on your own without looking at the solutions.
A game of tug-of-war is the ultimate test of strength between two groups of

people.
5
GR 11 GR 11 PHYS M3 OUTCOMES
Learning Outcomes
After going through this module, you are expected to:
 demonstrate an understanding of fundamental physics principles and models.

 apply scientific inquiry and reasoning skills to find solutions to problems.
 communicate scientific information and data from investigations and simple
experiments in different ways.
 analyze and interpret data and information.
 analyze and evaluate developments in physics from the past and present and its
impacts on people and the environment, and use the information to support and
make informed decisions.
 define and identify different types of forces that exist in nature.
 recognize that the friction can aid or retard motion.
 use graphical and algebraic methods to analyze motion with a constant acceleration
 qualitatively relate the acceleration of an object to the force acting on its mass.
 explain how the action of forces changes the way an object moves.
 explain movement in terms of Newton’s three laws of motion.
 model the effects of forces using Newton’s three laws of motion. .
 apply vector addition, subtraction and resolution into components of observable
forces such as weight, friction and normal reaction.
 apply mathematical models to data collected to solve problems and movement and
the action of forces.
 apply the law of conservation of momentum to predict the outcome of the collisions
between two objects.
 apply Newton’s Laws to real life situations like the apparent weightlessness and
incline planes.
Time Frame Suggested allotment time: 10 weeks
This module should be completed within ten (10) weeks.
If you set an average of 3 hours per day, you should be able to complete the module
comfortably by the end of the assigned week.
Try to do all the learning activities and compare your answers with the ones provided at the
end of the module. If you do not get a particular exercise right in the first attempt, you
should not get discouraged but instead, go back and try it again. If you do not get the right
answer after several attempts, then you should seek help from your friend or even your
tutor.
DO NOT LEAVE ANY QUESTION UNANSWERED.
6
GR 11 GR 11 PHYS M3 FORCE AND MOTION (DYNAMICS)
11.3.1. Force
Forces are everywhere, and we experience them every day in our lives. If there are no forces
in our universe, our earth would not be held in its orbit around the Sun. There will be no
discovery of electricity. And we would not be able to drive a car or even walk. In fact, we
would not exist at all, because all objects need forces to keep their shape.
In our everyday experiences, we usually relate forces with our muscular effort or strength.
When a weight-lifter lifts a heavy weight, he or she uses the strength of his or her arms to lift
the weight above his or her head by applying a force. Another athlete may throw a heavy
metal sphere in a shot-put event, while a hunter pulls hard at his or her bow and arrow to
kill a wild pig. In all these cases, a force is being applied.
In simple terms, force is a pull or a push on an object. It is a physical quantity that describes
the interaction between two bodies.
Forces play a major role in the study of physics because they determine how matter
interacts with matter. In this section, we will learn about some types of forces that exist in
nature and their properties. We will also look at how these forces interact with each other in
different ways to influence the motion of objects.
Types and Properties of Forces
Let us start by recalling a physical quantity. A physical quantity is anything that can be
measured. It includes, mass, temperature, speed, time, length, force and so on.
When an aeroplane takes off from a run way into the air, we would want to know the nature
and type of forces responsible for keeping the plane in the air. Which of the forces influence
our lives? What other forces exist? These are some typical questions we have to answer as
we go through this section.
Force is a product of mass and acceleration. The SI unit for the magnitude or size of the force
is called the Newton, abbreviated (N). Thus, one Newton is the force applied to a mass of
one kilogram and an acceleration of one metre per second squared. In symbols, 1N =
1kgms-2.
A force is a push or pull on an object.
Forces are usually measured using an instrument called a spring balance or a dynamometer.
7
There are different types of forces. The table below lists some examples of the types of
forces.
Types of forces
Name of Force Definition
Gravitational Is the force of gravity that attracts any object with mass.
Action-reaction Are forces that always act in pairs. Example, the normal
force and the weight.
Surface Tension Is an attraction between the particles of the same material.

Example, water molecules.
Upthrust The difference between the real weight of an object and

apparent weight when fully or partially submerged in a
fluid, that is, water or air.
Electrostatic This is the product of two charges and is inversely

proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Friction A force that tries to oppose the motion of an object

Magnetic A force that exist in the presence of the magnetic field.
Table 1 Table of definitions for different forces.
To minimize confusion with the terms mass (m) and weight (W), it is important to know
their differences.
Mass is made up of matter. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Every
matter is made up of very small particles called atoms or molecules. Mass of an object does
not change. It remains the same. The SI unit used to measure mass is the kilogram (kg).
Weight on the other hand is the force of gravity acting on an object towards the centre of
the earth. It is measured in the SI unit called Newton (N). For example, if you take a stone of
mass 1kg to the moon, the same 1kg mass of the stone will remain on the moon.
However, the same 1kg mass of the stone will weigh less or just one-sixth as it did on the
Earth. It is because the Earth is much larger and has a greater force of gravity or what we call
the gravitational field strength acting on objects.
Therefore, the weight is a force of gravity acting on the mass of an object. It is given by:
W = mg
Where W is its weight (N), m is the mass (kg) of the object and g is the acceleration (ms-2)
due to gravity or gravitational field strength (Nkg-1)
8
The size of the gravitational field strength (g) on the Earth is g = 9.8ms-2 and on the moon is g
= 1.6ms-2. For simplicity in calculations, the gravitational field strength on the Earth can be
rounded off to 10ms-2.
A force can move objects, stop them, change their speed or direction. It can also spin objects
or change their size or shape.
Some forces require objects coming into contact with each other, so that one body can
experience an effect of a force from the one applying it. For example, the force that pushes a
soccer ball towards the goal requires the contact of the force in your foot with the ball to get
it moving. The friction that tries to slow or stop a box being pushed along a table requires
contact between the box and the surface of the table.
Some forces do not require contact. For example, the force of gravity pulls you down even
when you are not in contact with the object (Earth). A magnet attracts certain materials
without being in contact with them.
With the above discussions, we can classify types of forces into two groups, the contact
forces and non-contact forces.
1. Contact forces are forces that require objects to come into contact with
each other so that one object can experience a force from the other object
applying it, example friction force.
2. Non-contact (field) forces are those forces that do not require objects to
come into contact with each other so that one object can experience a
force. They act from a distance, example, magnetic force.
Now check what you have just learnt by trying out the learning activity below!
Learning Activity 1 20 minutes
Answer the following questions on the spaces provided.
1. What is the difference between:
a) kinematics and dynamics?

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
9
b) mass and weight?

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. A stone having a mass of 5kg on Earth was taken to the moon. What is likely to change,
the mass or the weight of the stone? Explain your answer.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
3. Find the weight of an object with a mass 4.7kg on the surface of the:
a) Earth.
b) Moon.
4. List two things a force can do.
a) __________________________________________________________________
b) __________________________________________________________________
5. Differentiate between contact and non-contact forces.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Thank you for completing learning activity 1. Now check your work. Answers are at the
end of the module.
10
Adding Forces
At any time, two or more forces may be acting on an object. A force always acts in a
particular direction. They may have different magnitudes or directions. In such cases, how
do we add up the two or more forces acting on the object? You will learn how to do this in
the next section.
Scalars and vectors

Scalar quantities are physical quantities that have magnitude or size only, like mass and
distance. Vector quantities, however, are physical quantities that have both magnitude and
direction, like force and velocity. When we refer to a scalar quantity, we consider only its
magnitude, example, an object with a mass of 2kg. However, when we refer to a vector
quantity, we consider both its magnitude and direction. For example, we say a car travels at
a velocity of 20ms-1east as seen in figure 1 below.
Direction of motion
Driving force of
2000N.
Figure 1 A vector has both size and direction.
A good way to represent a vector quantity is to use a vector diagram. The arrow length
represents the magnitude of a vector while the arrow head points the direction of the vector
represented by where the arrow head points. For example, to represent a vector with a
velocity of 20m/s in the easterly direction, the step-by-step procedure is given below.
 Choose an appropriate scale. In this case, we may choose 1cm to represent 5m/s.
 Use a ruler, draw a straight horizontal line.
 The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector. Hence, the length
of the arrow would be 4cm.
 The arrow head represents the direction of the vector.
Scalar is a physical quantity that has size or magnitude only, example, volume. Vector is a
physical quantity that has size and direction, example, acceleration.
11
How do we combine vectors?

Scalar quantities are combined by simply adding vectors that are in the same direction and
vectors that are in opposite direction. For example, a mass of 100g added to a mass of 200g
gives a total mass of 300g. When we add two vectors, we usually think of both the
magnitudes and directions of the vectors. When we combine vectors, we are trying to find a
single vector that will produce the same effect called the resultant vector.
Consider figure 2(a), the two forces of 3N and 4N, pushing a wooden block of mass 2kg on a
smooth surface in the same direction cause the block to accelerate at 3.5m/s2.
2
a = 3.5m/s
(a)
3N
4N 2kg
Smooth surface
2
a = 3.5m/s
(b)
7N 2kg
Smooth surface
Figure 2 Same acceleration (effect) when a force of 7N replaces the two forces 3 N
and 4 N
Figure 2(b) above shows clearly that the two forces are replaced with a single force of 7N,
the block will accelerate at 3.5m/s2.
The effect of pushing the block with 7N is the same as pushing it with 3N and 4N in the same
direction, that is, the block accelerates at 3.5m/s2. In this case, 7N is the resultant force of
the combined forces of 3N and 4N.
The resultant force is the result of combining individual forces together.
We will now look at the different methods of adding vectors to find a resultant vector.
12
Addition and subtraction of parallel vectors

The diagram in figure 3 below will teach us how to obtain a resultant vector by using simple
mathematical operations of addition and subtraction.
Forces acting in the same direction Forces acting in the opposite

directions
F1 = 3N 7N F1 = 3N F2 = 4N F = 1N
= =
F2 = 4N
Subtract the magnitude of the smaller
Add the magnitude of the two forces. force from the larger one (to find the
The resultant force is in the same difference in magnitude between the
direction as the two forces. two forces). The resultant force is in
the direction of the larger force.
Resultant force, F = F1 + F2
Resultant force, F = F2 – F1
Figure 3 The resultant force is obtained by simple addition and subtraction.
Addition of non-parallel vectors

Simple addition and subtraction cannot be used here to determine the resultant forces when
two forces are not parallel to each other. Instead, we can determine the resultant force by
drawing scale diagrams using the following three methods.
A. The triangle method (Head-to-tail method)

