2014 ESC/ESA Guidelines On Non-Cardiac Surgery: Cardiovascular Assessment and Management

European Heart Journal (2014) 35, 2383–2431 ESC/ESA GUIDELINES
doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehu282
2014 ESC/ESA Guidelines on non-cardiac surgery:

cardiovascular assessment and management
The Joint Task Force on non-cardiac surgery: cardiovascular
assessment and management of the European Society of Cardiology
(ESC) and the European Society of Anaesthesiology (ESA)
Authors/Task Force Members: Steen Dalby Kristensen* (Chairperson) (Denmark),
Juhani Knuuti* (Chairperson) (Finland), Antti Saraste (Finland), Stefan Anker
(Germany), Hans Erik Bøtker (Denmark), Stefan De Hert (Belgium), Ian Ford (UK),
Jose Ramón Gonzalez-Juanatey (Spain), Bulent Gorenek (Turkey),
Guy Robert Heyndrickx (Belgium), Andreas Hoeft (Germany), Kurt Huber (Austria),
Bernard Iung (France), Keld Per Kjeldsen (Denmark), Dan Longrois (France),
Thomas F. Lüscher (Switzerland), Luc Pierard (Belgium), Stuart Pocock (UK),
Susanna Price (UK), Marco Roffi (Switzerland), Per Anton Sirnes (Norway),
Miguel Sousa-Uva (Portugal), Vasilis Voudris (Greece), Christian Funck-Brentano
(France).
ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines: Jose Luis Zamorano (Chairperson) (Spain), Stephan Achenbach (Germany),
Helmut Baumgartner (Germany), Jeroen J. Bax (Netherlands), Héctor Bueno (Spain), Veronica Dean (France),
Christi Deaton (UK), Cetin Erol (Turkey), Robert Fagard (Belgium), Roberto Ferrari (Italy), David Hasdai (Israel),
Arno W. Hoes (Netherlands), Paulus Kirchhof (Germany/UK), Juhani Knuuti (Finland), Philippe Kolh (Belgium),
Patrizio Lancellotti (Belgium), Ales Linhart (Czech Republic), Petros Nihoyannopoulos (UK), Massimo F. Piepoli
(Italy), Piotr Ponikowski (Poland), Per Anton Sirnes (Norway), Juan Luis Tamargo (Spain), Michal Tendera (Poland),
Adam Torbicki (Poland), William Wijns (Belgium), Stephan Windecker (Switzerland).
ESA Clinical Guidelines Committee: Maurizio Solca (Chairperson) (Italy), Jean-François Brichant (Belgium),
Stefan De Hert a, (Belgium), Edoardo de Robertisb, (Italy), Dan Longroisc, (France), Sibylle Kozek Langenecker
(Austria), Josef Wichelewski (Israel).
* Corresponding authors: Steen Dalby Kristensen, Dept. of Cardiology, Aarhus University Hospital Skejby, Brendstrupgardsvej, 8200 Aarhus Denmark. Tel: +45 78452030;
Fax: +45 78452260; Email: steendk@dadlnet.dk.
Juhani Knuuti, Turku University Hospital, Kiinamyllynkatu 4–8, P.O. Box 52, FI-20521 Turku Finland. Tel: +358 2 313 2842; Fax: +358 2 231 8191; Email: juhani.knuuti@utu.fi
The content of these European Society of Cardiology (ESC) Guidelines has been published for personal and educational use only. No commercial use is authorized. No part of the ESC
Guidelines may be translated or reproduced in any form without written permission from the ESC. Permission can be obtained upon submission of a written request to Oxford University
Press, the publisher of the European Heart Journal and the party authorized to handle such permissions on behalf of the ESC.
Other ESC entities having participated in the development of this document:
ESC Associations: Acute Cardiovascular Care Association (ACCA); European Association for Cardiovascular Prevention & Rehabilitation (EACPR); European Association of Cardiovas-
cular Imaging (EACVI); European Association of Percutaneous Cardiovascular Interventions (EAPCI); European Heart Rhythm Association (EHRA); Heart Failure Association (HFA).
ESC Councils: Council for Cardiology Practice (CCP); Council on Cardiovascular Primary Care (CCPC).
ESC Working Groups: Cardiovascular Pharmacology and Drug Therapy; Cardiovascular Surgery; Hypertension and the Heart; Nuclear Cardiology and Cardiac Computed Tomography;
Thrombosis; Valvular Heart Disease.
Disclaimer. The ESC Guidelines represent the views of the ESC and were produced after careful consideration of the scientific and medical knowledge and the evidence available at the
time of their dating. The ESC is not responsible in the event of any contradiction, discrepancy and/or ambiguity between the ESC Guidelines and any other official recommendations or
guidelines issued by the relevant public health authorities, in particular in relation to good use of healthcare or therapeutic strategies. Health professionals are encouraged to take the ESC
Guidelines fully into account when exercising their clinical judgment as well as in the determination and the implementation of preventive, diagnostic or therapeutic medical strategies;
however, the ESC Guidelines do not override, in any way whatsoever, the individual responsibility of health professionals to make appropriate and accurate decisions in consideration of the
condition of each patient’s health and in consultation with that patient and, where appropriate and/or necessary, the patient’s caregiver. Nor do the ESC Guidelines exempt health profes-
sionals from taking full and careful consideration of the relevant official updated recommendations or guidelines issued by competent public health authorities in order to manage each
patient’s case in the light of the scientifically accepted data pursuant to their respective ethical and professional obligations. It is also the health professional’s responsibility to verify the
applicable rules and regulations relating to drugs and medical devices at the time of prescription.
&The European Society of Cardiology 2014. All rights reserved. For permissions please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.
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2384 ESC/ESA Guidelines
Document Reviewers: Massimo F. Piepoli (Review co-ordinator) (Italy), William Wijns (Review co-ordinator)
(Belgium), Stefan Agewall (Norway), Claudio Ceconi (Italy), Antonio Coca (Spain), Ugo Corrà (Italy),
Raffaele De Caterina (Italy), Carlo Di Mario (UK), Thor Edvardsen (Norway), Robert Fagard (Belgium),
Giuseppe Germano (Italy), Fabio Guarracino (Italy), Arno Hoes (Netherlands), Torben Joergensen (Denmark),
Peter Jüni (Switzerland), Pedro Marques-Vidal (Switzerland), Christian Mueller (Switzerland), Öztekin Oto (Turkey),
Philippe Pibarot (Canada), Piotr Ponikowski (Poland), Olav FM Sellevold (Norway), Filippos Triposkiadis (Greece),
Stephan Windecker (Switzerland), Patrick Wouters (Belgium).
ESC National Cardiac Societies document reviewers listed in appendix.
The disclosure forms of the authors and reviewers are available on the ESC website www.escardio.org/guidelines
a
Scientific Committee Chairperson & ESA Board Representative; bNASC Chairperson; and cEBA/UEMS representative
Online publish-ahead-of-print 1 August 2014
See page 2342 for the editorial comment on this article (doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehu295)
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Keywords Guidelines † Non-cardiac surgery † Pre-operative cardiac risk assessment † Pre-operative cardiac testing †
Pre-operative coronary artery revascularization † Perioperative cardiac management † Anti-thrombotic
therapy † Beta-blockers † Valvular disease † Arrhythmias † Heart failure † Renal disease † Pulmonary
disease † Cerebrovascular disease † Anaesthesiology † Post-operative cardiac surveillance
Table of Contents
Abbreviations and acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2385 4.3.3 Reversal of anticoagulant therapy . . . . . . . . . . . .2402
1. Preamble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2386 4.4 Revascularization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2403
2. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2387 4.4.1 Prophylactic revascularization in patients with
2.1 The magnitude of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2387 asymptomatic or stable ischaemic heart disease . . . . . . . .2404
2.2 Change in demographics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2387 4.4.2 Type of prophylactic revascularization in patients
2.3 Purpose and organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2387 with stable ischaemic heart disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2405
3. Pre-operative evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2389 4.4.3 Revascularization in patients with non-ST-elevation
3.1 Surgical risk for cardiac events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2389 acute coronary syndrome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2405
3.2 Type of surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2389 5. Specific diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2406
3.2.1 Endovascular vs. open vascular procedures . . . . . .2389 5.1 Chronic heart failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2406
3.2.2 Open vs. laparoscopic or thoracoscopic procedures. .2390 5.2 Arterial hypertension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2408
3.3 Functional capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2390 5.3 Valvular heart disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2408
3.4 Risk indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2391 5.3.1 Patient evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2408
3.5 Biomarkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2392 5.3.2 Aortic stenosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2408
3.6 Non-invasive testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2392 5.3.3 Mitral stenosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2409
3.6.1 Non-invasive testing of cardiac disease . . . . . . . . .2393 5.3.4 Primary aortic regurgitation and mitral regurgitation 2409
3.6.2 Non-invasive testing of ischaemic heart disease. . . .2393 5.3.5 Secondary mitral regurgitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2409
3.7 Invasive coronary angiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2395 5.3.6 Patients with prosthetic valve(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . .2409
4. Risk-reduction strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2395 5.3.7 Prophylaxis of infective endocarditis. . . . . . . . . . .2409
4.1 Pharmacological . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2395 5.4 Arrhythmias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2410
4.1.1 Beta-blockers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2395 5.4.1 New-onset ventricular arrhythmias in the
4.1.2 Statins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2398 pre-operative period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2410
4.1.3 Nitrates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2398 5.4.2 Management of supraventricular arrhythmias and
4.1.4 Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and atrial fibrillation in the pre-operative period. . . . . . . . . . .2410
angiotensin-receptor blockers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2398 5.4.3 Perioperative bradyarrhythmias. . . . . . . . . . . . . .2411
4.1.5 Calcium channel blockers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2399 5.4.4 Perioperative management of patients with
4.1.6 Alpha2 receptor agonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2399 pacemaker/implantable cardioverter defibrillator . . . . . . .2411
4.1.7 Diuretics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2399 5.5 Renal disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2411
4.2 Perioperative management in patients on anti-platelet 5.6 Cerebrovascular disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2413
agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2400 5.7 Peripheral artery disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2414
4.2.1 Aspirin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2400 5.8 Pulmonary disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2415
4.2.2 Dual anti-platelet therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2400 5.9 Congenital heart disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2416
4.2.3 Reversal of anti-platelet therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . .2401 6. Perioperative monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2416
4.3 Perioperative management in patients on anticoagulants . .2401 6.1 Electrocardiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2416
4.3.1 Vitamin K antagonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2401 6.2 Transoesophageal echocardiography . . . . . . . . . . . . .2417
4.3.2 Non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants . . . . .2402 6.3 Right heart catheterization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2418
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ESC/ESA Guidelines 2385
6.4 Disturbed glucose metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2418 ECG electrocardiography/electrocardiographically/electro-