Figure 4 shows a scaled diagram of the triangle of forces constructed to determine the
resultant force of the two forces, F1 and F2 acting at an angle θ to each other. First, we will
have to choose a scale for the two forces, for example, 1cm : 20kN. Then we will follow the
steps to determine the resultant force.
Draw the force F1 Draw F2 with its tail starting Complete triangle from the
according to scale. from the tip of F1 tail of F1 to the tip of F2. B
B
❶ ❸ F2 FR
F2
0 A 0 ❷
F1 F1 A 0
With the help of a F1 A
1 protractor, measure at A. For the resultant force, measure the
length of OB and the angle AOB.
Figure 4 A scaled diagram of the triangle of forces
The resultant force must always be drawn in a straight-line from where the first
vector F1 begin to where the last vector F2 ends, with a double arrow head at the
centre of the line.
13
B. The parallelogram rule (Parallelogram of forces)

Figure 5 shows a scaled diagram of the parallelogram of forces constructed to determine the
resultant force of the two forces, F1 and F2 acting at an angle to each other. First, we will
have to choose a scale for the two forces, for example, 1 cm: 50 N. Then we will follow the
steps to determine the resultant force.
With the help of a protractor, Complete the parallelogram Draw the diagonal of the
measure , then draw F2 so parallelogram
that the tails of both forces F1
❸
❹
and F2 start at O.
❷
C C B C
B
F2 FR
F2 F2
O A O
F1 F1 A O F1 A
❺
This diagonal represents the
❶
Draw the force F1 according magnitude and the direction of
to the chosen scale. the resultant force, FR.
Figure 5 A scaled diagram of the parallelogram of forces
Note that the tails of both forces F1 and F2, and the tail of the resultant force, FR are all at
the same point, O and FR is between F1 and F2
Example
A ship is towed into a harbour by two boats, A and B, exerting forces of 12kN and 10kN
respectively and the tow-ropes making an angle of 680. Find the resultant force acting on the
ship.
A
12 kN
680
10 kN
B
14
Solution
Use a scale of 1cm: 2kN (If a scale of 1cm: 1kN is used, the diagram would be too large).
❹
C Complete the
❸ B parallelogram
Draw a line
OC of 6cm to
6cm ❺
represent FR
F2 Draw the diagonal OB
12kN from O.
0
68
❷ 38
0 ❻
0
Measure 68 O F1 Measure the angle after
from OA using 5cm A drawing diagonal OB
a protractor
❶
Draw a line OA of 5cm to
represent the 10kN force.
The resultant force, FR is represented in both magnitude and direction by the diagonal OB.
Length OB = 9.2cm. Therefore the magnitude of the resultant force, FR= 9.2 x 2kN = 18.4kN.
The ship is pulled forward by a resultant force of 18.4kN at an angle of 380 from the 10kN
force.
C. Two perpendicular forces

It is a special case for two non-parallel vectors acting on an object at right angles to each
other.
F1
FR
F2
F2
F1
Figure 6 Two forces (F1 and F2) together.
Forces acting at right-angles (900) to each other can be solved using Pythagoras theorem.
Figure 6 shows the two forces (F1 and F2) together with the resultant force FR using the
parallelogram rule.
15
Unlike the methods in (A) and (B), the resultant force is obtained using Pythagoras Theorem:
 Resultant force FR = F12 + F22

FR = F1  F2
2 2
F2 F 
 tan θ =  θ  tan1  2  (Gives the direction of the resultant force)
F1  F1 
Example
Tom and Bobby pulled a crate with forces of 70N and 90N respectively.
F2 = 70N
F1 = 90N
Find the resultant force on the crate due to these two forces.
Solution
On the right is the sketch of the force.
Therefore resultant force, FR  F1 2  F2 2 FR

70N
 90  702 2
 114N 90N
70
ta n θ 
90
 0.778  θ
 70 
 ta n1  
 90 
 37.9 0
The resultant force is 114N which acts 37.90 from the original 90N force.
Now check what you have just learnt by trying out the learning activity on the next page!
16
1. Two forces of 60N and 80N acts on an object. Find:
a) The greatest and the smallest forces that can be exerted if the forces are parallel
to each other.
b) The resultant force if the 80N is acting to the right and is at right angles to the
60N force.
c) The resultant force if the 80N is acting to the right and is at 1200 angles to the
60N force.
2. Find the resultant force of the two forces shown in the figure below.
0
8N 120
12N
end of the module.
17
Resolution of forces
We have learnt in the previous sections that when two forces combine, a single force can be
obtained. This single force is called the resultant force. However, if we now reverse the
process, the single resultant force can be broken up into its two initial components of forces.
This reverse process is known as the resolution of forces.
Usually, a force is resolved into components that are at right-angles (perpendicular) to each
other. Figure 7(a) shows a single force F. If we apply the parallelogram rule, the force F can
be resolved into a pair of perpendicular components: the vertical force Fy and the horizontal
force Fx.
C B
Fy = F sin
F
Fy F
O A
Fx Fx = F cos
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 7 Resolution of a resultant force into its components.
With our knowledge of basic trigonometry, the magnitudes of the vertical and horizontal
components can be determined. Since the direction is already known, we need to know the
magnitudes only. If we refer to figure 7(b) above we can see that:
For ∆OAB: For ∆OCB:
Fx Fy
cos θ  s i nθ 
F F
 Fx  Fcosθ  Fy  Fs i nθ
Horizontal component Fx = F cos and vertical componentFy = F sin are

not fixed formulas. It depends on the position of the angle .
18
Study the example below carefully.
Example
Find the vertical and horizontal components for each of the following forces.
a) b)
80N 120N
0 0
60 60
Solution
a) Here is 600 from the horizontal line.
80N To find the horizontal component:

0 80 sin60
0
Fx = F cos = 80 x cos600 = 40N right.
60
0
80 cos60 To find the vertical component:
Fy = F sin = 80 x sin600 = 69.3N up.
b) Here is 600 from the vertical line.

0
120 sin60
To find the horizontal component:
60
0 Fx = F sin = 120 x sin600 = 103.9N left.
120N
120 cos600
To find vertical component:
Fy = F cos = 120 x cos600 = 60N down.
19
1. A boy is pulling a toy car with a force of 6N as shown in the figure below.
6N
0
30
Find the horizontal and vertical components of the force.
2. Wagi pushes a 250kg roller on the floor with a force of 200N directed from the handle.
The handle is at an angle of 330 to the horizontal.
0
33
200N
a) Find the vertical and horizontal components of the force.
b) What is the weight of the roller?
c) What is the total downward force on the ground?
end of the module.
20
Friction
Whenever one object is pushed or pulled along the surface of another object, there is some
resistance to such motion. It is because no two surfaces are perfectly smooth. Hence, the
property of the surface that causes this resistance is called friction. We can define friction as
a force that tries to oppose or resist the motion of an object.
We must take note that friction always acts in parallel to the surfaces that are in contact and
in a direction opposite to the motion of the object as shown in figure 8. As we have
mentioned earlier, friction depends on the nature of the materials in contact and the
smoothness of their surfaces. It does not depend on the area.
Figure 8 Friction is caused by the

interlocking of surface irregularities.
Let us consider a rock moving leftwards over a surface of the road. The resistant force on the
rock is upwards as shown in Figure 9(a). It is because the resistant force has two
components: The first is the vertical component that is usually called the normal contact or
normal reaction force. This component of force is always at right-angles (90°) to the two
surfaces in contact. The second is the horizontal component that is the friction force. This
force opposes the movement of the rock as shown in figure 9(b).
(a) (b) Vertical component of

contact forces (normal force)
Rock
moving left
Direction of
movement
Road Horizontal component of
contact forces (friction)
Figure 9 (a) when a rock moves leftwards over a road, the road exerts various upwards forces on the rock.
(b) The resultant of these upwards forces is tilted to the right. It has vertical and horizontal components.
We have just seen a situation where a body rests or slides on a surface which exerts forces
on the body. We also used the terms normal force and friction forces to describe these
forces. These are called contact forces. Friction plays a vital role in our everyday life. It has
both positive and negative effects. The oil in a car engine reduces friction between moving
parts. Also, without friction between the tyres and the road, driving a car would be
dangerous. These are positive effects. Friction also reduces the efficiency of cars up to 20%
and causes wear and tear of moving parts in engines, motors and machines. These are
negative effects.
21
Consider a box of books on the floor. If you try to push the box across the floor, the box will
not move until a certain force is applied. Once the box starts moving, it requires less force
than you needed to get it started. If you take some books out, you need less force than
before to get it moving or keep it moving. What general statement can we make about this
behaviour?
When a body rests or slides on a surface, we can always represent the contact force exerted
by the surface on the body in terms of components of forces perpendicular and parallel to
the surface. We call the perpendicular component normal force and is denoted by Fn. The
component parallel to the surface is the friction force, denoted by Fr. By definition, the Fn
and Fr are always perpendicular to each other (i.e. at 90° or at right-angle)
The size and magnitude of the friction force usually increase when the normal force
increases. It is because the weight denoted by Fw of the body acting down and normal force
Fn of the surface acting up are equal and opposite. Therefore, the friction force is
proportional to the normal force. In such cases, we can represent the relation by the
equation:
frictionforce
coefficient of fraction
normalcontact force
In symbols:
Fr
μ
Fn
Where represent the coefficient of friction, and is unit less. Fr is the friction force(N) and Fn
is the normal force(N). You must note that the measures of friction and normal forces are in
units of force which is newtons while the coefficient of friction is unit less.
The coefficient of friction for surfaces is found by experiment. The coefficients of all surfaces
are usually less than 1.
Friction always opposes motion between two objects in contact.
Friction can be in two parts:
1. Static (non-moving) friction is the frictional force preventing motion until the surfaces
begin to slide/move. The above general equation can be written as:
Fs
μs 
Fn
Where µs represents the coefficient of static friction, Fs is the static friction and Fn is
the normal contact force.
22
2. Kinetic (moving) friction is the frictional force between objects that are moving across
each other. Kinetic friction is usually less than the static friction represented as:
Fk
μk 
Fn
Where µk represents the coefficient of kinetic friction, Fk is the kinetic friction and Fn is
the normal force.
As we have stated earlier, the size or magnitude of the weight and the normal contact
force are equal but opposite in directions. These two forces (weight and normal
contact forces) act together and are parallel to each other along the vertical axis(y –
axis). On the other hand, the size or magnitude of the frictional force (Fr) and the
applied force or tension (T) are equal but opposite in directions. Unlike the weight and
the normal force, friction and the tension forces act together along the horizontal axis
(x-axis). They also act parallel to each other.
The statements we just made are only true when an object resting on a surface is just about
to move in the direction of the applied force. Therefore, we can say that, an object is in a
state of equilibrium. This means that the sum of all the forces acting along the vertical and
horizontal axes respectively must add up to zero.
We normally represent these mathematically as F  0

Here the sigma notation or the symbol ∑ represents the sum of all variables to be added.
More specifically, if we take upwards as positive and downwards as negative along the
vertical axis then,
Fw
 F . Thismeansthat,  F
Fn
y y  Fn  (Fw )  0
Where Fy is the sum of all the forces acting in the vertical axis, Fw is the weight of an object
and Fn is the normal contact force.
Also, if we take the right as positive and the left as negative along the horizontal axis then:
Fr
F . Thatis,F
T
x x  T   (Fr )  0
Here, Fx is the sum of all the forces acting along the horizontal axis, T is the tension force and
Fr is the friction force.
23
Example 1
A truck has just unloaded a 500N crate full of music equipment on the footpath near your
home. A pull with a horizontal force of 230N is needed to move the crate. Once it starts to
move, you can keep it moving at a constant velocity with only 200N of force. What are the
coefficients of the static and kinetic friction?
y y
Pulling (applied) Fn Fn
force
Fs T = 230N Fk T = 200N
x x
230N
Fw = 500N Fw = 500
N
(a) (b) (c)
Solution
a) Using the equilibrium conditions for the crate before it starts to move as in Figure (b):
F y  Fn  (Fw )
 Fn  (500)
0
Fn  500N
F x  T  (Fs )
 230  (Fs )
0
Fs  230N
Hence, the coefficient of static friction is:
Fs
μs 
Fn
230N

500N
 0.46
24
b) Using the equilibrium conditions for the crate after it starts to move as in Figure (c):
F y  Fn  (Fw )
 Fn  (500)
0
Fn  500N
F x  T  (Fk )
 200  (Fk )
0
Fk  200N
Hence, the coefficient of kinetic friction is:
Fk
μs 
Fn
200N

500N
 0.40
Example 2
a) A wooden crate weighing 240N rests on a horizontal floor. Find the least force to move
it if the coefficient of static friction is 0.5.
b) Once the crate is moving, a force of 96N is sufficient to keep the crate sliding at a
constant speed. Find the coefficient of kinetic friction.
Solution
Please recall that the normal force = the weight of the crate:
a) Fs
μs 
Fn
Fs  μ s x Fn
 0.5 x 240
 120N
b) Fk
μk 
Fn
96N

240N
 0.4
25
Example 3
A box of mass 10kg is at rest on a horizontal plane and a force of 20N is applied at 300 to the
plane as shown in the figure below. If the frictional force amounts to 1N, calculate the
acceleration.
a 20N
0
m = 10kg 30
F
1N
Solution
Now we will have to resolve the applied force of 20N into its vertical and horizontal
components. It is because the force is acting at an angle as we have discussed earlier. You
will notice that, the force that handles the motion of the box is the horizontal component of
the initial applied force of 20N. For this case will be Fx = 20 cos300. Also for the box to move,
there must be a net resultant force that will cause an acceleration.
Force causing an acceleration: Fnet = (Fx – Fr)

= (20 cos300 – 1)N
= (17.32 – 1)N
= 16.32N.
Fnet  ma
Fnet
a 
m
16.32

10
 1.632m/s-2
 1.6m/s2
Example 4
A 300N block of ice is being pulled at a 140N
Fn
constant speed up a steel ramp to a loading
truck and requires a force of 140N. The slope
inclines at 250 to the horizontal. Calculate the 0
25
coefficient of friction between the ice and the Fr W cos25
0
0
steel. 25
0
W sin 25
26
Solution
According to the state of equilibrium, the upward forces must balance with the downward
forces to maintain constant speed. That means the sum of all the forces going up and going
down must add to zero. The two forces acting downwards are negative because they are
vector quantities and are opposite to the direction of the applied force of 140N.
That is, ΣF = 0 140 + (-w sin250 – Fr) = 0.
Note: Weight always act vertically down through the centre of an object.
Thus, Fr = 140 – w sin250

= 140 – 300 s in250
= 140 – 126.78
= 13.22N
Fr
μ
Fn
Fr

w cos 250
13.22

271.9
 0.0486
1. What is friction? What is its unit of measurement?

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2. Is friction perpendicular or parallel to the motion of an object?

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27
3. A wheelbarrow of mass 24kg at rest on a horizontal floor has a force of 10N applied to
it parallel to the floor. If the friction force is 2N, calculate the acceleration of the
wheelbarrow.
4. Pulling a box weighing 450N along a level floor at a constant speed by a rope makes an
angle of 300 with the floor, as shown in the figure below. If the force on the rope is
260N, what is the coefficient of kinetic friction between the surfaces?
motion 260N
0
30
Fr
W = 450N
end of the module.
28
11.3.2 Newton’s Laws of Motion
In our everyday experiences, we may have come across some natural phenomena like earth
quakes and shooting stars and massive man-made objects like planes flying in the air. We at
times ask questions like why, how and what may have caused these objects to behave the
way they do. To answer some of these questions, we can look at Newton’s Three Laws of
Motion.
Newton’s First Law of Motion describes how an object behaves when forces acting on it are
balanced or when no forces are acting on it at all. It means that an object can be in constant
motion or an object may be at rest. The first law involves the mass and the inertia of an
object.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion deals with unbalanced forces or sometimes called the net
or resultant forces. These unbalanced forces come about as a result of interaction between
some physical quantities like force, mass and acceleration that causes a change in the
motion of an object.
Finally, Newton’s Third Law of Motion talks about action and reaction forces between two
bodies. It states that forces never occur individually but always act in pairs.
Newtons First Law of Motion
Newton’s First Law of Motion states that, a body at rest or uniform motion will remain at
rest or in uniform motion in a straight line.
From Newton’s First Law, a body at rest or uniform motion will have zero acceleration.
Does this mean that no force is acting on an object when acceleration is zero? No, there are
still forces acting on it but these forces are balanced, that is, they are equal in magnitudes
and opposite in directions. This gives us zero acceleration. Therefore, zero acceleration
implies that an object could be stationary (Figure 10) or moving with constant velocity
(Figure 11).
Figure 10 A car at rest has zero acceleration. It Figure 11 An ice skater gliding at
has, however, gravitational pull acting on it. constant velocity has zero acceleration.
For an object with zero acceleration, the different forces acting on it are
balanced or equal to zero, that is, the resultant or net force is zero.
29
Consider the book in figure 12. The weight of the book acts downwards due to gravity.
However, the book does not fall freely (or accelerate) as the table prevents it from doing so.
In this case, the table exerts an equal upward force F that pushes back on the book, that is, F
is equal to W.
Normal force
F
table
Weight w
Figure 12 Forces acting show that F = W. They act in opposite direction

and cancel each other out. We say the forces are balanced.
You will have noticed that these two forces will balance out as they are equal and in
opposite directions. Hence, the resultant force is zero and the book is stationary or at rest.
Its acceleration is also zero.
What is inertia?
Now, let us consider another example of a book moving at a constant velocity along a
frictionless table (Figure 13).
Book sliding across a frictionless surface

F with constant velocity. F
table
w
w
Figure 13 When there is no change in velocity, the acceleration will be zero.
At constant velocity, acceleration is zero. If no other force acts on it to disrupt its motion
(e.g. friction), the resultant force on the book will remain zero. Hence, the book will continue
to move at this velocity forever.
This brings us to Newton’s first Law of Motion also known as the Law of Inertia.
A body will continue to remain at rest or moving with uniform motion in a straight line
unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
We have just learnt how an object behaves if the resultant force acting on it is zero.
30
Figure 14 summarizes Newton’s First Law of Motion.
When forces are balanced
Acceleration = 0m/s
Object in motion will remain in Object at rest will

motion at constant velocity. remain at rest.
Figure 14 Newton’s First Law summarized in this simple flow

chart.
We stated earlier that Newton’s first law is also known as the Law of Inertia. Inertia deals
with a physical quantity known as mass. Imagine you are on an open road and suddenly a big
elephant comes running straight at you.
Should you run away in a straight line or a zigzag manner to escape from the running
elephant?
Figure 15 You should run in a zigzag course to escape

from an elephant that is running at you.
The answer may look very simple, but what is the reason behind it? To explain it properly,
we need to understand inertia and how it is related to mass.
An object that has a huge mass will have a lot of difficulties trying to change its state of rest
or motion. This property of an object is known as inertia. We can now define inertia as the
resistance of an object to change its state of rest or motion.
The inertia of an object is dependent on its mass. Therefore, an object with more mass has
greater inertia. In other words, the larger the mass of an object, the harder it is to start
moving, or slow down, move faster or change direction.
From this concept it is difficult for an elephant to chase a person in a zigzag manner. Because
even if the elephant tries to do that, it will probably trip and fall!
31
A reason that drivers wear seat belt for safety when driving is because of inertia. Without a
seat belt, a driver on applying brakes will continue to move forward due to his inertia and
crash into the windscreen (Figure 16). The seatbelt prevents the driver from crashing into
the windscreen (Figure 18).
seatbelt driver
Sudden stop
Driver in motion Driver in motion Sudden stop
Figure 16 Driver not wearing a seat belt. Figure17 Driver wearing a seat belt.
Example 1
Use Newton’s First Law of Motion and Inertia to explain the following situation:
A cardboard is placed on the rim of a drinking glass and a coin is placed on top of the
cardboard at the centre of the glass. If the cardboard is pulled away quickly, the coin resting
on the cardboard drops straight into the glass.
Solution 1
The coin’s inertia maintains its state of rest. If the cardboard is pulled away quickly, the coin
falls into the glass due to gravity. Note, if the cardboard is pulled away slowly, the frictional
force between the coin and the card causes the coin to accelerate so that it moves together
with the card. However, quickly pulling the cardboard creates a time too short for the
friction to cause any appreciable movement of the coin.
Example 2
A boy riding a bicycle that runs over a stone is thrown forward and off the bicycle.
Solution2
The stone stops the motion of the bicycle but the inertia of the boy move him in the forward
motion and throw him forward.
32
Explain the following situations using the Newton First Law and inertia.
1. If a book is pulled out very quickly from the middle of a pile of books, the books at the
top will drop instead of moving along with it.
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2. When a moving bus stops suddenly, the passengers move forward.