6.5 Anaemia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2419 cardiogram
7. Anaesthesia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2419 eGFR estimated glomerular filtration rate
7.1 Intra-operative anaesthetic management . . . . . . . . . . .2420 ESA European Society of Anaesthesiology
7.2 Neuraxial techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2420 ESC European Society of Cardiology
7.3 Perioperative goal-directed therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2420 EVAR endovascular abdominal aortic aneurysm repair
FEV1 Forced expiratory volume in 1 second
7.4 Risk stratification after surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2421
HbA1c glycosylated haemoglobin
7.5 Early diagnosis of post-operative complications . . . . . .2421
HF-PEF heart failure with preserved left ventricular ejection frac-
7.6 Post-operative pain management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2421
tion
8. Gaps in evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2422
HF-REF heart failure with reduced left ventricular ejection frac-
9. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2422 tion
10. Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2425 ICD implantable cardioverter defibrillator
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2425 ICU intensive care unit
IHD ischaemic heart disease
INR international normalized ratio
Abbreviations and acronyms IOCM iso-osmolar contrast medium
KDIGO Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes
AAA abdominal aortic aneurysm LMWH low molecular weight heparin
ACEI angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor LOCM low-osmolar contrast medium
ACS acute coronary syndromes LV left ventricular
AF atrial fibrillation LVEF left ventricular ejection fraction
AKI acute kidney injury MaVS Metoprolol after Vascular Surgery
AKIN Acute Kidney Injury Network MDRD Modification of Diet in Renal Disease
ARB angiotensin receptor blocker MET metabolic equivalent
ASA American Society of Anesthesiologists MRI magnetic resonance imaging
b.i.d. bis in diem (twice daily) NHS National Health Service
BBSA Beta-Blocker in Spinal Anesthesia NOAC non-vitamin K oral anticoagulant
BMS bare-metal stent NSQIP National Surgical Quality Improvement Program
BNP B-type natriuretic peptide NSTE-ACS non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndromes
bpm beats per minute NT-proBNP N-terminal pro-BNP
CABG coronary artery bypass graft O2 oxygen
CAD coronary artery disease OHS obesity hypoventilation syndrome
CARP Coronary Artery Revascularization Prophylaxis OR odds ratio
CAS carotid artery stenting P gp platelet glycoprotein
CASS Coronary Artery Surgery Study PAC pulmonary artery catheter
CEA carotid endarterectomy PAD peripheral artery disease
CHA2DS2-VASc cardiac failure, hypertension, age ≥75 (doubled), dia- PAH pulmonary artery hypertension
betes, stroke (doubled)-vascular disease, age 65–74 PCC prothrombin complex concentrate
and sex category (female) PCI percutaneous coronary intervention
CI confidence interval POBBLE Peri-Operative Beta-BLockadE
CI-AKI contrast-induced acute kidney injury POISE Peri-Operative ISchemic Evaluation
CKD chronic kidney disease POISE-2 Peri-Operative ISchemic Evaluation 2
CKD-EPI Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration q.d. quaque die (once daily)
Cmax maximum concentration RIFLE Risk, Injury, Failure, Loss, End-stage renal disease
CMR cardiovascular magnetic resonance SPECT single photon emission computed tomography
COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease SVT supraventricular tachycardia
CPG Committee for Practice Guidelines SYNTAX Synergy between Percutaneous Coronary Intervention
CPX/CPET cardiopulmonary exercise test with TAXUS and Cardiac Surgery
CRP C-reactive protein TAVI transcatheter aortic valve implantation
CRT cardiac resynchronization therapy TdP torsades de pointes
CRT-D cardiac resynchronization therapy defibrillator TIA transient ischaemic attack
CT computed tomography TOE transoesophageal echocardiography
cTnI cardiac troponin I TOD transoesophageal doppler
cTnT cardiac troponin T TTE transthoracic echocardiography
CVD cardiovascular disease UFH unfractionated heparin
CYP3a4 cytochrome P3a4 enzyme VATS video-assisted thoracic surgery
DAPT dual anti-platelet therapy VHD valvular heart disease
DECREASE Dutch Echocardiographic Cardiac Risk Evaluation Apply- VISION Vascular Events In Noncardiac Surgery Patients Cohort
ing Stress Echocardiography Evaluation
DES drug-eluting stent VKA vitamin K antagonist
DIPOM DIabetic Post-Operative Mortality and Morbidity VPB ventricular premature beat
DSE dobutamine stress echocardiography VT ventricular tachycardia
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recommendation of particular management options were

1. Preamble weighed and graded according to pre-defined scales, as outlined
Guidelines summarize and evaluate all available evidence, at the time in Tables 1 and 2.
of the writing process, on a particular issue with the aim of assisting The experts of the writing and reviewing panels completed ’declara-
health professionals in selecting the best management strategies for tions of interest’ forms which might be perceived as real or potential
an individual patient with a given condition, taking into account the sources of conflicts of interest. These forms were compiled into one
impact on outcome, as well as the risk –benefit ratio of particular file and can be found on the ESC web site (http://www.escardio.org/
diagnostic or therapeutic means. Guidelines and recommendations guidelines). Any changes in declarations of interest that arise during
should help health professionals to make decisions in their daily prac- the writing period must be notified to the ESC/ESA and updated.
tice; however, the final decisions concerning an individual patient The Task Force received its entire financial support from the ESC
must be made by the responsible health professional(s), in consult- and ESA, without any involvement from the healthcare industry.
ation with the patient and caregiver as appropriate. The ESC CPG supervises and co-ordinates the preparation of new
A great number of guidelines have been issued in recent years by the guidelines produced by Task Forces, expert groups or consensus
European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Society of panels. The Committee is also responsible for the endorsement
Anaesthesiology (ESA), as well as by other societies and organisations. process of these guidelines. The ESC and Joint Guidelines undergo
Because of their impact on clinical practice, quality criteria for the de- extensive review by the CPG and partner Guidelines Committee
velopment of guidelines have been established in order to make and external experts. After appropriate revisions it is approved by
all decisions transparent to the user. The recommendations for for- all the experts involved in the Task Force. The finalized document
mulating and issuing ESC/ESA Guidelines can be found on the ESC is approved by the CPG/ESA for simultaneous publication in the
web site (http://www.escardio.org/guidelines-surveys/esc-guidelines/ European Heart Journal and joint partner journal, in this instance
about/Pages/rules-writing.aspx). These ESC/ESA guidelines represent the European Journal of Anaesthesiology. It was developed after
the official position of these two societies on this given topic and are careful consideration of the scientific and medical knowledge and
regularly updated. the evidence available at the time of their dating.
Members of this Task Force were selected by the ESC and ESA to The task of developing ESC/ESA guidelines covers not only the
represent professionals involved with the medical care of patients integration of the most recent research, but also the creation of edu-
with this pathology. Selected experts in the field undertook a com- cational tools and implementation programmes for the recommen-
prehensive review of the published evidence for management dations. To implement the guidelines, condensed pocket versions,
(including diagnosis, treatment, prevention and rehabilitation) of a summary slides, booklets with essential messages, summary cards
given condition, according to the ESC Committee for Practice for non-specialists, electronic versions for digital applications
Guidelines (CPG) and ESA Guidelines Committee policy. A critical (smart phones etc.) are produced. These versions are abridged and
evaluation of diagnostic and therapeutic procedures was per- thus, if needed, one should always refer to the full-text version,
formed, including assessment of the risk – benefit ratio. Estimates which is freely available on the ESC and ESA web sites. The national
of expected health outcomes for larger populations were included, societies of the ESC and of the ESA are encouraged to endorse, trans-
where data exist. The level of evidence and the strength of late and implement the ESC guidelines. Implementation programmes
Table 1 Classes of recommendations
Classes of
Suggested wording to use
recommendations
Class I Evidence and/or general agreement Is recommended/is

that a given treatment or procedure indicated
Class II
divergence of opinion about the
treatment or procedure.
Class IIa Weight of evidence/opinion is in Should be considered
Class IIb May be considered

established by evidence/opinion.
Class III Evidence or general agreement that Is not recommended

the given treatment or procedure
is not useful/effective, and in some
cases may be harmful.

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are needed because it has been shown that the outcome of disease morbidity are predominantly an issue in the adult population under-
may be favourably influenced by the thorough application of clinical going major non-cardiac surgery.
recommendations. The magnitude of the problem in Europe can best be understood in
Surveys and registries are needed to verify that real-life daily prac- terms of (i) the size of the adult non-cardiac surgical group and (ii) the
tice is in keeping with what is recommended in the guidelines, thus average risk of cardiac complications in this cohort. Unfortunately,
completing the loop between clinical research, writing of guidelines, systematic data on the annual number and type of operations—and
disseminating them and implementing them into clinical practice. on patient outcomes—are only available at a national level in 23
Health professionals are encouraged to take the ESC/ESA guide- European countries (41%).1 Additionally, data definitions vary, as
lines fully into account when exercising their clinical judgment, as do data quantity and quality. A recent modelling strategy, based on
well as in the determination and the implementation of preventive, worldwide data available in 2004, estimated the number of major
diagnostic or therapeutic medical strategies; however, the ESC/ESA operations to be at the rate of 4% of the world population per
guidelines do not, in any way whatsoever, override the individual re- year.1 When applied to Europe, with an overall population of over
sponsibility of health professionals to make appropriate and accurate 500 million, this figure translates into a crude estimate of 19 million
decisions in consideration of the condition of each patient’s health major procedures annually. While the majority of these procedures
and in consultation with that patient and, where appropriate are performed in patients with minimal cardiovascular risk, 30% of
and/or necessary, the patient’s caregiver. It is also the health profes- patients undergo extensive surgical procedures in the presence of
sional’s responsibility to verify the rules and regulations applicable to cardiovascular comorbidity; hence, 5.7 million procedures annually
drugs and devices at the time of prescription. are performed in European patients who present with increased
risk of cardiovascular complications.
Worldwide, non-cardiac surgery is associated with an average
Table 2 Levels of evidence overall complication rate of 7 –11% and a mortality rate of 0.8 –
1.5%, depending on safety precautions.2 Up to 42% of these are
Level of Data derived from multiple randomized caused by cardiac complications.3 When applied to the population
evidence A clinical trials or meta-analyses.
in the European Union member states, these figures translate into
Data derived from a single randomized at least 167 000 cardiac complications annually due to non-cardiac
Level of
clinical trial or large non-randomized surgical procedures, of which 19 000 are life-threatening.
evidence B
studies.
Consensus of opinion of the experts and/

Level of
or small studies, retrospective studies,
2.2 Change in demographics
evidence C
registries. Within the next 20 years, the ageing of the population will have a
major impact on perioperative patient management. It is estimated
that elderly people require surgery four times as often than the
rest of the population.4 In Europe, it is estimated that the number
2. Introduction of patients undergoing surgery will increase by 25% by 2020. Over
the same time period, the elderly population will increase by 50%.
2.1 The magnitude of the problem The total number of surgical procedures may increase even faster
because of the rising frequency of interventions with age.5 The
The present Guidelines focus on the cardiovascular management of
results of the United States National Hospital Discharge Survey
patients in whom heart disease is a potential source of complications
show that the number of surgical procedures will increase in
during non-cardiac surgery. The risk of perioperative complications
almost all age groups and that the largest increase will occur in the
depends on the condition of the patient before surgery, the preva-
middle-aged and elderly. Demographics of patients undergoing
lence of comorbidities, and the urgency, magnitude, type, and dur-
surgery show a trend towards an increasing number of elderly
ation of the surgical procedure.
patients and comorbidities.6 Although mortality from cardiac
More specifically, cardiac complications can arise in patients with
disease is decreasing in the general population, the prevalence of
documented or asymptomatic ischaemic heart disease (IHD), left
IHD, heart failure, and cardiovascular risk factors—especially dia-
ventricular (LV) dysfunction, valvular heart disease (VHD), and
betes—is increasing. Among the significant comorbidities in elderly
arrhythmias, who undergo surgical procedures that are associated
patients presenting for general surgery, cardiovascular disease
with prolonged haemodynamic and cardiac stress. In the case of peri-
(CVD) is the most prevalent.7 Age per se, however, seems to be re-
operative myocardial ischaemia, two mechanisms are important: (i) a
sponsible for only a small increase in the risk of complications;
mismatch in the supply– demand ratio of blood flow, in response to
greater risks are associated with urgency and significant cardiac, pul-
metabolic demand due to a coronary artery stenosis that may
monary, and renal disease; thus, these conditions should have greater
become flow-limiting by perioperative haemodynamic fluctuations
impact on the evaluation of patient risk than age alone.
and (ii) acute coronary syndromes (ACS) due to stress-induced
rupture of a vulnerable atherosclerotic plaque in combination with
vascular inflammation and altered vasomotion, as well as haemosta- 2.3 Purpose and organization
sis. LV dysfunction and arrhythmias may occur for various reasons at These Guidelines are intended for physicians and collaborators
all ages. Because the prevalence of not only IHD but also VHD and involved in the pre-operative, operative, and post-operative care of
arrhythmias increases with age, perioperative cardiac mortality and patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery.

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Table 3 Surgical risk estimate according to type of surgery or interventiona,b
CAS ¼ carotid artery stenting; CEA ¼ carotid endarterectomy.