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end of the module.
33
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
When a body acts on by no force or zero resultant force, it moves with constant velocity. But
what happens when the resultant force is not zero? It starts to move. If it is initially moving,
the force may speed it up, slow it down or change the direction of its velocity. In each case
the body has acceleration. We want to know the relation of the acceleration to the force.
This is what Newton′s Second Law is all about and it deals with unbalance forces.
In our previous discussions, we learnt that when there is an unbalanced force acting on a
body, the body will change its speed. This means that a body can either:
1. Increase its speed or velocity that causes an acceleration or

2. Decrease its speed or velocity to cause deceleration.
This means that, when an unbalanced force acts on an object, it will accelerate in the
direction of the applied unbalanced force. The acceleration of any object depends directly
on the force applied and indirectly on the mass of the object. Thus, when the size of the
unbalanced force increases, the acceleration increases as well.
However, if we keep the force constant and increase the mass of the object, the acceleration
will decrease. Newton′s Second Law of Motion summarises these facts. It states:
″The acceleration of any object is directly proportional to the

unbalanced force applied and inversely proportional to its mass.”
We will now analyse two experiments to investigate Newton′s second law.
Experiment 1
This shows the relationship between acceleration and force applied on a constant mass.
Situation
Figure 18(a): shows car A and car B of the same mass at the same starting line. Car B is a
sports car and it has a much bigger engine capacity than car A. Figure 18(b): shows that car B
has built up a higher velocity than car A after 3 seconds.
Greater engine capacity
(a) t = 0 B
Greater engine
thrust (force)
A
(b) t = 3s
Figure 18 The acceleration of an object depends on the force which acts on it.
34
Aim
To investigate the relationship between acceleration and the force applied to a constant
mass.
Apparatus/ Material
Trolley, three (3) identical elastic chords, runway, ticker-timer, carbonized ticker tape, 12V
AC power supply and a wooden block.
Arrangement of apparatus
Ticker - timer
Stretched elastic cord (1 unit of force)
Ticker tape
Frictionless runway
trolley
+-
AC power supply Wooden
Block
(a)
Two stretched elastic cords (2 units of force)

and same extension as in (a) above.
(b)
Figure 19 The force in this experiment is the stretching force in an elastic cord used to pull the trolley.
Procedure
1. A frictionless inclined runway is prepared.
2. The apparatus is then set up as shown in figure 20(a).
3. The ticker-timer is switched on and the trolley is pulled down the runway by an elastic
cord attached to the hind post of the trolley.
35
4. The elastic cord is stretched until the other end is level with the front end of the
trolley. The length is maintained as the trolley moves down the runway.
5. The ticker tape obtained is cut into strips of 10-ticks. A tape chart is constructed and
the acceleration, a is determined.
6. The experiment is repeated with 2 and 3 elastic cords to double and triple the pulling
force to the same constant extension as when one elastic cord is stretched.
Results
Ticker tape chart
velocity velocity
velocity
3a
2a
a
(a) 1 elastic cord (b) 2 elastic cords (c) 3 elastic cords

(1 unit of force) (2 units of force) (3 units of force)
Figure 20 The gradient of each line increases as the number of cords increases. It
indicates an increase in acceleration when the force is increased.
Graph
Acceleration, a
0
Force, F
Figure 21 Acceleration is directly proportional to

force
Conclusion
The acceleration of an object with constant mass is directly
proportional to the force applied.
Experiment 2
This experiment shows the relationship between the acceleration and the mass of an object
under constant force.
Situation
Figure 22(a) shows two similar lorries, A and B, in front of a traffic light. When the light turns
green, both drivers step on their accelerators simultaneously with the same pressure to
provide the same engine thrust, F. Figure 22 (b) shows that within 3 seconds, the empty lorry
has built up a higher velocity than the heavier one.
36
B
B
Full-loaded lorry F
A
F A
Empty lorry
(a) t = 0
(b) t = 3
s
Figure 22 When the force applied on an object is constant, the greater the mass of the object,
the smaller its acceleration.
Aim
To investigate the relationship between the acceleration and the mass of an object under a
constant force.
Apparatus/Material
Ticker-timer, 12 V AC power supply, 3 trolleys, elastic cord, friction compensated runway,
wooden block and ticker tape.
Arrangement of apparatus
Stretched elastic cord with the
Ticker-timer Stretched elastic cord
same extension as in (a)
Ticker-tape
F
2 units of
+ - masses
12 V AC Trolley
power Wooden block Friction compensated (b)
supply (a) runway
Figure 23 The mass in this experiment is represented by the number of identical trolleys.
Procedure
1. A friction-compensated runway is prepared.
2. Set up the apparatus as seen in the Figure 23(a)
3. Attach a ticker tape to the trolley and pass through the ticker-timer.
4. The ticker-timer is switched on, and the trolley is pulled down the inclined runway by
an elastic cord.
5. A ticker tape obtained is cut into strips of 10 ticks. A tape is constructed and the
acceleration a, is determined.
6. The experiment is repeated using 2 trolleys and 3 trolleys. The elastic cord is stretched
to the same fixed length.
37
Results
velocity
velocity velocity
One trolley (I unit of mass) Two trolleys (2 units of mass) Three trolleys (3 units of mass)
Figure 24 The gradients of the lines joining the strips decreases as the number of trolleys
increases. This indicates that the acceleration decreases as mass increases.
Graph
Acceleration, a
Figure 25 The graph of a against 1/m

shows a straight line passing through the
origin.
Conclusion
The acceleration of an object is inversely proportional to

its mass when the force acting on it is constant.
The above experiments show the relationships between the resultant forces, mass and
acceleration. Thus we derive the formula:
F = ma
where F = resultant force (N or kgm/s2), m =mass of object (kg) and a = acceleration (m/s2)
of an object.
This equation tells us that,
1. A resultant force on an object will produce an acceleration.

2. Doubling the resultant force on an object will double the acceleration.
3. With the same resultant force, doubling the mass will half the acceleration.
38
The SI unit of force is newton (N). It is defined as:
One newton (1N) is the force that will produce an acceleration of 1m/s2 on a mass of
1kg.
If m=1kg and a=1m/s2, using the formula, F = ma,

F = (1 kg)( 1 m/s2)
= 1 kg m/s2
= 1N.
Example 1
An unbalanced force of 48N west is applied to a 4kg box. Calculate the acceleration of the
box.
Solution
a  Fun
m
48N

4.0kg
 12 m s 2 wes t
Example 2
A car 2200kg, travelling at 25m/s south comes to a stop in 10 seconds.
Calculate the:
a) car’s acceleration and

b) unbalanced force required to cause the acceleration.
Solution
a) Using the equation of motion in Kinematics, where v= final velocity, u = initial velocity
and t = time taken.
v u
a
t
0  25

10
 2.5 m s 2 s outh
Thus, the car’s acceleration is 2.5ms-2 south, which is the same as 2.5ms-2 north.
39
b) F = ma
= 2200kg x 2.5m/s2 north
= 5500N north.
Therefore the unbalanced force is 5.5x103N north.
Example 3
A car of 1200kg mass travelling at 15m/s comes to rest over a distance of 30m.
Find the average:
a) retardation (braking acceleration or decelaration).

b) braking force.
Solutions
a) Using the formula v2 = u2 + 2as:
Data: v = 0ms-1, u = 15ms-1, a = ?
Solution:
V2 = u2 + 2as
Make ‘a’ the subject
v 2  u2
a
2s
0  15  2a 30 
(0)2  (15)2
a
2 x 30
 225

60
  3.75m/s2
Therefore, retardation =3.75m/s2. Note that retardation is the same as deceleration.

Deceleration is the opposite of acceleration which means decreasing in speed or
velocity.
b) F = ma
= 1200 x (- 3.75)
= - 4500N
Negative sign indicates retardation force or opposing force. Hence, average braking
force = 4500N.
40
Example 4
Mimoke pushes a heavy cupboard with a force of 200N,
but the cupboard does not move.
200N
Find the friction force acting on the cupboard.
Ffriction
Solution
a = 0 because the
Using Fun = ma: cupboard does not
move
Data: Solution: From the state of equilibrium
Fun = 0N since, a = 0
Fa = 200N  Fu  Fa  Fr
Fr = ? 0  200  Fr
Fr  200N
Therefore, the frictional force (Fr) = 200N
Example 5
A girl pushes a book on a table with a force of 5N. 5N
2cm/s
PHYSICS
The book moves with a uniform velocity of 2cm/s.
Ffriction
Find the frictional force acting on the book.
Solution a = 0 because the book moves with

Using Fun = ma: a uniform velocity.
Data: Solution: From the state of equilibrium

Fun = 0N since, a = 0
Fa = 200N  Fu  Fa  Fr
Fr = ? 0  200  Fr
Fr  200N
Therefore, the frictional force (Fr) = 200N
41
Attempt the following questions on your own and check your solutions at the end of the
unit.
1. The figure below shows a small rocket of mass 300kg at the point of take-off. Find its
initial acceleration.
5000N
Upward force Resultant

300kg
from engine upward force
2000N
Weight
3000N
2. John pushes a 12kg carton with a force of 50N. If the carton moves with an
acceleration of 2m/s2, what is the frictional force acting on the carton?
42
3. A 1.6m long barrel propels an object of mass 70kg. If the object is propelled in barrel
for 1.2 seconds, find the average net force exerted on it.
4. Two forces F1and F2 act on a wooden block which is placed on the table. The friction
between the block and the table is 3N. Which pair of forces F1 and F2 will accelerate
the block?
F1(N) F2(N)
F1 A 4 7
F2
B 8 5
table C 6 4
D 9 5
end of the module.
43
Newton’s Third Law of Motion – Action Reaction
Do you sometimes push your feet against the wall to propel yourself forward when you are
swimming in a pool? Doing so, you are already using Newton’s Third Law of Motion! The law
states:
For every action force, there is an equal and opposite
reaction force and these forces act on different bodies.
It means that if body A exerts a force F on body B, body B will exert an equal and opposite
force F (or–F) on body A.
Newton’s third law of motion tells us the four (4) characteristics of forces:
1. Forces always occur in pairs, an action force and a reaction force.
2. Action and reaction forces are equal in magnitude.
3. Action and reaction forces act in opposite direction
4. Action and reaction forces act on different bodies.
With this understanding, if a force F produced by the boy’s leg against a wall produces a
reaction. This reaction force R exerted by the wall propels the boy forward as seen in figure
27. Thus, we can see that R and F occur as a pair and are equal in magnitude, but opposite in
direction. They also act on different bodies.
Motion Action force F
Reaction force R
Figure 26 A simple demonstration of Newton’s Third

Law
Below are some examples of action and reaction forces.

Action Reaction
 Gas is pushed out behind a rocket.  The rocket moves forward.

 A car hits a tree.  The tree pushes the car.
 A foot pushes on the ground.  The ground pushes on the foot.
 A tyre pushes on the ground.  The road pushes back on the tyre.
 A hand pushes a brick.  The brick pushes back on the hand.
 A sprinter pushes on the starting blocks.  The block pushes on the sprinter.
Table 2 Action and reaction apply when forces are exerted on different bodies.
44
Let us consider a box resting on a table. The two forces can be labeled as FW the weight of
the box and FN the normal reaction force that the table pushes up normal to the surface.
Fn
box
table
Fw
FigureFigure
1 27 A simple demonstration of action and reaction forces.
In this case, the forces are equal and oppositely directed because no acceleration is
occurring. If the mass of the box was 125g, then the weight would be 1.25N down and the
normal reaction force would be 1.25N upward.
Example1
1. What are the reactions to the following action?
a) A man jumping out of a canoe in still water.
b) A soft-ball hit by a bat.
2. A book of mass 1.5kg exerts a downward force on a table.

a) What is the size of the force exerted by the table on the book?
b) Is this an example of action- reaction forces? Explain.
3. A tractor is pulling a heavy load. If, according to Newton’s third law of motion, the load
is pulling as hard as the tractor is pulling forward, then why does the tractor move?
Solutions
1. a) The canoe moves forward.
b) The bat slows down as the ball pushes back.
2. a) The size of the force is FN = mg = 1.5 x 10 = 15N upwards.

b) Yes, because the book has a weight of 15 N acting downwards on the table. The
table in turn exerts an upward force of 15 N on the book. The forces act in pairs
and on two different bodies, the book and the table.
3. There are two forces, and they have the same magnitude and opposite direction, but
are both exerted on the same object. Action and reaction apply when forces are
exerted on different objects.
45
1. What are the reactions to the following action?
(a) A tennis ball is hit by a racket.

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
(b) A grasshopper jumps into the air.

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. A school bag of mass 2.5kg rests on a desk top. What is the normal reaction force
exerted by the table on the school bag?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
3. Explain why a shopping trolley still moves even if two people apply forces on both
sides of the trolley.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
end of the module.
46
11.3.3 Momentum and Impulse
How difficult is it to stop a moving object? How difficult is it to make a stationary object
move? The answer to both of these questions depends on two physical characteristics of an
object. The mass and how fast the object is moving.
All objects in motion have momentum. It is the product of mass and the velocity.
Momentum is one of the greatest achievements in physics. It is the concept that explains
much of the behaviour of matter.
In this section, we will look at momentum and the law of conservation of momentum. We
will also look at impulse which is the change in momentum of an object. Finally, we will look
at the collisions between objects. Collisions are something we experience every day. This
involves force, mass, velocity and time.
Momentum
Our everyday experience, tells us that it is more difficult to stop a heavier object than a
lighter object moving at the same speed. Let us consider figure 28 below of a loaded truck
and a car moving at the same speed.
Figure 28 A heavier truck and a lighter car moving at the same speed.
Two factors considered here are mass and velocity. The product of mass and velocity is
called momentum. Momentum is a useful physical quantity that is used to describe the
motion of an object. The formula for momentum is
Momentum = Mass x Velocity

P = mv
Where P is the momentum in kg ms-1, m is the mass in kg and v is the velocity in ms-1.
Momentum is a vector quantity, being the product of a scalar (mass) and a vector (velocity).
The unit of the momentum does not have a particular name. The unit for momentum, Kgms-
1
, is the same as Ns, which is often used. The direction of momentum is the same as the
direction of velocity.
Take note that when we calculate momentum problems, we must take direction to the right
as positive and to the left as negative. It means that the right direction of action possesses
positive momentum and the left direction of action possesses negative momentum.
47
Example 1
Calculate the momentum of a car of mass 2000kg travelling at 5m/s.
Solution
P = mv = 2000 x 5 = 10 000kg m/s.
Example 2
A bicycle and rider of total mass 100 kg travelling west at 6m/s increases speed to 10m/s in 8
seconds.
Find the change in momentum.
Solution
Change in momentum = final momentum – initial momentum
Final momentum = mv
= 100 x 10
= 1000kg m/s.
Initial momentum = mu
= 100 x 6
= 600kg m/s.
Change in momentum = 1000 – 600

= 600kg m/s.
1. Calculate the momentum of the following objects:
a) A 0.1kg golf ball travelling at 16ms-1.
48
b) A 40kg rock falling at constant speed 30ms-1.
2. A motor vehicle of mass 1200kg has a momentum of 8400kg ms-1. Find its velocity.
3. Which object has the greater momentum: an object of 100kg mass travelling at 2ms-1
or an object of mass 2 kg travelling 100ms-1?
4. A person throws a 0.1kg ball at a brick wall. The ball hits the wall perpendicularly with
the speed of 5ms-1. Then it bounces back with a speed of 4ms-1.
Which of the following is the change in the momentum of the ball?
a) 0.1kg ms-1 b) 0.9kg m/s
c) 0.4kg m/s d) 0.5kg m/s
end of the module.
49
Conservation of momentum
When two bodies collide, each exerts a force on the other; Newton’s Third Law of Motion
calls these two forces ‘action’ and ‘reaction’. That is, FA = - FB.
In our previous discussions, we have learnt that Newton’s Second Law of Motion as F = ma
v u
and the acceleration is a  . If we now combine these two equations, then we will get:
t
(v  u) mv  mu changein momentum
FmX  
t t time
So the rate of change of momentum is equal to the external force causing the change. This is
Newton’s Second Law in terms of momentum.
m(v  u)
We have seen earlier that F so we can write:
t
m1 v 1  m1u1 m2 v 2  m2u2

t t
Multiplying both sides by t and rearranging this we get:

m1u1  m2u2  m1 v 1  m2 v 2
That is, the total momentum before a collision equals the total momentum after collision,
this is the law of conservation of momentum. The conversation of momentum is a
consequence of Newton’s Third Law of Motion. Here m1 = mass of body one, u1= initial
velocity of body one, m2= mass of body two, u2= initial velocity of body two, v1= final velocity
of body one and v2= final velocity of body two.
Example 1
A trolley of mass 2kg travelling at 3ms-1 collides with a stationary trolley of mass 1kg. The
two trolleys stick together after the collision. Find their common velocity.
Solution
before after
2kg at 3m/s 1kg at 0m/s (2 + 1)kg
Total momentum before impact = total momentum after impact

m1u2 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
3 x 2 + 0 = 3 x v (since v1 = v2)
6 = 3v
v = 2ms-1
50
Example 2
A trolley of mass 2kg travelling at 6ms-1 collides with another trolley of mass 0.4kg travelling
in the same direction at 2ms-1. After impact, the 2kg trolley travels at 3ms-1 in the same
direction. Find the velocity of the 0.4kg trolley after the collision.
Solution before after
2 kg at 6 m/s 0.4 kg at 2 m/s 2 kg at 3 m/s 0.4 kg at v?
Using : m1u2 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

2 x 6 + 0.4 x 2 = 3 x 2 + 0.4 x v
12.8 = 6 + 0.4v2
12.8 – 6 = 0.4v2
v2 = 17ms-1
Example 3
Two stationary rocks with masses 1kg and 2kg are held together. An explosion occurs
between the rocks. They are pushed apart with no loss of mass. The velocity of the 1kg rock
after the explosion is 4ms-1. Find the velocity of the 2kg rock after the explosion.
Solution
before
after
4m/s v
1kg 2kg
1kg 2kg
V = 0m/s
Using : m1u2 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

0 = 1 x (- 4) + 2 x v2
V2 = 2m/s
51
1. An object of mass 5kg moving at a velocity of 16ms-1 strikes another object of mass
3kg at rest. The two masses continue in motion together.
Find their common velocity.
2. A body of mass 5kg travels at 6ms-1. It collides with a 2kg mass travelling at 3ms-1 in the
same direction. After the collision, the 5kg mass has a velocity of 2m -1.
Find the velocity of the 2kg mass after the collision.
end of the module.
Impulse
52
The equation for Newton’s Second Law is F = ma, and the equation for acceleration is
v u v u
a . When you combine these two equations by substituting a  for acceleration
t t
in F = ma, it gives:
v u
Fm
t
Multiplying by t on both sides of the equation results in:
Ft = m(v – u) = mv.
However, the above relationship can also be written as: Ft = mv – mu i.e. Ft = ∆P. The
product Ft is called the impulse of the motion. The impulse measures how hard and for how
long a force is exerted. The result of an impulse (Ft) is equal to the change in momentum
(∆P) of the object upon which the force is applied. The SI unit for impulse is Ns or kgm/s.
Example 1
A ball of mass 0.03kg hits a wall horizontally at a speed of 15m/s and bounces back in the
opposite direction at a speed of 12m/s. It is in contact with the wall for an interval of 0.0015
seconds.
a) What is the change in momentum of the ball?

b) What is the impulse on the ball?
c) What is the magnitude of the force exerted by the wall on the ball?
Solution
Let us take initial direction of the ball as positive.
a) ∆P = mv – mu
= m(v – u) 0.03(-12 – 15)
= 0.03(- 27) = - 0.81Ns
b) Impulse = change in momentum.

Ft = ∆P = - 0.81Ns
c) Using the equation

(v  u) mv  mu
Fm 
t t
cha ngei n momentum

ti me
 0.81

0.0015
  540N
53
The negative sign tells us that both the change in momentum (impulse) and the force act in
the opposite direction since they are vectors. The magnitude of the force is 540N.
We can summarise the above discussions using the flowchart below.
F  ma
 v  u
Fm 
 t 
Ft = mv - mu mv  mu
F
t
Impulse = change in momentum
changein momentum
unit = Ns or unit = kgm/s Impulsiveforce 
time taken
unit = N
1. Impulse is defined as the 1. Impulsive force is defined as

product of a force, F and the rate of change of
the time interval, t during momentum during a collision
which the force acts. or explosion.
Impulse = force x time
=Fxt 2. Impulsive force is the large
force produced in a collision
2. Impulse is a vector or explosion that happens in a
quantity and has the same short time of impact. It is a
direction as the force that vector quantity.
causes the change in
momentum.
Figure 29 The relationship between the impulse and the impulsive force.
54
Example 2
A tennis ball and a piece of mud with the same mass (0.06kg) which are moving at 9m/s
strike a wall. The mud sticks to the wall while the ball rebounds at 6m/s. Find the impulse on
each object.
9m/s mud
9m/s
Tennis ball
6m/s
Solution
Take the right as positive.
For the mud:
For the ball:
Impulse
Impulse
= change in momentum
= change in momentum
=mv – mu
=mv – mu
= 0 – 0.06 x (-9)
= 0.06 x 6 – 0.06 x (-9)
= 0 + 0.54
= 0.36 + 0.54
= 0.54Ns
= 0.9Ns
You will now see from our example here that, a greater impulse is exerted on an object if it
rebounds after collision.
Example 3
A player spikes a volleyball coming towards him at a speed of 5m/s. The ball reverses its
direction at a speed of 20m/s. The mass of the ball is 0.36kg. Find the impulse on the ball.
5 m/s 20 m/s
Solution
Take the direction away from the hand as positive.
Impulse = Change in momentum = mv – mu = 0.36 x 20 – 0.36 x (-5) = 0.36 x 20 + 0.36 x 5