a
Surgical risk estimate is a broad approximation of 30-day risk of cardiovascular death and myocardial infarction that takes into account only the specific surgical intervention, without
considering the patient’s comorbidities.
b
Adapted from Glance et al. 11
The objective is to endorse a standardized and evidence-based ap- both began the process of revising their respective guidelines concur-
proach to perioperative cardiac management. The Guidelines recom- rently. The respective writing committees independently performed
mend a practical, stepwise evaluation of the patient that integrates their literature review and analysis, and then developed their recom-
clinical risk factors and test results with the estimated stress of the mendations. Once peer review of both guidelines was completed, the
planned surgical procedure. This results in an individualized cardiac writing committees chose to discuss their respective recommenda-
risk assessment, with the opportunity of initiating medical therapy, cor- tions regarding beta-blocker therapy and other relevant issues. Any
onary interventions, and specific surgical and anaesthetic techniques in differences in recommendations were discussed and clearly articu-
order to optimize the patient’s perioperative condition. lated in the text; however, the writing committees aligned a few
Compared with the non-surgical setting, data from randomized recommendations to avoid confusion within the clinical community,
clinical trials—which provide the ideal evidence-base for the guide- except where international practice variation was prevalent.
lines—are sparse. Consequently, when no trials are available on a Following the development and introduction of perioperative
specific cardiac-management regimen in the surgical setting, data cardiac guidelines, their effect on outcome should be monitored.
from the non-surgical setting are extrapolated and similar recom- The objective evaluation of changes in outcome will form an essential
mendations made, but with different levels of evidence. Anaesthesiol- part of future perioperative guideline development.
ogists, who are experts on the specific demands of the proposed
surgical procedure, will usually co-ordinate the pre-operative evalu-
ation. The majority of patients with stable heart disease can undergo Recommendations on pre-operative evaluation
low and intermediate-risk surgery (Table 3) without additional evalu-
ation. Selected patients require evaluation by a team of integrated
Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref. c
multidisciplinary specialists including anaesthesiologists, cardiolo-
gists, and surgeons and, when appropriate, an extended team (e.g.
Selected patients with cardiac
internists, intensivists, pulmonologists or geriatricians).8 Selected
disease undergoing low-and
patients include those identified by the anaesthesiologist because intermediate-risk non-cardiac
of suspected or known cardiac disease with sufficient complexity surgery may be referred by IIb C
to carry a potential perioperative risk (e.g. congenital heart disease, the anaesthesiologist for
unstable symptoms or low functional capacity), patients in whom cardiological evaluation and
medical optimization.
pre-operative medical optimization is expected to reduce periopera-
A multidisciplinary expert
tive risk before low- and intermediate-risk surgery, and patients with
team should be considered for
known or high risk of cardiac disease who are undergoing high-risk pre-operative evaluation of
surgery. Guidelines have the potential to improve post-operative patients with known or high IIa C 8
outcomes and highlight the existence of a clear opportunity for im- risk of cardiac disease
proving the quality of care in this high-risk group of patients. In add- undergoing high-risk non-
cardiac surgery.
ition to promoting an improvement in immediate perioperative
care, guidelines should provide long-term advice.
a
Because of the availability of new evidence and the international Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
impact of the controversy over the DECREASE trials, the ESC/ESA c
Reference(s) supporting recommendations.
and American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association

by guest
on 31 May 2018
3. Pre-operative evaluation where the life expectancy of the patient and the risk of the oper-
ation are important factors in evaluating the potential benefit of the
3.1 Surgical risk for cardiac events surgical intervention.
Cardiac complications after non-cardiac surgery depend on
patient-related risk factors, on the type of surgery, and on the cir- 3.2 Type of surgery
cumstances under which it takes place.9 Surgical factors that influ- In general, endoscopic and endovascular techniques speed recovery,
ence cardiac risk are related to the urgency, invasiveness, type, decrease hospital stay, and reduce the rate of complications.12
and duration of the procedure, as well as the change in body core However, randomized clinical trials comparing laparoscopic with
temperature, blood loss, and fluid shifts.5 Every operation elicits a open techniques exclude older, sicker, and ’urgent’ patients, and
stress response. This response is initiated by tissue injury and results from an expert-based randomized trial (laparoscopic vs.
mediated by neuro-endocrine factors, and may induce sympatho- open cholecystectomy) have shown no significant differences in
vagal imbalance. Fluid shifts in the perioperative period add to the conversion rate, pain, complications, length of hospital stay, or
surgical stress. This stress increases myocardial oxygen demand. re-admissions.13
Surgery also causes alterations in the balance between prothrom- The wide variety of surgical procedures, in a myriad of different
botic and fibrinolytic factors, potentially resulting in increased cor- contexts, makes difficult the assignation of a specific risk of a
onary thrombogenicity. The extent of such changes is major adverse cardiac event to each procedure. When alternative
proportionate to the extent and duration of the intervention. methods to classical open surgery are considered, either through
These factors, together with patient position, temperature endovascular or less-invasive endoscopic procedures, the
management, bleeding, and type of anaesthesia, may contribute to potential trade-offs between early benefits due to reduced
haemodynamic derangements, leading to myocardial ischaemia morbidity and mid- to long-term efficacy need to be taken into
and heart failure. General, locoregional, and neuraxial anaesthesia account.
differ in terms of the stress response evoked by surgery. Less
invasive anaesthetic techniques may reduce early mortality in 3.2.1 Endovascular vs. open vascular procedures
patients at intermediate-to-high cardiac risk and limit post- Vascular interventions are of specific interest, not only because they
operative complications.10 Although patient-specific factors are carry the highest risk of cardiac complications, but also because of
more important than surgery-specific factors in predicting the the many studies that have shown that this risk can be influenced
cardiac risk for non-cardiac surgical procedures, the type of by adequate perioperative measures in these patients.14 Open
surgery cannot be ignored.9 aortic and infra-inguinal procedures must both be regarded as high-
With regard to cardiac risk, surgical interventions—which include risk procedures. Although it is a less-extensive intervention, infra-
open or endovascular procedures—can be broadly divided into inguinal revascularization entails a cardiac risk similar to—or even
low-risk, intermediate-risk, and high-risk groups, with estimated higher than—that of aortic procedures. This can be explained
30-day cardiac event rates (cardiac death and myocardial infarction) by the higher incidence of diabetes, renal dysfunction, IHD, and
of ,1%, 1 –5%, and .5%, respectively (Table 3). advanced age in this patient group. This also explains why the risk
The need for, and value of, pre-operative cardiac evaluation will related to peripheral artery angioplasties, which are minimally inva-
also depend on the urgency of surgery. In the case of emergency sur- sive procedures, is not negligible.
gical procedures, such as those for ruptured abdominal aortic aneur- Endovascular AAA repair (EVAR) has been associated with
ysm (AAA), major trauma, or for a perforated viscus, cardiac lower operative mortality and morbidity than open repair but this
evaluation will not alter the course or result of the intervention but advantage reduces with time, due to more frequent graft-related
may influence management in the immediate perioperative period. complications and re-interventions in patients who underwent
In non-emergency but urgent surgical conditions, such as bypass EVAR, resulting in similar long-term AAA-related mortality and
for acute limb ischaemia or treatment of bowel obstruction, the mor- total mortality.15 – 17
bidity and mortality of the untreated underlying condition may out- A meta-analysis of studies, comparing open surgical with
weigh the potential cardiac risk related to the intervention. In these percutaneous transluminal methods for the treatment of femoro-
cases, cardiological evaluation may influence the perioperative mea- popliteal arterial disease, showed that bypass surgery is associated
sures taken to reduce cardiac risk but will not influence the decision with higher 30-day morbidity [odds ratio (OR) 2.93; 95%
to perform the intervention. In some cases, the cardiac risk can also confidence interval (CI) 1.34 – 6.41] and lower technical failure
influence the type of operation and guide the choice to less-invasive than endovascular treatment, with no differences in 30-day mor-
interventions, such as peripheral arterial angioplasty instead of in- tality; however, there were higher amputation-free and overall
fra-inguinal bypass, or extra-anatomical reconstruction instead of survival rates in the bypass group at 4 years.18 Therefore, multiple
an aortic procedure, even when these may yield less favourable factors must be taken into consideration when deciding which
results in the long term. Finally, in some situations, the cardiac evalu- type of procedure serves the patient best. An endovascular-first ap-
ation (in as far as it can reliably predict perioperative cardiac compli- proach may be advisable in patients with significant comorbidity,
cations and late survival) should be taken into consideration when whereas a bypass procedure may be offered as a first-line interven-
deciding whether to perform an intervention or manage conserva- tional treatment for fit patients with a longer life expectancy.19
tively. This is the case in certain prophylactic interventions, such as Carotid artery stenting has appeared as an attractive, less-invasive
the treatment of small AAAs or asymptomatic carotid stenosis, alternative to CEA; however, although CAS reduces the rate of

by guest
on 31 May 2018
periprocedural myocardial infarction and cranial nerve palsy, the

Recommendations on the selection of surgical approach
combined 30-day rate of stroke or death is higher than CEA,
and its impact on risk
particularly in symptomatic and older patients, driven by a differ-
ence in the risk of periprocedural non-disabling stroke.20,21
The benefit of carotid revascularization is particularly high in Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref.c
patients with recent (,3 months) transient ischaemic attack
(TIA) or stroke and a .60% carotid artery bifurcation stenosis.22 It is recommended that patients
In neurologically asymptomatic patients, carotid revascularization should undergo pre-operative risk
assessment independently of an 26,27,
benefit is questionable, compared with modern medical I C
open or laparoscopic surgical 35
therapy, except in patients with a .80% carotid stenosis and an
approach.d
estimated life expectancy of .5 years.21 The choice between
In patients with AAA 55 mm,
CEA and CAS must integrate operator experience and results,
anatomically suited for EVAR,
anatomical characteristics of the arch vessels, neck features, and either open or endovascular aortic I A 15–17
comorbidities.21 – 23 repair is recommended if surgical
risk is acceptable.
In patients with asymptomatic
3.2.2 Open vs. laparoscopic or thoracoscopic AAA who are unfit for open
procedures repair, EVAR, along with best IIb B 15,35
Laparoscopic procedures, compared with open procedures, have medical treatment, may be
the advantage of causing less tissue trauma and intestinal paralysis, considered.
resulting in less incisional pain, better post-operative pulmonary In patients with lower extremity
function, significantly fewer wall complications, and diminished post- artery disease requiring
revascularization, the best
operative fluid shifts related to bowel paralysis.24 However, the pneu-
management strategy should be
moperitoneum required for these procedures results in elevated IIa B 18
determined by an expert team
intra-abdominal pressure and a reduction in venous return. Typical considering anatomy,
physiological sequelae are secondary to increased intra-abdominal comorbidities, local availability, and
pressure and absorption of the gaseous medium used for insufflation. expertise.
While healthy individuals on controlled ventilation typically tolerate
pneumoperitoneum, debilitated patients with cardiopulmonary AAA ¼ abdominal aortic aneurysm; EVAR ¼ endovascular aortic reconstruction.
a
compromise and obese patients may experience adverse conse- Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
quences.25 Pneumoperitoneum and Trendelenburg position result c
in increased mean arterial pressure, central venous pressure, mean d
Since laparoscopic procedures demonstrate a cardiac stress similar to that of open
pulmonary artery, pulmonary capillary wedge pressure, and systemic procedures.
vascular resistance impairing cardiac function.26,27 Therefore, com-

pared with open surgery, cardiac risk in patients with heart failure
is not reduced in patients undergoing laparoscopy, and both should
be evaluated in the same way. This is especially true in patients under- 3.3 Functional capacity
going interventions for morbid obesity, but also in other types of Determination of functional capacity is a pivotal step in pre-
surgery, considering the risk of conversion to an open proced- operative cardiac risk assessment and is measured in metabolic
ure.28,29 Superior short-term outcomes of laparoscopic vs. open equivalents (METs). One MET equals the basal metabolic rate. Ex-
procedures have been reported, depending on type of surgery, oper- ercise testing provides an objective assessment of functional cap-
ator experience and hospital volume, but few studies provide direct acity. Without testing, functional capacity can be estimated from
measures of cardiac complications.30 – 32 Benefit from laparoscopic the ability to perform the activities of daily living. One MET repre-
procedures is probably greater in elderly patients, with reduced sents metabolic demand at rest; climbing two flights of stairs
length of hospital stay, intra-operative blood loss, incidence of post- demands 4 METs, and strenuous sports, such as swimming, .10
operative pneumonia, time to return of normal bowel function, in- METS (Figure 1).
cidence of post-operative cardiac complications, and wound infec- The inability to climb two flights of stairs or run a short distance
tions.33 Few data are available for video-assisted thoracic surgery (,4 METs) indicates poor functional capacity and is associated
(VATS), with no large, randomized trial comparing VATS with with an increased incidence of post-operative cardiac events. After
open thoracic lung resection. In one study involving propensity- thoracic surgery, a poor functional capacity has been associated
score-matched patients, VATS lobectomy was associated with no with an increased mortality (relative risk 18.7; 95% CI 5.9 –59);
significant difference in mortality, but with significantly lower however, in comparison with thoracic surgery, a poor functional
rates of overall perioperative morbidity, pneumonia, and atrial status was not associated with an increased mortality after other non-
arrhythmia.34 cardiac surgery (relative risk 0.47; 95% CI 0.09–2.5).38 This may

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on 31 May 2018
and then extended, if indicated, to resting electrocardiography