= 9Ns
The next example will make us understand how time affects collisions.
55
Example 4
A person of mass 50kg jumps down from a wall. He lands on a cement floor with a velocity of
6m/s.
He bends his knees upon landing. The time He did not bend his knees upon landing.
taken to stop his motion is 1.0 s. The time taken to stop his motion is 0.05 s.
u = 6m/s
u = 6m/s
v = 0m/s V = 0m/s
Solution Solution
Take the downward direction as positive. Take the downward direction as positive.
m = 50kg, u = 6m/s, v = 0 m/s, t = 1.0s m = 50kg, u = 6 m/s, v = 0 m/s, t = 0.05s
mv  mu mv  mu
F F
t t
50 x 0  50 x 6 50 x 0  50 x 6
F F
1 The negative sign indicates an 0.05
  300N opposing force that reduces F  6000N
momentum.
The impulsive force that acts on his legs
The impulsive force that acts on his is 6000N! This force is great enough to
legs is 300N. break his legs.
The above examples show us that the effective way to reduce impulsive force is to increase
= - 300N
the time of collision. This means that the greater the time of contact in collision, the less the
impulsive force will be. Also, the less time of collision will result in greater impulsive force
which is more dangerous. This is why some vehicles have air-bags installed in them.
The impulsive
Impulse force
can also bethat acts on his
determined legsthe
from is area under a force time graph. The area under the
300N.
graph is the change in momentum.
The area under the graph is the change in momentum
56
Example 5
Find the areas under the graphs (a) and (b) below.
(a) F(N) F(N)

(b)
10 8
5 4
0 t(s) 0 t(s)
2 4 1 2 3 4 5
Solutions
a) Impulse = area under graph b) Impulse = area under graph
1
1
 10 x 4   4 x 5  4 x 5
2 2
 20Ns  30Ns
1. A tennis player hits an incoming 0.06kg tennis ball with a velocity of 60m/s. The ball
bounces off in the opposite direction at 90m/s. Find the time of impact between the
racket and the ball if the impulsive force acting on the ball is 125N.
2. Tiger Woods hits a golf ball of mass 0.045kg at a velocity of 30m/s. If the time of
impact is 0.005s, what is the average impulsive force applied on the ball by the club?
57
3. A 0.045kg golf ball strikes a wall at a speed of 30m/s and rebounds at a speed of
20m/s. What is the impulse of the ball?
If the force on the ball is 500N, find the time of contact of the ball with the wall.
end of the module.
Elastic and Inelastic Collisions
In the previous topic on impulse, we saw that during a collision between two masses,
momentum is conserved. We will now look at kinetic energy during collisions using:
1
K E  mv 2
2
There are two types of collisions: Elastic and Inelastic.
Collisions
Elastic collision Inelastic collision
Two objects collide and move apart after Two objects combined and stop, or
a collision. move together with a common
velocity after collision.
m1 m2 m1 m2 m1 m2 m1 m2
u1 u2 v1 v2 u1 u2 v
 Momentum is conserved.  Momentum is conserved.

 Total energy is conserved.  Total energy is conserved.
 Kinetic energy is conserved.  Kinetic energy is not conserved.
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2)v
Figure 30 Definitions of Elastic and Inelastic collision.
Figure 2
58
Elastic collisions Inelastic collisions
In an elastic collision, kinetic energy is In an inelastic collision, kinetic energy is not

conserved. It means that the total kinetic conserved. It means that the total kinetic
energy before the collision equals the total energy after the collision is less than the
kinetic energy after the collision. total kinetic energy before the collision.
There is a loss of kinetic energy. The lost
Example energy is transformed into other forms of
A 3kg mass with a velocity of 4m/s collides energy such as heat and sound.
with a stationary 1kg mass. After impact, the
3kg mass continues moving in the same Example
direction at 2m/s. The 1kg mass moves at An 8kg mass travelling at 5m/s strikes a 2kg
6m/s in the same direction as the 3kg mass. mass at rest. After impact, the two masses
Is this an example of elastic collision? stick together and move off at 4m/s. Is the
collision elastic?
Solution
Total KE before the collision: Solution
Total KE before collision:
1 1
 m1u1  x 3
2
2 2 1
 m 1 u1  0
2
2
Total KE after collision:
1 1
 m1 v 1  m 2 v 2
2 2
2 2 1
 m1  m2 v 2
2
1 1 1
 x 3 x 22  x 1 x 6 2  8  2 4 2
2 2 2
 24J  80J
So the total KE before the collision equals the The collision is inelastic because there is a
total KE after the collision, and therefore the loss of KE but momentum is conserved.
collision is elastic.
Note: Momentum is conserved in this case.
59
1. A body of mass 6kg travelling at 3m/s strikes a 2kg mass at rest. After impact, the 6kg
mass travels at 2m/s.
Find the velocity of the 2kg mass after impact. Is the collision elastic or inelastic?
2. A body of mass 5kg moving at 16m/s collides with another 3kg mass at rest. The two
continue in motion together.
Find their common speed. Is the collision elastic?
end of the module.
60
11.3.4 Applications of Newton’s Laws
As stated in the introduction of topic two (2), the laws and concepts of Newton can help us
understand the things happening around us. We can apply Newtons’ Laws to improve the
environment and our standard of living.
The knowledge obtained in Newtons’ Laws of Motion has a close connection with the
practical developments in engineering and technology. For example, the applications of
these fundamental laws have enable engineers and scientists to put satellites into orbit,
design pulley systems and inclined planes to lift very heavy objects. The elevators used to
transport people up and down high rise buildings are some of those many applications of
Newtons’ Laws.
These laws and the principles of Newton help to improve the quality of life and explain the
operation of many modern home and industrial appliances.
Applications of Newton’s Laws
Let us look at some everyday experiences that involves the Newton’s Laws of Motion. As we
go through the situations and experiences, we must always remember Newton’s Three Laws
of Motion. Most of the experiences that we will be discussing, directly involves Newton’s
Laws.
Let us start by considering a situation where we are standing on the ground. You will feel an
upward contact force or normal reaction force of the ground supporting you. At most times,
you push down on the floor or on the ground with a force equal to your weight. The ground,
on the other hand, pushes back with an equal and opposite force.
However, imagine the ground is now taken away from where your feet stands, what do you
think will most likely happen to you? You are going to fall through the air. It means that, you
will have no experience of normal contact force acting on you. This will make you feel
weightless. This is what we call apparent weight.
FN = Fw + FA
Apparent weight = True weight + Applied force
Thus, when you are in an elevator or a lift going up to the tenth-floor in a twenty-storey
building, you can experience an apparent weight that is different from your true weight.
When the elevator gains speed on its way up the building, you will feel heavier than usual.
The two forces acting on you are your weight and the normal reaction force provided by the
floor. You can gain speed and accelerate if the normal reaction force is greater than your
weight.
61
If the elevator is accelerating downwards, the net resultant force acting on you would be in
the downward direction. The normal reaction force must be less than your weight and you
will feel lighter than usual.
Fw = F N - FA
True weight = apparent weight – applied force.
This happens when the elevator speeds up while going down. On the other hand, if the
elevator slows down while going up, you will also experience weightlessness just before and
at the instant it comes to a stop.
On both occasions of being lighter while going up or going down, you would feel like the
floor of the elevator was going to go away from your feet.
GOING UP
cable GOING UP
Normal cable
reaction
force
Normal
reaction
force
SPEEDING SLOWING
UP weight DOWN weight
Apparently heavier
Apparently lighter
Figure 31 You sense your weight only because the floor pushes up on you.
Example 1
If you were standing on a weighing scale in an elevator and it accelerated upwards, the
reading on the scale (your apparent weight, FN) would increase. If the elevator accelerates
upward at 1m/s2, then your apparent weight would be your true weight (Fw = mg) plus the
upward force exerted by the scale (F = ma).
Solution
The scale pushes upward with a normal force FN that equals the reading on the scale. It is the
apparent weight. Your true weight remains constant anywhere on the surface of the earth.
Example 2
What is the apparent weight of a 50 kg person accelerating upwards in a lift at 1.5m/s2?
Solution
FN = mg + ma = (50 x 10) + (50 x 1.5)= 500N + 75N = 575N.
62
Newton’s Laws applied to inclined planes

From our previous studies on the resolution of forces, we will now apply those ideas
together with Newton’s Second Law of Motion on inclined planes.
Let us now consider an object placed on a frictionless inclined plane. Obviously, the object
will accelerate down. The accelerating force is provided by the component of the object’s
weight in the direction down the plane.
FN
Fwsin θ
θ Fw cosθ
θ
Fw
Figure 32 The components of weight (Fw)
are: Fw cos θ and Fw sin θ.
In the figure above, the weight of the object (Fw = mg) has been resolved into two
components at right angles – one perpendicular to the plane (FN = Fw cos θ) and the other
parallel to the plane (Fp= Fw sin θ).
This can be summarised as:
Parallel component: Fp = Fw sin θ = mg sin θ

Perpendicular
Component: FN = Fw cos θ = mgcos θ
Normal force: Fp = - Fw cos θ
You can see from Figure 33 above that the normal force is equal and opposite to the force
that is perpendicular to the plane. Hence, there is no acceleration in that direction.
Using Newton’s Second Law, the resultant force F equals ma (F= ma). Hence, Fw= ma = mg
sin θ so a = g sin θ.
Note: The mass terms cancels out, so we can say that the acceleration does not depend on
the mass of the object but acceleration due to gravity.
63
Example 3
A 15kg box is allowed to slide freely down a smooth 300 inclined plane.
Using g = 10m/s, find the:
a) Resultant force down the incline plane

b) Acceleration of the object
Solution
a) Fp = ma = mg sin θ = 15 x 10 x sin300 = 75N
b) a = g sin θ = 10 x sin300 = 5m/s2.
Example 4
A 20kg object is attached by a thin rope to a FN m1 = 20kg
50kg mass that hangs over a frictionless pulley
T
at the top of a 250 incline. (Use g = 10m/s2)
Fw sinθ
25
0 T
Calculate the: m2 = 50kg
a) Acceleration 0
25 Fw Fw cos
b) Tension in the string F2 = 500N
Solution
a) Let m1 be the 20kg mass on the incline, m2is the 50kg hanging mass.
F(down the incline)= Fp= m1gsinθ
= 20 x 10 x sin250 = 85N.
F(up the incline) = FA = m2g
= 50 x 10 = 500N.
FR = FA – Fp = 500N – 85N
= 415N up the incline.
FR = ma: i.e. a =m/s2 up the incline.
FR
a
m total
415

20  50
 5.9m/s2 up the incline
b) T = Fwsinθ + ma
= mg sin θ + ma
64
= 20 x 10 x sin250 + 20 x 5.9
= 203N
Example 5
Consider the system of coupled masses sitting on a frictionless surface as shown in the
diagram. A force of 60N is applied to the slope. Determine:
a) The acceleration of the system,

b) The force that 2kg mass exerts on the 4kg mass.
Frictionless surface
4kg
2kg
F = 60N
0
30
Solution
a) We will first construct a “black box” around the whole system and determine the
unbalanced force acting on it.
Black box Fopp = mg sin = Fr
4kg
Fapp = 60N
2kg
0
30
Fun = Fapp + Fopp
We will choose up the slope as positive direction, down as the negative direction and g
= 9.8m/s2. i.e. Fun = Fapp – mg sinθ
= 60 – (4 + 2 x 9.8sin300)
= 60 – (6 x 9.8sin300)
= 60 – 29.4
= 30.6N up the slope.
Hence, the acceleration of the whole system given by the Newton’s Second Law is:
Fun
a
m
30.6

6
 5.1m/s2 up the s l ope
65
b) To determine the force that the 2kg mass exerts on the 4kg mass, we will construct a
second “black box” around the 4kg mass only.
New black box
Fopp = mg sin θ = 19.6N
Fun = 4 x 5.1 = 20.4N 4kg
Fapp
0
30
The 4kg mass is part of the whole system and will therefore accelerate up the slope at
5.1m/s2. So the unbalanced force acting on this mass must be:
Fun = ma = 4 x 5.1 = 20.4N
The force opposing the 4kg mass being pushed up the slope is simply the parallel component
of its weight. So
Fun = mg sinθ = 4 x 9.8 x sin300 = 19.6N. If we use the same equation as before,
Fun = Fapp + Fopp
20.4N = Fapp – 19.6N
i.e. Fapp = 20.4N + 19.6N = 40N the force that 2kg mass is exerting on the 4kg mass.
66
1. When you are standing in an elevator, there are only two significant forces acting on
you, your weight and the normal reaction force. The only object that pushes you
upward is the floor of the elevator. (Note that the tension in the cable is not pulling on you;
it is pulling on the elevator.)
GOING UP
Cable
Normal reaction force
Weight
State whether, the normal reaction force is less than, equal to or greater than your weight
when the elevator is:
a) stationary
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
b) moving upwards with a constant speed

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
c) speeding up on its way to the top floor

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
d) slowing down as it approaches the top floor.

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
67
2. Study the details in each of the systems shown below and then determine:
4kg
5kg 6kg 2kg

3kg 3kg
F = 20N
F = 16N F = 30N 1kg
0
30
A B C
a) The total acceleration of each system
b) The forces acting between each of the masses as labelled.
end of the module.
NOW REVISE WELL USING THE MAIN POINTS ON THE NEXT PAGE.
68
GR 11 GR 11 PHYS M3 SUMMARY
Summary
You will now revise this module before doing ASSESSMENT 3.
Here are the main points to help you revise. Refer to the module topics if you need more
information.
 Force is a vector quantity.

 Weight is a measure of the force on an object due to the pull of gravity.
 The weight of an object is directly proportional to its mass.
 When forces are in equilibrium, the object will be at rest or move with a constant
velocity.
 The vector sum of the forces acting on an object is called the net or resultant force.
 The velocity of an object changes when there is a non – zero net force acting on it. The
statement is an expression of Newton’s First Law of Motion.
 When a net force acts on an object, it accelerates in the direction of the net force.
 A force can be resolved into vertical and horizontal components.
 Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist a change in its motion.
 Newton’s Second Law of Motion describes the relationship between the acceleration
of an object, the net force acting on it and the object’s mass. It can be expressed as:
Fnet = ma.
 Newton’s Second Law can be applied to a single object or a system of multiple objects
connected.
 When an object applies a force (an action) to a second object, the second object
applies an equal and opposite force (a reaction) to the first object. This statement is an
expression of Newton’s Third Law of Motion.
 The momentum of an object is the product of its mass and its velocity.
 The principle of conservation of momentum states that the total momentum is
conserved.
a) For an inelastic collision, momentum and total energy are conserved but kinetic
energy after the collision is less than the kinetic energy before the collision.
b) In an elastic collision, momentum, total energy and kinetic energy are conserved.
c) The impulse delivered to an object by a force is the product of the force and the
time interval during which the force acts on the object.
 The impulse delivered to an object by a force is the product of the force and the time
interval during which the force acts on the object.
 The impulse delivered by a net force on an object is equal to the change in momentum
of the object. It can be expressed as: Ft = mv – mu.
Hope you have enjoyed studying this unit. We encourage you to revise well and complete
assessment task 3 in your assessment booklet.
NOW YOU MUST COMPLETE ASSESSMENT TASK 3 AND

RETURN IT TO THE PROVINCIAL CENTRE CO-ORDINATOR.
69
GR 11 GR 11 PHYS M3 ANSWERS TO LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Answers to Learning Activities 1 - 12
Learning Activity 1
1. (a) Kinematics is the study of motion in a straight line without considering the
forces associated with motion while dynamics involves the study of motion
together with forces associated with motion.
(b) Mass is a property of an object that is made up of the amount of matter present
in an object. Weight is a force due to the pull of gravity.
2. The weight of the stone will change, but its mass remains the same. It is because the
weight is a force and it depends on the mass of an object and the gravitational field
strength of the moon.
3. a) Wearth (use g = 10ms-2)

WE = mg
= 4.7kg x 10ms-2
= 47kgms-2 or 47N
b) Wmoon = mg
= 4.7kg x 1.6ms-2
= 7.52kgms-2 or 7.52N
4. a) A force can deform the shape of an object.

b) A force can increase or decrease the speed of an object.
5. A contact force is a force that involves two bodies coming in contact with each other
so that one body can experience a force from the other. A non – contact force is a
force that acts from a distance. The body applying the force does not have to be in
contact with the body experiencing the force.
70
Learning Activity 2
1. a) (i) The greatest force would be 80N + 60N = 140N in the same direction
(ii) The smallest will be 80N – 60N = 20N in the direction of 80N force.
b) The resultant force is:
FR  F1  F2
2 2
Fnet  80 2  60 2
 100N
60
 Ta n θ 
80
θ  ta n1 0.75
 36.9 0
c) Resolve the 60N force into components:
Fy = 60sin600 = 52N
Fx = 60cos600 = 30N to the left
Fx = 80N – 30N = 50N right.
Fnet  522  50 2
 72.13N in the direction of 460 from 80N force.
2. Resolve the 8N force into components:
Fy = 8sin600 = 6.93N, Fx = 8cos600 = 4N to the left.
Fx = 12N – 4N = 8N right.
Fnet  8 2  6.932
0
 10.6N at an angle of 41 to 12N force.
Learning Activity 3
1. The components of 6N force:
Fx = 6 cos300 = 6 x 0.866 = 5.2N right.
Fy = 6 sin300 = 6 x 0.5 = 3N upwards.
71
2. (a) The components of 200N force:
Fx = 200 cos330 = 168N to the right.
Fy = 200 sin 330 = 109N downwards.
(b) W = mg = 250 x 10 = 2500N
(c) Total force = 2500 + 109 = 2609N.
Learning Activity 4
1. Friction is a force that tries to oppose the motion of an object. It is measured in the
unit called Newton (N).
2. Friction always acts in parallel in the opposite direction to the motion of an object.
3. Data: Solution:
FA = 10N Fnet = FA - FR Fnet  ma
FR = 2N = 10N – 2N Fnet
a 
m = 24kg = 8N m
8N

24kg
 0.33ms 2 in the direction of 10N force.
4. Fx = 260 cos 300
= 260 x 0.0866025403
= 225.2N
F  F x  FR
0  225.2N  FR
FR  225.2N
Since the box travels at constant speed:

Fx = F r
Fr

Fn
225.2N

450N
 0.5
72
Learning Activity 5
1. The inertia of the books above keep them in their original position and they will drop
down. Again, if a book is pulled out slowly, the pile of books moves with it.
2. The passengers are in a state of motion when the bus is moving. When the bus stops
suddenly, the inertia of the passengers keeps them in motion. Thus, the passengers
move forward.
Learning Activity 6
1. Data:
Fnet = 5000N – 3000N
m = 300kg
Solution
Fnet = ma:
Fnet
a
m
2000N

300kg
 6.7ms 2
2. Fnet = ma
Data:
Fnet = 12 x 2
Fa = 50N
Fr = ?
Solution:
Fnet = Fa - Fr
24 = 50 - Fr
 Fr = 50N – 24N
= 26N
73
3. Data:
m = 70kg
s = 1.6m
t = 1.2sec
u = 0ms-1
a=?
Fnet = ?
First we need to find acceleration;
Solution:
1
s  ut  a t2
2
1 
1.6  0 x 1.2   a x 1.2 2 
2 
1 
1.6  0   a x 1.44 
2 
1.44a
1.6 
2
3.2  1.44a
3.2 1.44a

1.44 1.44
a  2.22ms 2
 Fnet  ma
 70kg x 2.22ms 2
 155.4N
4. (D) The block will move with acceleration if the forces acting on it are unbalanced. If
the difference between the forces F1 and F2 is greater than 3 N, then there is an
acceleration.
Fnet = F1 – F2
= 9N – 5N
= 4N
74
Learning Activity 7
1. a) The racket slows down as the ball moves forward.
b) The ground pushes on the legs of the grasshopper.
2. The normal reaction force equals the weight of the bag.
Fn = mg = 2.5 x 10 = 25N3.
3. The trolley still moves because there is an unbalanced force acting on the trolley.
Action and reaction happen only when forces apply on different objects.
Learning Activity 8
1. (a) P = mv = 0.1 x 16 = 1.6kgm/s
(b) P = mv = 40 x 30 = 1200kgm/s
2. P
v
m
8400

1200
 7m/s
3. They will have the same momentum of 200kgm/s.
4. (B) 0.9kgm/s.
Learning Activity 9
1. m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
5 x 16 + 3 x 0 = 5v + 3v
80 = 8v
v = 10m/s
2. m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

5 x 6 + 2 x 3 = 5 x 2 + 2v2
26 = 2v2
V2 = 13m/s.
75
Learning Activity 10
1. mv  mu
F
t
mv  mu
t 
F
t
0.06 x 90  0.06  60
125
 0.072 s econds
2. Data:
m= 0.045kg
u = 0m/s
v = 30m/s
t = 0.005s
Solution:
mv  mu
F
t
t
0.045 x 30  0.045 x 0
0.005
 270N
3. Take the direction to the right as positive.
Impulse = change in momentum

= mv – mu
= 0.045 x 20 – 0.045(-30)
= 2.25Ns
1. Total kinetic before collision:

1 1
m 1u 1  m 2 u 2
2 2
2 2
1
 x 6 x 32  0
2
 27J
76
Total kinetic energy after collision:

1 1
m1 v 1  m 2 v 2
2 2
2 2
1 1
 x 6 x 22  x 2 x v 2
2 2
Equating KE before collision = KE after collision:
v 2  27  12
 15
 3.87 2
1 1
 x 6 x 2 2  x 2 x 3.87 2
2 2
1
 x 6 x 32  0
2
27  27J
Hence, elastic collision
2. m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
5 x 16 + 2 x 0 = 5v + 3v
80 = 8v
v = 10m/s
Total KE before collision:
5 x 16 + 2 x 0 = 80J
1 1
x 5 x 10 2  x 3 x 10 2
2 2
 400J
Note that total KE before collision is not equal to total KE after collision, therefore, inelastic
collision.
1. a) Fn equals your weight

b) Fn equals your weight
77
c) Fn is greater than your weight

d) Fn is less than your weight
Fun
2. (i) a) a
m
16

8
 2m/s2
Note that since we have a frictionless surface, there is no opposing force.