(ECG), laboratory measurements, or other non-invasive assessments.
Functional capacity Several risk indices have been developed during the past 30 years,
based on multivariate analyses of observational data, which
1 MET Can you... 4 METs Can you... represent the relationship between clinical characteristics and peri-
Take care of yourself? Climb two flights of stairs operative cardiac mortality and morbidity. The indices developed
Eat, dress, or walk up a hill? by Goldman et al. (1977),41 Detsky et al. (1986),42 and Lee et al.
or use the toilet?
Do heavy work (1999)43 have become well-known.
Walk indoors around the house like
scrubbing floors of lifting Although only a rough estimation, the older risk-stratification
around
the house? or moving heavy systems may represent useful clinical tools for physicians in respect
furniture?
of the need for cardiac evaluation, drug treatment, and assessment
Walk 100 m Participate in strenuous
on level ground sports like swimming, of risk for cardiac events. The Lee index or ‘revised cardiac risk’
at 3 to 5 km per h? singles tennis, football, index, a modified version of the original Goldman index, was designed
basketball, or skiing?
4 METs to predict post-operative myocardial infarction, pulmonary oedema,
ventricular fibrillation or cardiac arrest, and complete heart block.
Greater than 10 METs This risk index comprises six variables: type of surgery, history
of IHD, history of heart failure, history of cerebrovascular disease,
pre-operative treatment with insulin, and pre-operative creatinine
Figure 1 Estimated energy requirements for various activities. .170 mmol/L (.2 mg/dL), and used to be considered by many clin-
Based on Hlatky et al. and Fletcher et al. 36,37 km per h ¼ kilometres icians and researchers to be the best currently available cardiac-risk
per hour; MET ¼ metabolic equivalent. prediction index in non-cardiac surgery.
All of the above-mentioned risk indices were, however, developed
years ago and many changes have since occurred in the treatment of
IHD and in the anaesthetic, operative and perioperative management
reflect the importance of pulmonary function—strongly related to of non-cardiac surgical patients. A new predictive model was recently
functional capacity—as a major predictor of survival after thoracic developed to assess the risk of intra-operative/post-operative myo-
surgery. These findings were confirmed in a study of 5939 patients cardial infarction or cardiac arrest, using the American College of Sur-
scheduled for non-cardiac surgery, in which the pre-operative func- geons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program (NSQIP)
tional capacity measured in METs showed a relatively weak associ- database.44 This NSQIP MICA model was built on the 2007 data
ation with post-operative cardiac events or death.39 Notably, when set, based on patients from 180 hospitals, and was validated with
functional capacity is high, the prognosis is excellent, even in the pres- the 2008 data set, both containing .200 000 patients and having pre-
ence of stable IHD or risk factors;40 otherwise, when functional cap- dictability. The primary endpoint was intra-operative/post-operative
acity is poor or unknown, the presence and number of risk factors in myocardial infarction or cardiac arrest up to 30 days after surgery.
relation to the risk of surgery will determine pre-operative risk strati- Five predictors of perioperative myocardial infarction/cardiac
fication and perioperative management. arrest were identified: type of surgery, functional status, elevated cre-
atinine (.130 mmol/L or .1.5 mg/dL), American Society of
Anesthesiologists (ASA) class (Class I, patient is completely healthy;
3.4 Risk indices Class II, patient has mild systemic disease; Class III, patient has
For two main reasons, effective strategies aimed at reducing the severe systemic disease that is not incapacitating; Class IV, patient
risk of perioperative cardiac complications should involve cardiac has incapacitating disease that is a constant threat to life; and Class
evaluation, using medical history before the surgical procedure,. V, a moribund patient who is not expected to live for 24 hours,
Firstly, patients with an anticipated low cardiac risk—after thorough with or without the surgery), and age. This model is presented as
evaluation—can be operated on safely without further delay. It is an interactive risk calculator (http://www.surgicalriskcalculator.
unlikely that risk-reduction strategies will further reduce the com/miorcardiacarrest) so that the risk can be calculated at the
perioperative risk. Secondly, risk reduction by pharmacological treat- bedside or clinic in a simple and accurate way. Unlike other risk
ment is most cost-effective in patients with a suspected increased scores, the NSQIP model did not establish a scoring system but pro-
cardiac risk. Additional non-invasive cardiac imaging techniques are vides a model-based estimate of the probability of myocardial infarc-
tools to identify patients at higher risk; however, imaging techniques tion/cardiac arrest for an individual patient. The risk calculator
should be reserved for those patients in whom test results would in- performed better than the Lee risk index, with some reduction in
fluence and change management. Clearly, the intensity of the pre- performance in vascular patients, although it was still superior;
operative cardiac evaluation must be tailored to the patient’s clinical however, some perioperative cardiac complications of interest to
condition and the urgency of the circumstances requiring surgery. clinicians, such as pulmonary oedema and complete heart block,
When emergency surgery is needed, the evaluation must necessarily were not considered in the NSQIP model because those variables
be limited; however, most clinical circumstances allow the application were not included in the NSQIP database. By contrast, the Lee
of a more extensive, systematic approach, with cardiac risk evaluation index allows estimation of the risk of perioperative pulmonary
that is initially based on clinical characteristics and type of surgery oedema and of complete heart block, in addition to death and

by guest
on 31 May 2018
myocardial infarction (http://www.mdcalc.com/revised-cardiac-risk-

index-for-pre-operative-risk/). A recent systematic review of 24 Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref. c
studies covering .790 000 patients found that the Lee index discri- Clinical risk indices are
minated moderately well patients at low vs. high risk for cardiac recommended to be used
events after mixed non-cardiac surgery, but its performance was for peri-operative risk I B 43,44
hampered when predicting cardiac events after vascular non-cardiac stratification.
surgery or predicting death.45 Therefore, the NSQIP and Lee risk The NSQIP model or the
index models provide complementary prognostic perspectives and Lee risk index are
can help the clinician in the decision-making process. recommended for cardiac I B 43,44,54
Risk models do not dictate management decisions but should be peri-operative risk
stratification.
regarded as one piece of the puzzle to be evaluated, in concert
with the more traditional information at the physician’s disposal. Assessment of cardiac
troponins in high-risk
patients, both before and
3.5 Biomarkers IIb B 3,48,49
48–72 hours after major
A biological marker, or ’biomarker’, is a characteristic that can be ob- surgery, may be
jectively measured and which is an indicator of biological processes. considered.
In the perioperative setting, biomarkers can be divided into markers NT-proBNP and BNP
focusing on myocardial ischaemia and damage, inflammation, and LV measurements may be
function. Cardiac troponins T and I (cTnT and cTnI, respectively) are considered for obtaining
the preferred markers for the diagnosis of myocardial infarction independent prognostic
IIb B 52,53,55
because they demonstrate sensitivity and tissue specificity better information for peri-
than other available biomarkers.46 The prognostic information is in- operative and late cardiac
dependent of—and complementary to—other important cardiac events in high-risk
patients.
indicators of risk, such as ST deviation and LV function. It seems
that cTnI and cTnT are of similar value for risk assessment in ACS Universal pre-operative
routine biomarker
in the presence and absence of renal failure. Existing evidence sug-
sampling for risk
gests that even small increases in cTnT in the perioperative period III C
stratification and to
reflect clinically relevant myocardial injury with worsened cardiac prevent cardiac events is
prognosis and outcome.47 – 49 The development of new biomarkers, not recommended.
including high-sensitivity troponins, will probably further enhance the
assessment of myocardial damage.48 Assessment of cardiac tropo-
BNP ¼ B-type natriuretic peptide; NT-proBNP ¼ N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic
nins in high-risk patients, both before and 48 –72 hours after major peptide.
surgery, may therefore be considered.3 It should be noted that tropo- NSQIP ¼ National Surgical Quality Improvement Program.
a
Class of recommendation.
nin elevation may also be observed in many other conditions; the b
Level of evidence.
diagnosis of non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction c
should never be made solely on the basis of biomarkers.
Inflammatory markers might pre-operatively identify those
patients with an increased risk of unstable coronary plaque;
however, in the surgical setting, no data are currently available on
how inflammatory markers would alter risk-reduction strategies.
B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) and N-terminal pro-BNP
(NT-proBNP) are produced in cardiac myocytes in response to 3.6 Non-invasive testing
increases in myocardial wall stress. This may occur at any stage of Pre-operative non-invasive testing aims to provide information on
heart failure, independently of the presence or absence of myocardial three cardiac risk markers: LV dysfunction, myocardial ischaemia,
ischaemia. Plasma BNP and NT-proBNP have emerged as important and heart valve abnormalities, all of which are major determinants
prognostic indicators across many cardiac diseases in non-surgical of adverse post-operative outcome. LV function is assessed at rest,
settings.50 Pre-operative BNP and NT-proBNP levels have additional and various imaging methods are available. For detection of myocar-
prognostic value for long-term mortality and for cardiac events after dial ischaemia, exercise ECG and non-invasive imaging techniques
major non-cardiac vascular surgery.51 – 53 may be used. Routine chest X-ray before non-cardiac surgery is
Data from prospective, controlled trials on the use of pre- not recommended without specific indications. The overall theme
operative biomarkers are sparse. Based on the existing data, assess- is that the diagnostic algorithm for risk stratification of myocardial is-
ment of serum biomarkers for patients undergoing non-cardiac chaemia and LV function should be similar to that proposed for
surgery cannot be proposed for routine use, but may be considered patients in the non-surgical setting with known or suspected
in high-risk patients (METs ≤4 or with a revised cardiac risk index IHD.56 Non-invasive testing should be considered not only for cor-
value .1 for vascular surgery and .2 for non-vascular surgery). onary artery revascularization but also for patient counselling,
Recommendations on cardiac risk stratification change of perioperative management in relation to type of surgery,
anaesthetic technique, and long-term prognosis.

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on 31 May 2018
3.6.1 Non-invasive testing of cardiac disease computed tomography (SPECT), echocardiography, magnetic res-
3.6.1.1 Electrocardiography onance imaging (MRI) or multislice computed tomography (CT), all
The 12-lead ECG is commonly performed as part of pre-operative with similar accuracy. Echocardiography is the most readily available
cardiovascular risk assessment in patients undergoing non-cardiac and versatile tool for evaluating ventricular function. Routine echo-
surgery. In IHD patients, the pre-operative ECG offers important cardiography is not recommended for the pre-operative evaluation
prognostic information and is predictive of long-term outcome, inde- of ventricular function but may be performed in asymptomatic
pendent of clinical findings and perioperative ischaemia.57 However, patients with high surgical risk.58 Pre-operative LV systolic dysfunc-
the ECG may be normal or non-specific in patients with myocardial tion, moderate-to-severe mitral regurgitation, and increased aortic
ischaemia or even with infarction. valve gradients are associated with major cardiac events.59 The
limited predictive value of LV function assessment for perioperative
Recommendations on routine pre-operative ECG outcome may be related to the failure to detect severe underlying
IHD.
Recommendations Class a Level b Ref.c
Pre-operative ECG is
3.6.2 Non-invasive testing of ischaemic heart disease
recommended for patients who Physical exercise, using a treadmill or bicycle ergometer, provides an
have risk factor(s)d and are I C 57 estimate of functional capacity, evaluates blood pressure and heart
scheduled for intermediate- or rate response, and detects myocardial ischaemia through
high-risk surgery. ST-segment changes. The accuracy of exercise ECG varies signifi-
Pre-operative ECG may be cantly among studies.56 Risk stratification with an exercise test is
considered for patients who have not suitable for patients with limited exercise capacity, owing to
risk factor(s) and are scheduled for IIb C
their inability to reach their target heart rate. Also, pre-existing
low-risk surgery. ST-segment abnormalities at rest—especially in precordial leads
Pre-operative ECG may be V5 and V6—hamper reliable ST-segment analysis. A gradient of se-
considered for patients who have verity in the test result relates to the perioperative outcome: the
no risk factors, are above 65 years IIb C onset of a myocardial ischaemic response at low exercise workloads
of age, and are scheduled for
is associated with a significantly increased risk of perioperative and
intermediate-risk surgery.
long-term cardiac events. In contrast, the onset of myocardial ischae-
Routine pre-operative ECG is not mia at high workloads is associated with only a minor risk increase,
recommended for patients who
III B 71 but higher than a totally normal test. Pharmacological stress testing
have no risk factors and are
scheduled for low-risk surgery. with either nuclear perfusion imaging or echocardiography is more
suitable in patients with limited exercise tolerance.
The role of myocardial perfusion imaging for pre-operative risk
ECG ¼ electrocardiography.
a
Class of recommendation. stratifications is well established. In patients with limited exercise cap-
b
Level of evidence. acity, pharmacological stress (dipyridamole, adenosine, or dobuta-
c
Reference(s) supporting recommendations. mine) is an alternative stressor. Studies are performed both during
d
Clinical risk factors in Table 4.
stress and at rest, to determine the presence of reversible defects,
reflecting jeopardized ischaemic myocardium or fixed defects,
3.6.1.2 Assessment of left ventricular function reflecting scar or non-viable tissue.
Resting LV function can be evaluated before non-cardiac surgery The prognostic value of the extent of ischaemic myocardium, using
by radionuclide ventriculography, gated single photon emission semi-quantitative dipyridamole myocardial perfusion imaging, has
been investigated in a meta-analysis of patients undergoing vascular
Recommendations on resting echocardiography in surgery.60 Study endpoints were perioperative cardiac death and
asymptomatic patients without signs of cardiac disease myocardial infarction. The authors included nine studies, totalling
or electrocardiographic abnormalities 1179 patients undergoing vascular surgery, with a 7% 30-day event
rate. In this analysis, reversible ischaemia in ,20% of the LV myocar-
Recommendations Classa Level b dium did not alter the likelihood of perioperative cardiac events, com-
pared with those without ischaemia. Patients with more extensive
Rest echocardiography may be
reversible defects from 20–50% were at increased risk.
considered in patients undergoing IIb C
high-risk surgery. A second meta-analysis pooled the results of 10 studies evaluating
dipyridamole thallium-201 imaging in candidates for vascular surgery
Routine echocardiography is not
over a 9-year period from 1985 to 1994.61 The 30-day cardiac death
recommended in patients
undergoing intermediate- or low- III C or non-fatal myocardial infarction rates were 1% in patients with
risk surgery. normal test results, 7% in patients with fixed defects, and 9% in
patients with reversible defects on thallium-201 imaging. Moreover,
a three of the 10 studies analysed used semi-quantitative scoring, dem-
b
Level of evidence. onstrating a higher incidence of cardiac events in patients with two or
more reversible defects.

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on 31 May 2018
detected during stress and at rest.66 Its accuracy in assessment

Table 4 Clinical risk factors according to the revised of ischaemia is high, with a sensitivity of 83% and a specificity of
cardiac risk index43 86% when wall motion is used (14 studies; 754 patients). When per-
fusion is assessed (24 studies; 1516 patients), its sensitivity was 91%
and specificity 81%. When evaluated prospectively in a multicentre
study, the sensitivity was 67% and the specificity was 61%.67 There
are limited data on CMR in the pre-operative setting; in one study
dobutamine stress CMR was used in 102 patients undergoing
major non-cardiac surgery; in multivariate analysis, myocardial is-
chaemia was the strongest predictor of perioperative cardiac
events (death, myocardial infarction, and heart failure).68 Currently
no data are available in the setting of pre-operative risk stratification.
Computed tomography can be used to detect coronary
a
According to the universal definition of myocardial infarction.49 calcium, which reflects coronary atherosclerosis, and CT angiog-
raphy is useful for excluding coronary artery disease (CAD) in
patients who are at low risk of atherosclerosis.69 Currently, no data
Overall, the positive predictive value of reversible defects for peri- are available in the setting of pre-operative risk stratification. All
operative death or myocardial infarction has decreased in more the various imaging tests have their intrinsic risks and these need to
recent studies. This is probably related to changes in perioperative be taken into account when they are used.70
management and surgical procedures; however, because of the
high sensitivity of nuclear imaging studies for detecting IHD, patients Recommendations on imaging stress testing before
with a normal scan have an excellent prognosis. surgery in asymptomatic patients
Stress echocardiography using exercise or pharmacological
(dobutamine, dipyridamole) stress has been widely used for pre- Recommendations Classa Levelb
operative cardiac risk evaluation. The test combines information on
Imaging stress testing is recommended
LV function at rest, heart valve abnormalities, and the presence and
extent of stress-inducible ischaemia.62 In one study, 530 patients before high-risk surgery in patients with
I C
were enrolled to evaluate the incremental value of dobutamine more than two clinical risk factors and
stress echocardiography (DSE) for the assessment of cardiac risk poor functional capacity (<4 METs).c
before non-vascular surgery.63 Multivariate predictors of post- Imaging stress testing may be considered
operative events in patients with ischaemia were found to be a
before high- or intermediate-risk
history of heart failure (OR 4.7; 95% CI 1.6 –14.0) and ischaemic
threshold ,60% of age-predicted maximal heart rate (OR 7.0; 95% surgery in patients with one or two IIb C
CI 2.8 –17.6). DSE has some limitations: it should not, for example, clinical risk factors and poor functional
be used in patients with severe arrhythmias, significant hypertension, capacity (<4 METs).c
large thrombus-laden aortic aneurysms, or hypotension. Imaging stress testing is not
In general, stress echocardiography has a high negative predictive recommended before low-risk surgery, III C
value and a negative test is associated with a very low incidence of
regardless of the patient’s clinical risk.
cardiac events in patients undergoing surgery; however, the positive
predictive value is relatively low (between 25% and 45%); this means
that the postsurgical probability of a cardiac event is low, despite wall MET ¼ metabolic equivalent
a
motion abnormality detection during stress echocardiography. b
Level of evidence.
A negative DSE, performed before scheduled aortic surgery, does c
Clinical risk factors in Table 4.
not, however, rule out post-operative myocardial necrosis.64 Failure
to achieve target heart rate is not uncommon, despite an aggressive How can these data contribute to a practical algorithm? Testing
DSE regimen. A negative DSE without resting wall motion abnormal- should only be performed if its results might influence perioperative
ities has excellent negative predictive value, regardless of the heart management. Patients with extensive stress-induced ischaemia re-
rate achieved. Patients with resting wall motion abnormalities are present a high-risk population in whom standard medical therapy
at increased risk for perioperative events, even if ischaemia cannot appears insufficient to prevent a perioperative cardiac event. Pre-
be induced.65 operative testing is recommended in the case of high-risk surgery
In a meta-analysis of 15 studies comparing dipyridamole thallium-201 in patients with poor functional capacity (,4 METS) and more
imaging and DSE for risk stratification before vascular surgery, it was than two of the clinical risk factors listed in Table 4, but may also be
demonstrated that the prognostic value of stress imaging abnormalities considered in patients with fewer than three of these risk factors. Im-
for perioperative ischaemic events is similar with both pharmacological portantly, pre-operative testing might delay surgery. A similar recom-
stressors, but that the accuracy varies with IHD prevalence.61 In patients mendation is made for intermediate-risk surgery patients, although
with a low prevalence of IHD, the diagnostic accuracy is reduced, com- no data from randomized trials are available. Considering the low
pared with those with a high incidence of IHD. event rate of patients scheduled for low-risk surgery, it is unlikely
Cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging can be used that test results will alter perioperative management in stable
for detection of ischaemia; both perfusion and wall motion can be cardiac patients.
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3.7 Invasive coronary angiography 4. Risk-reduction strategies

Coronary angiography is a well-established, invasive, diagnostic
procedure but is rarely indicated for assessing the risk of patients 4.1 Pharmacological
undergoing non-cardiac surgery. There is a lack of information The stress of surgery and anaesthesia may trigger ischaemia through
from randomized clinical trials, relating to its usefulness in patients an increase in myocardial oxygen demand, a reduction in myocardial
scheduled for non-cardiac surgery. Also, adopting an invasive cor- oxygen supply, or both. Besides specific risk-reduction strategies
onary angiography assessment may cause an unnecessary and un- adapted to patient characteristics and type of surgery, pre-operative
predictable delay in an already planned surgical intervention, as evaluation can check and optimize the control of cardiovascular risk
well as adding an independent procedural risk to the overall risk. factors.
Despite the fact that CAD may be present in a significant number
of patients requiring non-cardiac surgery, indications for pre-
operative coronary angiography and revascularization are similar 4.1.1 Beta-blockers
to angiography indications in the non-surgical setting.56,72 – 75 Pre- Concerns were raised over a number of studies of the Dutch Echo-
operative treatment of myocardial ischaemia, either medically or cardiographic Cardiac Risk Evaluation Applying Stress Echocardiog-
with intervention, is recommended whenever non-cardiac raphy (DECREASE) family,77 and the results of these studies were
surgery can be delayed. not included in the present Guidelines.
The main rationale for perioperative beta-blocker use is to de-
Recommendations on pre-operative coronary crease myocardial oxygen consumption by reducing heart rate,
angiography leading to a longer diastolic filling period and decreased myocardial
contractility. Additional cardioprotective factors have been sug-
gested; however, the answer to whether or not this translates into
Recommendations Class a Levelb Ref. c clinical benefit requires randomized trials analysing the incidence of
cardiovascular events. Six randomized trials evaluating the effect of
Indications for pre-operative
coronary angiography and perioperative beta-blockade on clinical endpoints have been pub-
revascularization are similar I C 56 lished in English in peer-reviewed journals (Table 5).78 – 83
to those for the non-surgical Two trials targeted patients at high risk for perioperative compli-
setting. cations relating to the type of surgery, the presence of IHD, or risk
Urgent angiography is factors for perioperative cardiac complications.79,83 Three other
recommended in patients trials did not require clinical risk factors, except for diabetes in one
with acute ST-segment case.80 – 82 The Peri-Operative ISchemic Evaluation (POISE) trial
elevation myocardial I A 75
covered a wide spectrum of risk of perioperative cardiac complica-
infarction requiring non-
urgent, non-cardiac surgery. tions.78 One trial randomized 200 patients with at least two IHD
risk factors or with known IHD, who were scheduled for non-cardiac
Urgent or early invasive
strategy is recommended in surgery under general anaesthesia, including 40% for major vascular
patients with NSTE-ACS surgery.83 Atenolol was associated with a significant decrease in
requiring non-urgent, non- I B 73
overall mortality at 6 months, which was sustained for up to 2
cardiac surgery according to
years; however, seven in-hospital deaths, five in the atenolol group
risk assessment.
and two in the placebo group, were not taken into account. The Peri-
Pre-operative angiography is
Operative Beta-BLockadE (POBBLE) trial randomized 103 low-risk
recommended in patients
with proven myocardial patients undergoing elective infrarenal vascular surgery to metopro-
ischaemia and unstabilized lol tartrate or placebo,82 resulting in a similar incidence of death,
chest pain (Canadian I C 56,72 myocardial infarction or stroke at 30 days (13% and 15%, respectively;
Cardiovascular Society Class
III–IV) with adequate medical P ¼ 0.78). Patients at low cardiac risk and those with a history of myo-
therapy requiring non-urgent, cardial infarction within the past 2 years were excluded. The
non-cardiac surgery. Metoprolol after Vascular Surgery (MaVS) trial randomized 497
Pre-operative angiography patients undergoing abdominal or infra-inguinal vascular surgery
may be considered in stable to metoprolol succinate or placebo.80 The combined incidence
cardiac patients undergoing IIb B 76 of death, myocardial infarction, heart failure, arrhythmias, or stroke
non-urgent carotid at 30 days was similar (10.2% and 12.0%, respectively; P ¼ 0.57).
endarterectomy surgery. The revised cardiac risk index was ≤2 in 90% of patients and ≤1
Pre-operative angiography is in 60%.
not recommended in cardiac- The Diabetes Post-Operative Mortality and Morbidity (DIPOM)
stable patients undergoing III C trial randomized 921 patients with diabetes, age .39 years, and dur-
low-risk surgery. ation of surgery of .1 hour (39% low-risk surgery) to receive meto-
prolol succinate or placebo.81 The combined incidence of death,
NSTE-ACS ¼ non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes. myocardial infarction, unstable angina, or heart failure at 30 days
a
b
Level of evidence.
was again similar (6% and 5%, respectively; P ¼ 0.66); however,
c
Reference(s) supporting recommendations. only 54% of patients had a history of IHD or an additional cardiac
risk factor, and underwent high- or intermediate-risk surgery.
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Table 5 Summary of randomized, controlled trials evaluating the effect of peri-operative beta-blockade on post-
operative mortality and non-fatal myocardial infarction
BBSA ¼ Beta-Blocker in Spinal Anesthesia; DIPOM ¼ Diabetic Postoperative Mortality and Morbidity; IHD ¼ ischaemic heart disease; MaVS ¼ Metoprolol after Vascular Surgery;
MI ¼ myocardial infarction; POBBLE ¼ PeriOperative Beta-BlockadE; POISE ¼ PeriOperative ISchemic Evaluation.
a
At 6 months and including in-hospital deaths.
b
P ¼ 0.0317.
c
P ¼ 0.0008.
The POISE trial randomized 8351 patients to metoprolol succinate patients receiving beta-blockers,88,89,91,92 this being more marked
or placebo.78 Patients were aged ≥45 years and had known CVD, or in high-risk patients. Two meta-analyses showed no significant reduc-
at least three of seven clinical risk factors for high-risk surgery, or tion in perioperative myocardial infarction or cardiac mortality in
were scheduled for major vascular surgery. Treatment consisted of patients receiving beta-blockers.87,90 These meta-analyses (except
metoprolol succinate 100 mg 2–4 hours before surgery, 100 mg the two most recent ones)85,86 have been criticized because of het-
during the first 6 hours after surgery, but medication was withheld erogeneity of included studies and types of surgery, inclusion of
if systolic blood pressure dipped below 100 mm Hg. Maintenance studies of the DECREASE family, imprecision regarding patients’
therapy started 12 hours later, bringing the total dose of metoprolol cardiac risk profiles, and variable timing of beta-blocker administra-
succinate in the first 24 hours to 400 mg in some patients. There was a tions, doses, and targets.93 The recent POISE trial had the greatest
17% decrease in the primary composite endpoint of death, myocar- weight in all of these analyses. In POISE, all-cause mortality increased
dial infarction, or non-fatal cardiac arrest at 30 days (5.8% vs. 6.9%; by 33% in patients receiving beta-blockers; perioperative death
P ¼ 0.04); however, the 30% decrease in non-fatal myocardial infarc- in patients receiving metoprolol succinate were associated with
tion (3.6% vs. 5.1%; P , 0.001) was offset by a 33% increase in total perioperative hypotension, bradycardia, and stroke. A history of
mortality (3.1% vs. 2.3%; P ¼ 0.03) and a doubling of stroke incidence cerebrovascular disease was associated with an increased risk of
(1.0% vs. 0.5%; P ¼ 0.005). Hypotension was more frequent with stroke. Hypotension was related to high-dose metoprolol without
metoprolol (15.0% vs. 9.7%; P , 0.0001). Post-hoc analysis showed dose titration.
that hypotension carried the greatest attributable risk of death and In a meta-analysis that excluded the DECREASE trials,85 peri-
stroke.84 operative beta-blockade was associated with a statistically significant
Eight meta-analyses have pooled 9, 25, 5, 11, 6, 8, 22, and 33 pub- 27% (95% CI 1– 60) increase in mortality (nine trials, 10 529 patients)
lished, randomized trials on perioperative beta-blockers, totalling, re- but the POISE trial again largely explained this result,78 and also the
spectively, 10 529, 12 928, 586, 866, 632, 2437, 2057, and 12 306 reduced incidence of non-fatal myocardial infarction and increased
patients.85 – 92 Four meta-analyses showed a significant reduction in incidence of non-fatal strokes. Another recent meta-analysis, involv-
perioperative myocardial ischaemia and myocardial infarction in ing 12 928 patients, examined the influence of beta-blockade on all-