Therefore, the applied force will be equal to the unbalance force
accelerating the masses.
b) F = ma = 5 x 2 = 10N
(ii) a) Fun
a
m
30

10
 3m/s2
b) (i) F3-1 = 7 x 3
= 21N
(ii) F1-6 = 6 x 3
= 18N
(iii) Let us take up the slope as positive.
(a) Fun = Fapplied + Fopposing
= 20 +(- mg sin300)
= 20 – 30
= - 10N
i.e. Fun = 10N down the slope.
Fun
a
m
10

6
 1.67m/s2
This is the acceleration of the whole system.
78
Fun = 2 x 1.67 = 3.3 N downwards. This is the force accelerating the 2kg mass
downwards.
Using Fun = Fapp + Fopp

3.3 = Fapp + (- mg sin300)
3.3 = Fapp + (- 2 x 10 x 0.5)
3.3 = Fapp – 10
Fapp = 3.3 + 10 = 13.3N
If you have queries regarding the answers, then please visit your nearest FODE provincial
centre and ask a distance tutor to assist you.
79
GR 11 GR 11 PHYS M3 REFERENCES
References
Chew Charles, Fong Siew Chow and Tiong Boon Ho. (eds). GCE ‘O’ Level Physics Matters.
Singapore: Marshall Cavendish, 2007.
Giancoli C. Douglas . (ed). Physics Principles with Applications. Virginia: Prentice – Hall
International, 1985.
Lofts Greame , O’ Keeffe Dan, Pentland Peter, Philip Ross, Bass Garry, NardelliDaniella,
Robertson Pam, Tacon Jill and Pearce John. (eds). Jacaranda Physics . Queensland: John
Wiley & Sons, 2004.
TeekSeng Foo, Tiek Cheng Yee, HinBeng Lee ChuanGeok Chong and Wong Jonathan. (eds).
SUCCESS Physics. Selangor DarulEhsan: Oxford Fajar, 2010.
Wilkinson John. Essentials of Physics. South Yara: Macmillan Education Australia, 1993.
Young D. Hugh, Zemansky W. Mark and Sears W. Francis. (eds). University Physics, 8TH
Edittion. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Eddision – Wesley, 1991.
80
FODE PROVINCIAL CENTRES CONTACTS
PC FODE PROVINCIAL CUG CUG

NO. CENTRE ADDRESS PHONE/FAX PHONES CONTACT PERSON PHONE
1 DARU P. O. Box 68, Daru 6459033 72228146 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229047
2 KEREMA P. O. Box 86, Kerema 6481303 72228124 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229049
3 CENTRAL C/- FODE HQ 3419228 72228110 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229050
4 ALOTAU P. O. Box 822, Alotau 6411343 / 6419195 72228130 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229051
5 POPONDETTA P. O. Box 71, Popondetta 6297160 / 6297678 72228138 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229052
6 MENDI P. O. Box 237, Mendi 5491264 / 72895095 72228142 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229053
7 GOROKA P. O. Box 990, Goroka 5322085 / 5322321 72228116 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229054
8 KUNDIAWA P. O. Box 95, Kundiawa 5351612 72228144 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229056
9 MT HAGEN P. O. Box 418, Mt. Hagen 5421194 / 5423332 72228148 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229057
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11 WEWAK P. O. Box 583, Wewak 4562231/ 4561114 72228122 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229062
12 MADANG P. O. Box 2071, Madang 4222418 72228126 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229063
13 LAE P. O. Box 4969, Lae 4725508 / 4721162 72228132 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229064
14 KIMBE P. O. Box 328, Kimbe 9835110 72228150 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229065
15 RABAUL P. O. Box 83, Kokopo 9400314 72228118 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229067
16 KAVIENG P. O. Box 284, Kavieng 9842183 72228136 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229069
17 BUKA P. O. Box 154, Buka 9739838 72228108 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229073
18 MANUS P. O. Box 41, Lorengau 9709251 72228128 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229080
19 NCD C/- FODE HQ 3230299 Ext 26 72228134 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229081
20 WABAG P. O. Box 259, Wabag 5471114 72228120 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229082
21 HELA P. O. Box 63, Tari 73197115 72228141 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229083
22 JIWAKA c/- FODE Hagen 72228143 The Coordinator Senior Clerk 72229085
81
FODE SUBJECTS AND COURSE PROGRAMMES
GRADE LEVELS SUBJECTS/COURSES

1. English
2. Mathematics
Grades 7 and 8 3. Personal Development
4. Social Science
5. Science
6. Making a Living
1. English
2. Mathematics
3. Personal Development
Grades 9 and 10
4. Science
5. Social Science
6. Business Studies
7. Design and Technology- Computing
1. English – Applied English/Language& Literature
2. Mathematics - Mathematics A / Mathematics B
3. Science – Biology/Chemistry/Physics
Grades 11 and 12
4. Social Science – History/Geography/Economics
5. Personal Development
6. Business Studies
7. Information & Communication Technology
REMEMBER:
 For Grades 7 and 8, you are required to do all six (6) subjects.
 For Grades 9 and 10, you must complete five (5) subjects and one (1) optional to be certified. Business Studies and Design &
Technology – Computing are optional.
 For Grades 11 and 12, you are required to complete seven (7) out of thirteen (13) subjects to be certified.
Your Provincial Coordinator or Supervisor will give you more information regarding each subject and course.
GRADES 11 & 12 COURSE PROGRAMMES
No Science Humanities Business

1 Applied English Language & Literature Language & Literature/Applied English
2 Mathematics A/B Mathematics A/B Mathematics A/B
3 Personal Development Personal Development Personal Development
4 Biology Biology/Physics/Chemistry Biology/Physics/Chemistry
5 Chemistry/ Physics Geography Economics/Geography/History
6 Geography/History/Economics History / Economics Business Studies
7 ICT ICT ICT
Notes: You must seek advice from your Provincial Coordinator regarding the recommended courses in each
stream. Options should be discussed carefully before choosing the stream when enrolling into Grade 11.
FODE will certify for the successful completion of seven subjects in Grade 12.
CERTIFICATE IN MATRICULATION STUDIES
No Compulsory Courses Optional Courses
1 English 1 Science Stream: Biology, Chemistry, Physics

2 English 2 Social Science Stream: Geography, Intro to Economics and Asia and the
Modern World
3 Mathematics 1
4 Mathematics 2
5 History of Science & Technology
REMEMBER:
You must successfully complete 8 courses: 5 compulsory and 3 optional.
82

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DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

FORCE AND MOTION (DYNAMICS)

PUBLISHED BY FLEXIBLE OPEN AND DISTANCE EDUCATION

Course Format Editor

FORCE AND MOTION (DYNAMICS)

IN THIS MODULE YOU WILL LEARN ABOUT:

11.3.2: NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

11.3.3: MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE

11.3.4: APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S LAWS

We also acknowledge the professional guidance and services provided through-out

Science Subject Review Committee-FODE

DIANA TEIT AKIS

Flexible Open and Distance Education

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

Printed by the Flexible, Open and Distance Education

MODULE 11.3: FORCE AND MOTION (DYNAMICS) 5 - 72

11.3.2: Newton’s Laws of Motion……………….………………………………………...……..….. 29 - 46

11.3.3: Momentum and Impulse…………………………………………………………………..……. 47 - 60

11.3.4: Applications of Newton’s Laws………………………………………….…….……………… 61 - 68

This is a provision by Flexible, Open and Distance Education as an alternative pathway of

 To develop and encourage an education system which satisfies the requirements of

UKE KOMBRA, PhD

Module 11.3 Force and Motion (Dynamics)

In the previous module on Kinematics, we looked at motion in a straight line without

A game of tug-of-war is the ultimate test of strength between two groups of

After going through this module, you are expected to:

 demonstrate an understanding of fundamental physics principles and models.

Time Frame Suggested allotment time: 10 weeks

This module should be completed within ten (10) weeks.

Types and Properties of Forces

A force is a push or pull on an object.

Name of Force Definition

Surface Tension Is an attraction between the particles of the same material.

Upthrust The difference between the real weight of an object and

Electrostatic This is the product of two charges and is inversely

Friction A force that tries to oppose the motion of an object

Learning Activity 1 20 minutes

Answer the following questions on the spaces provided.

1. What is the difference between:

a) kinematics and dynamics?

b) mass and weight?

4. List two things a force can do.

5. Differentiate between contact and non-contact forces.

Scalars and vectors

Figure 1 A vector has both size and direction.

 Use a ruler, draw a straight horizontal line.

 The arrow head represents the direction of the vector.

How do we combine vectors?

The resultant force is the result of combining individual forces together.

Addition and subtraction of parallel vectors

Forces acting in the same direction Forces acting in the opposite

Addition of non-parallel vectors

A. The triangle method (Head-to-tail method)

Figure 4 A scaled diagram of the triangle of forces

B. The parallelogram rule (Parallelogram of forces)

Figure 5 A scaled diagram of the parallelogram of forces

C. Two perpendicular forces

 Resultant force FR = F12 + F22

Therefore resultant force, FR  F1 2  F2 2 FR