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cause and cardiovascular mortality according to surgery-specific risk atenolol and bisoprolol are superior to metoprolol,97,100 – 102 possibly
groups, beta-blocker treatment duration, and whether beta- due to the CYP2D6-dependent metabolism of metoprolol. Trials using
blockade was titrated to targeted heart rate.86 The benefit of beta- metoprolol did not show a clear benefit.78,80 – 82 A recent single-centre
blockade was found in five high-risk surgery studies and in six cohort study in 2462 pair-matched patients suggested that metoprolol
studies using titration to targeted heart rate, of which one and two or atenolol (analysed together) are associated with increased risk of
trials, respectively, were of the DECREASE family. post-operative stroke, compared with bisoprolol.102
Discrepancies in the effects of beta-blockers can be explained by
differences in patient characteristics, type of surgery, and the Recommendations on beta-blockers
methods of beta-blockade (timing of onset, duration, dose titration,
and type of drug). Also, problems arose by the inclusion of trials not Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref. c
designed to assess the effect on perioperative cardiac risk or which Peri-operative continuation of beta-
used only a single beta-blocker dose before anaesthesia, without blockers is recommended in
I B 96–99
continuation after surgery.87 Two meta-analyses suggested that dif- patients currently receiving this
medication.
ferences between trials on the cardioprotective effect of beta-
Pre-operative initiation of beta-
blockers could be attributed to variability in heart rate response.86,94
blockers may be considered in
In particular, the decrease in post-operative myocardial infarction patients scheduled for high-risk 86,95,
IIb B
was highly significant, with tight heart rate control. surgery and who have 2 clinical 97
In patients with clinical risk factors undergoing high-risk risk factors or ASA status 3.d
(mainly vascular) surgery, randomized trials, cohort studies, and Pre-operative initiation of beta-
meta-analyses provide some evidence supporting a decrease in blockers may be considered in
83,88,
patients who have known IHD or IIb B
cardiac mortality and myocardial infarction with beta-blockers 106
myocardial ischaemia.d
(mainly atenolol). Perioperative beta-blockade is also cost-effective
When oral beta-blockade is
in these patients; however, patients with myocardial ischaemia as initiated in patients who undergo
demonstrated by stress testing are at high risk of perioperative non-cardiac surgery, the use of 97,100
IIb B
atenolol or bisoprolol as a first –102
cardiac complications despite perioperative beta-blocker use.
choice may be considered.
Conversely, in patients without clinical risk factors, randomized trials
Initiation of peri-operative high-
and cohort studies suggest that perioperative beta-blockade does not dose beta-blockers without III B 78
decrease the risk of cardiac complications and may even increase this titration is not recommended.
risk. A possible increase in mortality has been suggested by a retro- Pre-operative initiation of beta-
spective cohort.95 Bradycardia and hypotension may be harmful in blockers is not recommended in
III B 86,97
patients with atherosclerosis, and enhance the risk of stroke and patients scheduled for low-risk
death. Also, perioperative beta-blocker administration may enhance surgery.
post-operative delirium in patients undergoing vascular surgery.
One cannot justify exposing low-risk patients to potential adverse ASA ¼ American Society of Anesthesiologists; IHD ¼ ischaemic heart disease.
a
effects in the absence of proven benefit. The issue remains debatable Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
in intermediate-risk patients, i.e. those with one or two clinical risk c
factors. Increased mortality following pre-operative beta-blocker d
Treatment should ideally be initiated between 30 days and (at least) 2 days before
withdrawal has been reported in four observational studies.96 – 99 Beta- surgery, starting at a low dose, and should be continued post-operatively.83,98,103
The target is a resting heart rate 60 –70 bpm,86 and systolic blood pressure
blockers should be continued when prescribed for IHD or arrhyth-
.100 mm Hg.79,83
mias. When beta-blockers are prescribed for hypertension, the
absence of evidence for a perioperative cardioprotective effect with
other antihypertensive drugs does not support a change of therapy. Initiation of treatment and the optimal choice of beta-blocker dose
Beta-blockers should not be withdrawn in patients treated for stable are closely linked. Bradycardia and hypotension should be avoided. It
heart failure due to LV systolic dysfunction. In decompensated heart is important to prevent overtreatment with fixed, high, initial doses,
failure, beta-blocker therapy should be adjusted to the clinical condi- and doses should be decreased if this occurs. Beta-blocker dose
tion. If possible, non-cardiac surgery should be deferred so it can be should be slowly up-titrated and tailored to appropriate heart rate
performed under optimal medical therapy in a stable patient. Contra- and blood pressure targets, requiring that treatment be initiated
indications to beta-blockers (asthma, severe conduction disorders, ideally more than 1 day (when possible at least 1 week and up to
symptomatic bradycardia, and symptomatic hypotension) should be 30 days) before surgery, starting with a low dose.83,98,103 In patients
respected. In patients with intermittent claudication, beta-blockers with normal renal function, atenolol treatment should start with a
have not been shown to worsen symptoms and are therefore not 50 mg daily dose, then adjusted before surgery to achieve a resting
contra-indicated. In the absence of contra-indications, beta-blocker heart rate of 60-70 bpm86 with systolic blood pressure .100 mm
dose should be slowly up-titrated, starting at a low dose of a beta1- Hg.83 The heart rate goal applies to the whole perioperative
selective agent, to achieve a resting heart rate between 60 and 70 period, using intravenous administration when oral administration
beats per minute (bpm). Beta1-selective blockers without intrinsic is not possible. High doses should be avoided, particularly immediate-
sympathomimetic activity are favoured and evidence exists that ly before surgery. A retrospective study suggests that intra-operative

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mean arterial pressure should remain above 55 mm Hg.104 Post- lack of a parenteral formulation; therefore, statins with a long half-life
operative tachycardia should firstly lead to treatment of the (e.g. atorvastatin) or extended release formulations (e.g. lovastatin)
underlying cause—for example, hypovolaemia, pain, blood loss, or may be favoured to bridge the period immediately after surgery
infection—rather than simply increasing the beta-blocker dose. when oral intake is not feasible.
When beta-blockers are indicated, the optimal duration of peri- A concern relating to the use of perioperative statin therapy
operative beta-blockade cannot be derived from randomized trials. has been the risk of statin-induced myopathy and rhabdomyolysis.
The occurrence of delayed cardiac events indicates a need to con- Perioperatively, factors increasing the risk of statin-induced
tinue beta-blocker therapy for several months. For patients testing myopathy are numerous, e.g. the impairment of renal function after
positive for pre-operative stress, long-term beta-blocker therapy major surgery, and multiple drug use during anaesthesia. Early intro-
should be used. duction of statins allows for better detection of potential side-effects.
A high priority needs to be given to new, randomized, clinical trials According to current guidelines, most patients with peripheral
to better identify which patients derive benefit from beta-blocker artery disease (PAD) should receive statins. If they have to undergo
therapy in the perioperative setting, and to determine the optimal open vascular surgery or endovascular intervention, statins should
method of beta-blockade.105 be continued afterwards. In patients not previously treated, statins
should ideally be initiated at least 2 weeks before intervention
4.1.2 Statins for maximal plaque-stabilizing effects and continued for at least
3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors 1 month after surgery. In patients undergoing non-vascular surgery,
(statins) are widely prescribed in patients with orat risk of IHD. Patients there is no evidence to support pre-operative statin treatment if
with non-coronary atherosclerosis (carotid, peripheral, aortic, renal) there is no other indication.
should receive statin therapy for secondary prevention, irrespective
Recommendations on statins
of non-cardiac surgery. Statins also induce coronary plaque stabiliza-
tion through pleiotropic effects, which may prevent plaque rupture
and subsequent myocardial infarction in the perioperative period. Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref.c
Multiple observational studies have suggested that perioperative Peri-operative continuation of
statin use has a beneficial effect on the 30-day rate of death or myocar- statins is recommended,
favouring statins with a long I C
dial infarction, and on long-term mortality and cardiovascular event half-life or extended-release
rates.107 – 110 In a prospective, randomized, controlled trial, 100 formulation.
patients scheduled for vascular surgery were allocated to 20 mg of Pre-operative initiation of
either atorvastatin or placebo once daily for 45 days, irrespective of statin therapy should be
their serum cholesterol concentrations.111 At 6-month follow-up, considered in patients 112,113,
undergoing vascular surgery, IIa B
atorvastatin significantly reduced the incidence of cardiac events (8% 115
ideally at least 2 weeks before
vs. 26%; P ¼ 0.03). In patients in whom statins were introduced surgery.
before intervention, two meta-analyses showed a significant reduction
in the risk of post-operative myocardial infarction following invasive a
procedures,112,113 however, these meta-analyses included more clinic- b
Level of evidence.
c
al trials relating to cardiac surgery or percutaneous procedures than to Reference(s) supporting recommendations.
non-cardiac surgery. All-cause post-operative mortality was not

reduced in most series, except in one observational study that used
propensity score adjustment to account for differences in patient char- 4.1.3 Nitrates
acteristics according to the treatment.114 A recent Cochrane review Nitroglycerine is well known for reversing myocardial ischaemia. The
focusing on vascular surgery in statin-naı̈ve patients did not find any sig- effect of perioperative intravenous nitroglycerine on perioperative
nificant difference between statin-treated and control groups for the ischaemia is a matter of debate and no effect has been demonstrated
separate endpoints of all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, on the incidence of myocardial infarction or cardiac death. Also peri-
and myocardial infarction, but these endpoints were assessed in only operative use of nitroglycerine may pose a significant haemodynamic
178 patients.115 Statins have also been associated with a decreased risk to patients, since decreased pre-load may lead to tachycardia and
risk of complications after endovascular repair of AAA and a decreased hypotension.
risk of stroke after carotid stenting.116,117
Observational series suggest that perioperative statin therapy is 4.1.4 Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and
also associated with a lower risk of acute renal failure and with angiotensin-receptor blockers
lower mortality in patients experiencing post-operative complica- Independently of the blood pressure-lowering effect, angiotensin con-
tions or multiple organ dysfunction syndrome.114 Statins may de- verting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) preserve organ function; however,
crease the risk of post-operative atrial fibrillation (AF) following data from an observational study suggested that, regardless of the pre-
major non-cardiac surgery. scription of beta-blockers and statins, ACEIs did not decrease the fre-
Statin withdrawal more than four days after aortic surgery is asso- quency of 30-day or 1-year death or cardiac complications after
ciated with a three-fold higher risk of post-operative myocardial is- major vascular surgery in high-risk patients (revised cardiac index
chaemia.118 A potential limitation of perioperative statin use is the ≥3).110 Despite the lack of specific data on angiotensin-receptor

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blockers (ARBs), the following recommendations apply to ACEIs and were combined in a composite of death and/or myocardial infarction
ARBs, given their numerous common pharmacological properties. (relative risk 0.35; 95% CI 0.08– 0.83; P , 0.02). Subgroup analyses
Additionally, perioperative use of ACEIs or ARBs carries a risk of favoured diltiazem. Another study in 1000 patients undergoing
severe hypotension under anaesthesia, in particular following induc- acute or elective aortic aneurysm surgery showed that dihydropyri-
tion and concomitant beta-blocker use. Hypotension is less frequent dine use was independently associated with an increased incidence of
when ACEIs are discontinued the day before surgery. Although this perioperative mortality.119 The use of short-acting dihydropyri-
remains debatable, ACEIs withdrawal should be considered 24 dines—in particular, nifedipine capsules—should be avoided.
hours before surgery when they are prescribed for hypertension. Thus, although heart rate-reducing calcium channel blockers are
They should be resumed after surgery as soon as blood volume not indicated in patients with heart failure and systolic dysfunction,
and pressure are stable. The risk of hypotension is at least as high the continuation or introduction of heart rate-reducing calcium
with ARBs as with ACEIs, and the response to vasopressors may channel blockers may be considered in patients who do not tolerate
be impaired. In patients with LV systolic dysfunction, who are in a beta-blockers. Additionally, calcium channel blockers should be con-
stable clinical condition, it seems reasonable to continue treatment tinued during non-cardiac surgery in patients with vasospastic angina.
with ACEIs under close monitoring during the perioperative
period. When LV dysfunction is discovered during pre-operative 4.1.6 Alpha2 receptor agonists
evaluation in untreated patients in a stable condition, surgery Alpha2 receptor agonists reduce post-ganglionic noradrenaline
should if possible be postponed, to allow for diagnosis of the under- output and might therefore reduce the catecholamine surge during
lying cause and the introduction of ACEIs and beta-blockers. surgery. The European Mivazerol trial randomized 1897 patients
with IHD who underwent intermediate- or high-risk non-cardiac
Recommendations on use of ACEIs and ARBs surgery. Mivazerol did not decrease the incidence of death or myo-
cardial infarction in the whole population; however, there was a re-
Recommendations Classa Levelb duction of post-operative death or myocardial infarction observed
Continuation of ACEIs or ARBs,
in a sub-population of 904 patients undergoing vascular surgery.
under close monitoring, should be The international Peri-Operative ISchemic Evaluation 2 (POISE-2)
considered during non-cardiac surgery IIa C trial randomized 10 010 patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery
in stable patients with heart failure to clonidine or placebo. Clonidine did not reduce the rate of death
and LV systolic dysfunction. or non-fatal myocardial infarction in general, or in patients undergo-
Initiation of ACEIs or ARBs should be ing vascular surgery (relative risk 1.08; 95% Cl 0.93–1.26; P ¼ 0.29).
considered at least 1 week before On the other hand, clonidine increased the risk of clinically important
surgery in cardiac-stable patients with IIa C
heart failure and LV systolic
hypotension (relative risk 1.32; 95% Cl 1.24–1.40; P , 0.001) and
dysfunction. non-fatal cardiac arrest (relative risk 3.20; 95% Cl 1.17–8.73; P ¼
Transient discontinuation of ACEIs or 0.02).120 Therefore, alpha2 receptor agonists should not be adminis-
ARBs before non-cardiac surgery in tered to patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery.
IIa C
hypertensive patients should be
considered. 4.1.7 Diuretics
Diuretics are frequently used in patients with hypertension or heart
ACEI ¼ angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor; ARB ¼ angiotensin receptor failure. In general, diuretics for hypertension should be continued to
blocker; LV ¼ left ventricular. the day of surgery and resumed orally when possible. If blood pres-
a
b
Level of evidence.
sure reduction is required before oral therapy can be continued,
other antihypertensive agents may be considered. In heart failure,
dosage increase should be considered if symptoms or signs of fluid
4.1.5 Calcium channel blockers retention are present. Dosage reduction should be considered in
The effect of calcium channel blockers on the balance between myo- patients with hypovolaemia, hypotension, or electrolyte distur-
cardial oxygen supply and demand makes them theoretically suitable bances. In general, diuretic treatment—if necessary to control
for risk-reduction strategies. It is necessary to distinguish between heart failure—should be continued to the day of surgery and
dihydropyridines, which do not act directly on heart rate, and diltia- resumed orally when possible. In the perioperative period, volume
zem or verapamil, which lower the heart rate. status in patients with heart failure should be monitored carefully
The relevance of randomized trials assessing the perioperative and optimized by loop diuretics or fluids.
effect of calcium channel blockers is limited by their small size, lack The possibility of electrolyte disturbance should be considered in
of risk stratification, and the absence of systematic reporting of any patient receiving diuretics. Hypokalaemia is reported to occur in
cardiac death and myocardial infarction. A meta-analysis pooled 11 up to 34% of patients undergoing surgery (mostly non-cardiac). It is
randomized trials totalling 1007 patients. All patients underwent well known to significantly increase the risk of ventricular fibrillation
non-cardiac surgery under calcium channel blocker treatment. and cardiac arrest in cardiac disease. In a study of 688 patients with
There was a significant reduction in the number of episodes of myo- cardiac disease undergoing non-cardiac surgery, hypokalaemia was
cardial ischaemia and supraventricular tachycardia (SVT) in the independently associated with perioperative mortality. Importantly,
pooled analyses; however, the decrease in mortality and myocardial the use of K+ and Mg++ -sparing aldosterone antagonists reduces
infarction reached statistical significance only when both endpoints the risk of mortality in severe heart failure. Special attention should

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be given to patients taking diuretics and patients prone to developing which depends on the perioperative bleeding risk, weighed against
arrhythmias. Any electrolyte disturbance—especially hypokalaemia the risk of thrombotic complications.
and hypomagnesaemia—should be corrected in due time before
surgery. Acute pre-operative repletion in asymptomatic patients 4.2.2 Dual anti-platelet therapy
may be associated with more risks than benefits; thus, minor asymp- Five to twenty-five percent of patients with coronary stents require
tomatic electrolyte disturbances should not delay acute surgery. non-cardiac surgery within 5 years following stent implantation. The
prognosis of stent thrombosis appears to be worse than for de novo cor-
4.2 Perioperative management in patients onary occlusion, and premature cessation of dual anti-platelet therapy
on anti-platelet agents (DAPT) in patients with recent coronary stent implantation is the most
4.2.1 Aspirin powerful predictor for stent thrombosis. The consequences of stent
Perioperative evaluation of the impact of aspirin continuation or ces- thrombosis will vary according to the site of stent deployment, e.g.
sation on serious cardiovascular events or bleeding has disclosed con- thrombosis of a left main stem stent is, in most cases, fatal.
troversial results with, on the one hand, a reduction of intra- and The management of anti-platelet therapy, in patients who have
perioperative stroke—but without influence on myocardial infarction undergone recent coronary stent treatment and are scheduled for
during non-cardiac surgery—and, on the other hand, no statistical sig- non-cardiac surgery, should be discussed between the surgeon and
nificance for the combined endpoint of vascular events. Additionally, the cardiologist, so that the balance between the risk of life-threatening
concerns of promoting perioperative haemorrhagic complications surgical bleeding on anti-platelet therapy—best understood by the
have often led to the discontinuation of aspirin in the perioperative surgeon—and the risk of life-threatening stent thrombosis off
period. A large meta-analysis, including 41 studies in 49 590 patients, DAPT—best understood by the cardiologist—can be considered.
which compared peri-procedural withdrawal vs. bleeding risks of The ‘standard’ duration for DAPT after bare-metal stenting (BMS) is
aspirin, concluded that the risk of bleeding complications with different to that for drug-eluting stent (DES) treatment .126
aspirin therapy was increased by 50%, but that aspirin did not lead To reduce risk of bleeding and transfusion, current Guidelines rec-
to greater severity of bleeding complications.121 In subjects at risk ommend delaying elective non-cardiac surgery until completion of
of—or with proven—IHD, aspirin non-adherence/withdrawal the full course of DAPT and, whenever possible, performing surgery
tripled the risk of major adverse cardiac events. without discontinuation of aspirin.74 Patients who have undergone a
The POISE-2 trial randomized 10 010 patients undergoing non- previous percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) may be at higher
cardiac surgery to aspirin or placebo.122 The patients were stratified risk of cardiac events during or after subsequent non-cardiac surgery,
according to whether they had not been taking aspirin before the particularly in cases of unplanned or urgent surgery following coronary
study (initiation stratum, with 5628 patients) or they were already on stenting. While non-cardiac surgery performed early after balloon
an aspirin regimen (continuation stratum, with 4382 patients). In the angioplasty is not associated with an increased risk of cardiac
POISE-2 trial, aspirin was stopped at least three days (but usually events,127 stenting dramatically changes the scenario. Accordingly,
seven days) before surgery. Patients less than six weeks after placement mortality rates of up to 20% were reported in relation to perioperative
of a bare metal coronary stent, or less than one year after placement of stent thrombosis when surgery was performed within weeks following
a drug-eluting coronary stent, were excluded from the trial and the coronary stenting and DAPT was discontinued.128 Therefore, elective
number of stented patients outside these time intervals was too surgery should be postponed for a minimum of 4 weeks and ideally for
small to draw firm conclusions asto the risk–benefit ratio. Additionally, up to 3 months after BMS implantation. Importantly, whenever pos-
only 23% of the study population had known prior CAD and patients sible, aspirin should be continued throughout surgery.129 In 2002,
undergoing carotid endarterecomy surgery were excluded. Patients DES were introduced in Europe and became widely accepted as an ef-
started taking aspirin (at a dose of 200 mg) or placebo just before ficient tool for reducing in-stent re-stenosis; however, the major draw-
surgery and continued it daily (at a dose of 100 mg) for 30 days in back of the first-generation DES was the need for prolonged DAPT
the initiation stratum and for 7 days in the continuation stratum, after (aspirin plus clopidogrel) for 12 months. A higher risk of non-cardiac
which they resumed their regular aspirin regimen. Aspirin did not surgery early after DES placement has been reported,126 and a
reduce the rates of death or non-fatal myocardial infarction at 30 higher risk for major adverse cardiac events has also been shown
days (7.0% in the aspirin group vs. 7.1% in the placebo group; hazard during the first weeks after non-cardiac surgery in patients with
ratio 0.99; 95% CI 0.86–1.15; P ¼ 0.92). Major bleeding was more implanted stents.126,130 But, for the new-generation (second- and
common in the aspirin group than in the placebo group (4.6% vs. third-generation) DES, routine extension of DAPT beyond 6 months
3.8%, respectively; hazard ratio 1.23; 95% CI 1.01–1.49; P ¼ 0.04). is no longer recommended based on currently available data. Obser-
The primary and secondary outcome results were similar in the two vational data from new-generation zotarolimus-eluting and everoli-
aspirin strata. The trial results do not support routine use of aspirin mus-eluting stents suggest that even shorter durations of DAPT may
in patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery, but it is uncertain be sufficient,131 and a randomized study showed a similar outcome
whether patients with a low perioperative bleeding risk and a high in patients treated with 3 and 12 months of DAPT after PCI.132
risk of thrombo-embolic events could benefit from low-dose aspirin. In patients undergoing myocardial revascularization for high-risk
Aspirin should be discontinued if the bleeding risk outweighs the po- ACS, DAPT treatment is recommended for 1 year irrespective of
tential cardiovascular benefit.121,123 – 125 For patients undergoing stent type. Overall, in patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery
spinal surgery or certain neurosurgical or ophthalmological operations, after recent ACS or stent implantation, the benefits of early
it is recommended that aspirin be discontinued for at least seven days. surgery for a specific pathology (e.g. malignant tumours, vascular an-
In conclusion, the use of low-dose aspirin in patients undergoing eurysm repair) should be balanced against the risk of stent throm-
non-cardiac surgery should be based on an individual decision, bosis and the strategy should be discussed.

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In summary, it is recommended that DAPT be administered for at 4.3 Perioperative management in patients
least 1 month after BMS implantation in stable CAD,133 for 6 months on anticoagulants
after new-generation DES implantation,133 and for up to 1 year in
Anticoagulant therapy is associated with increased risk of bleeding
patients after ACS, irrespective of revascularization strategy.133 Im-
during non-cardiac surgery. In some patients, this risk will be out-
portantly, a minimum of 1 (BMS) to 3 (new-generation DES)
weighed by the benefit of anticoagulants and drug therapy should
months of DAPT might be acceptable, independently of the acute-
be maintained or modified, whereas, in patients at low risk of throm-
ness of coronary disease, in cases when surgery cannot be delayed
bosis, anticoagulation therapy should be stopped to minimize bleed-
for a longer period; however, such surgical procedures should be per-
ing complications.
formed in hospitals where 24/7 catheterization laboratories are avail-
able, so as to treat patients immediately in case of perioperative
4.3.1 Vitamin K antagonists
atherothrombotic events. Independently of the timeframe between
Patients treated with oral anticoagulant therapy using vitamin K antago-
DES implantation and surgery, single anti-platelet therapy (preferably
nists (VKAs) are subject to an increased risk of peri- and post-procedural
with aspirin) should be continued.
bleeding. If the international normalized ratio (INR) is ≤1.5, surgery can
In patients needing surgery within a few days, current ESC Guide-
be performed safely; however, in anticoagulated patients with a high risk
lines recommend withholding clopidogrel and ticagrelor for five days
of thrombo-embolism—for example, patients with:
and prasugrel for seven days prior to surgery unless there is a high risk
of thrombosis.74 In contrast, other guidelines recommend using † AF with a CHA2DS2-VASc [Cardiac failure, Hypertension, Age
platelet function tests for optimal timing of surgery, as discussed in ≥75 (Doubled), Diabetes, Stroke (Doubled) – Vascular disease,
a recent publication.134,135 However, the guidelines do not provide Age 65–74 and Sex category (Female)] score of ≥4] or
the ‘ideal’ platelet function assay or a ‘bleeding cut-off’, and more re- † mechanical prosthetic heart valves, newly inserted biological pros-
search in this area is needed. thetic heart valves, or
For patients with a very high risk of stent thrombosis, bridging † mitral valvular repair (within the past 3 months) or
therapy with intravenous, reversible glycoprotein inhibitors, such as † recent venous thrombo-embolism (within 3 months) or
eptifibatide or tirofiban, should be considered. Cangrelor, the new re- † thrombophilia,
versible intravenous P2Y12-inhibitor, has been shown to provide ef-
discontinuation of VKAs is hazardous and these patients will need bridg-
fective platelet inhibition but is not yet available.136 The use of
ing therapy with unfractionated heparin (UFH) or therapeutic-dose
low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) for bridging in these patients
LMWH.69,137 In general, there is better evidence for the efficacy
should be avoided. Dual anti-platelet therapy should be resumed as
and safety of LMWH, in comparison with UFH, in bridging to
soon as possible after surgery and, if possible, within 48 hours.
surgery.69,137 LMWH is usually administered subcutaneously and
weight-adjusted for once- or twice-daily administration without labora-
4.2.3 Reversal of anti-platelet therapy tory monitoring. In patients with a high thrombo-embolic risk, thera-
For patients receiving anti-platelet therapy, who have excessive or peutic doses of LMWH twice daily are recommended, and
life-threatening perioperative bleeding, transfusion of platelets is prophylactic once-daily doses in low-risk patients.137 The last dose of
recommended. LMWH should be administered no later than 12 hours before the pro-
cedure. Further adjustment of dose is necessary in patients with
Table 6 Pharmacological features of non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants
b.i.d. ¼ bis in diem (twice daily); Cmax ¼ maximum concentration; CYP3a4 ¼ cytochrome P3a4 enzyme; P gP ¼ platelet glycoprotein; q.d. ¼ quaque die (once daily).

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moderate-to-high kidney function impairment. It is recommended that (2.5 –5.0 mg) intravenous or oral vitamin K is recommended. The
VKA treatment be stopped 3–5 days before surgery (depending on the effect of vitamin K on INR will first be apparent after 6–12 hours. If
type of VKA), with daily INR measurements, until ≤1.5 is reached, and more immediate reversal of the anticoagulant effect of VKAs is
that LMWH or UFH therapy be started one day after discontinuation of needed, treatment with fresh-frozen plasma or prothrombin
VKA—or later, as soon as the INR is ,2.0. complex concentrate (PCC), is recommended, in addition to
In patients with mechanical prosthetic heart valves, the evidence in low-dose intravenous or oral vitamin K.
favour of intravenous UFH is more solid; thus in some centres these In patients receiving UFH and requiring reversal of the anticoagu-
patients are hospitalized and treated with UFH until four hours lant effect for an urgent surgical procedure, cessation of therapy is
before surgery, and treatment with UFH is resumed after surgery sufficient, because coagulation is usually normal four hours after
until the INR is within the therapeutic range.69 On the day of the pro- cessation. When UFH is given subcutaneously, the anticoagulant
cedure, the INR should be checked. Consideration should be given to effect is more prolonged. For immediate reversal, the antidote
postponing the procedure if the INR is .1.5. LMWH or UFH is is protamine sulphate. The dose of protamine sulphate can be
resumed at the pre-procedural dose 1–2 days after surgery, depend- calculated by assessment of the amount of heparin received in the
ing on the patient’s haemostatic status, but at least 12 hours after the previous two hours. (http://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/medicine/
procedure. VKAs should be resumed on day 1 or 2 after surgery— 10807/spc). The dose of protamine sulphate for reversal of a
depending on adequate haemostasis—with the pre-operative main- heparin infusion is 1 U per 1 U of heparin sodium.
tenance dose plus a boosting dose of 50% for two consecutive days; In patients who are receiving LMWHs, the anticoagulant effect
the maintenance dose should be administrated thereafter. LMWH or may be reversed within eight hours of the last dose because of
UFH should be continued until the INR returns to therapeutic levels. the short half-life. If immediate reversal is required, intravenous
Furthermore, the type of surgical procedure should be taken into
consideration, as the bleeding risk varies considerably and affects
haemostatic control. Procedures with a high risk of serious bleeding
complications are those where compression cannot be performed. In
these cases, discontinuation of oral anticoagulants and bridging Patient on NOAC presenting
with bleeding
therapy with LMWH are warranted. In patients undergoing surgery
with a low risk of serious bleeding, such as cataract- or minor skin
surgery, no change in oral anticoagulation therapy is needed; Check haemodynamic status,
however, it is wise to keep INR levels in the lower therapeutic range. basic coagulation tests to assess
for an anticoagulation effect
4.3.2 Non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants (e.g. aPTT for dabigatran, etc),
renal function, etc.
In patients treated with the non-VKA direct oral anticoagulants
(NOACs) dabigatran (a direct thrombin inhibitor), rivaroxaban, apix-
aban, or edoxaban (all direct factor Xa inhibitors), all of which have a Delay next dose or
well-defined ‘on’ and ‘off’ action, ‘bridging’ to surgery is in most cases Minor discontinue treatment
unnecessary, due to their short biological half-lives (Table 6).138
An exception to this rule is the patient with high thrombo-embolic
risk, whose surgical intervention is delayed for several days. The
overall recommendation is to stop NOACs for 2–3 times their re- Symptomatic/supportive
treatment
spective biological half-lives prior to surgery in surgical interventions
Mechanical compression
with ‘normal’ bleeding risk, and 4–5 times the biological half-lives
Moderate–severe Fluid replacement
before surgery in surgical interventions with high bleeding Blood transfusion
risk.139,140 New tests for better quantification of activity levels of Oral charcoal if
the various NOACs are under development. In general, reduced recently ingested*
kidney function or moderate-to-high increased bleeding risk should
lead to earlier cessation of NOACs. If patients are pre-treated with
dabigatran, which has about an 80% renal excretion rate, the individ-
ual glomerular filtration rate determines the time of its cessation Consideration of rFVIIa
prior to surgery.139,141 Kidney function is thus essential for tailoring or PCC
Very severe
Charcoal filtration* /
dabigatran therapy, and earlier cessation is recommended for all Haemodialysis*
NOACs if the bleeding risk is increased.
Because of the fast ‘on’-effect of NOACs (in comparison with
VKAs), resumption of treatment after surgery should be delayed
for 1 –2 (in some cases 3–5) days, until post-surgical bleeding ten- Figure 2 Management of bleeding in patients taking non-vitamin
dency is diminished. K antagonist direct oral anticoagulants. From Camm et al. 2012.144
*With dabigatran; aPTT ¼ activated partial thromboplastin time;
4.3.3 Reversal of anticoagulant therapy
NOAC ¼ non-vitamin K antagonist direct oral anticoagulant;
4.3.3.1 Vitamin K antagonists
PCC ¼ prothrombin coagulation complex; rFVIIa ¼ activated re-
In patients who are receiving VKAs and who require reversal of the
combinant factor VII.
anticoagulant effect for an urgent surgical procedure, low-dose

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protamine sulphate can be used, but anti-Xa activity is never com- 4.4 Revascularization
pletely neutralized (maximum 50%). The role of routine, prophylactic, invasive, coronary diagnostic evalu-
ation and revascularization in reducing coronary risk for non-cardiac
surgery remains ill-defined. Indications for pre-operative coronary
4.3.3.2 Non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants
angiography and revascularization, in patients with known or sus-
When severe bleeding complications occur under the influence of
pected IHD who are scheduled for major non-cardiac surgery, are
NOACs, symptomatic treatment should be initiated (Figure 2)
similar to those in the non-surgical setting.74 Control of myocardial
because of the lack of specific antidotes (these are currently under
ischaemia before surgery is recommended whenever non-cardiac
development). Preliminary data have shown a potential benefit for
surgery can be safely delayed. There is, however, no indication for
the use of PCC or activated PCC when bleeding occurs under the
routinely searching for the presence of myocardial (silent) ischaemia
direct factor Xa inhibitor rivaroxaban, and is also applicable to apix-
before non-cardiac surgery.
aban142 and dabigatran,143 whereas haemodialysis is an effective
The main reason for pre-operative myocardial revascularization is
method for eliminating dabigatran from the circulation but does
the potential prevention of perioperative myocardial ischaemia that
not help when a direct factor Xa inhibitor has been used (Figure 2).
leads to necrosis or electric/haemodynamic instability at the time
of surgery. Coronary pathology underlying fatal perioperative myo-
Recommendations on anti-platelet therapy cardial infarctions revealed that two-thirds of the patients had signifi-
cant left-main or three-vessel disease.145 Most of the patients did not
Recommendations Class a Levelb Ref. c exhibit plaque fissuring and only one-third had an intracoronary
thrombus. These findings suggest that a substantial proportion of
It is recommended that aspirin
be continued for 4 weeks after fatal perioperative myocardial infarctions may have resulted from
BMS implantation and for 3–12 low-flow, high-demand ischaemia, owing to the stress of the oper-
months after DES implantation, I C ation in the presence of fixed coronary artery stenoses and therefore
unless the risk of life-threatening amenable to revascularization. In patients who underwent coronary
surgical bleeding on aspirin is
angiography before vascular surgery, a number of non-fatal peri-
unacceptably high.
operative myocardial infarctions occurred as a consequence of
Continuation of aspirin, in
patients previously thus treated, plaque rupture in arteries without high-grade stenosis. These
may be considered in the peri- results are not surprising, considering the extreme and complex
operative period, and should be
stress situations associated with surgery—such as trauma, inflamma-
based on an individual decision IIb B 121,122
that depends on the peri- tion, anaesthesia, intubation, pain, hypothermia, bleeding, anaemia,
operative bleeding risk, weighed fasting, and hypercoagulability—which may induce multiple and
against the risk of thrombotic
complications. complex pathophysiological responses.146
Discontinuation of aspirin The Coronary Artery Surgery Study (CASS) database includes
therapy, in patients previously almost 25 000 patients with CAD, initially allocated to either coron-
treated with it, should be ary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery or medical management,
considered in those in whom IIa B 121,122
haemostasis is anticipated to be with a follow-up of .10 years, and 3368 underwent non-cardiac
difficult to control during surgery during follow-up.147 A retrospective analysis of this popu-
surgery. lation suggested that vascular, abdominal, and major head and
Continuation of P2Y12 inhibitor neck surgeries were associated with a higher risk of perioperative
treatment should be considered myocardial infarction and death in the presence of non-
for 4 weeks after BMS
implantation and for 3–12
revascularized CAD. Furthermore, the study showed that patients
months after DES implantation, IIa C who were clinically stable in the years after CABG had a reduced risk
unless the risk of life-threatening of cardiac complications in the event that they required non-cardiac
surgical bleeding on this agent is surgery. This protective effect of previous coronary revasculariza-
unacceptably high.
tion was more pronounced in patients with triple-vessel CAD
In patients treated with P2Y12
and/or depressed LV function, as well as in those undergoing high-
inhibitors, who need to undergo
surgery, postponing surgery for risk surgery, and lasted for at least six years; however, the study was
at least 5 days after cessation of performed at a time when medical therapy did not meet current
ticagrelor and clopidogrel—and standards. It can be concluded that asymptomatic patients who
IIa C
for 7 days in the case of
prasugrel—if clinically feasible,
underwent CABG within the previous six years are relatively pro-
should be considered unless the tected from myocardial infarction complicating non-cardiac
patient is at high risk of an surgery and may undergo non-cardiac surgery without routine pre-
ischaemic event. operative stress testing. This may not be the recommendation for
patients with decreased LV function, as illustrated in a small
BMS ¼ bare-metal stent; DES ¼ drug-eluting stent. cohort of 211 patients who underwent non-cardiac surgery
a
Class of recommendation. within one year of CABG and in whom perioperative predictors
b
Level of evidence.
c
Reference(s) supporting recommendations. for mortality at one year were: LV ejection fraction (LVEF)
,45% (P , 0.001), elevated right ventricular systolic pressure

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(P ¼ 0.03), emergency operation (OR 6.8), need for dialysis (P ¼ The Coronary Artery Revascularization Prophylaxis (CARP)
0.02) or ventilator support (P ¼ 0.03).148 trial compared optimal medical therapy with revascularization
As mentioned above, patients who have had a previous PCI may be (CABG or PCI) in patients with stable IHD before major vascular
at higher risk of cardiac events during or after subsequent non-cardiac surgery.152 Of 5859 patients screened at 18 centres of the United
surgery, particularly in cases of unplanned or urgent surgery following States Department of Veterans Affairs, 510 patients were enrolled
coronary stenting. It is therefore preferable, whenever possible, to in a randomized trial. Patients were included, based on increased
postpone elective surgery until 12 months after DES implantation.149 risk for perioperative cardiac complications, as assessed by the con-
However, recent data have suggested that, beyond six months fol- sultant cardiologist on the basis of a combination of cardiovascular
lowing newer-generation DES implantation—and, for some specific risk factors and the detection of ischaemia on non-invasive testing;
DES devices, beyond three months of DES implantation—the peri- 28% of the study patients had three or more clinical risk factors
operative cardiac event rates may be acceptable.126,132,150 Independ- and 49% had two or more variables as defined by the revised
ently of the interval between DES implantation and surgery, aspirin cardiac risk index. There was no difference in either mortality or peri-
should be continued and, in cardiac-stable/asymptomatic patients operative myocardial infarction at 2.7 years after commencement of
with recent myocardial infarction treated with stenting, the timing the trial. The results of the CARP study indicated that systematic
of non-cardiac, non-urgent surgery will in part be dictated by the prophylactic revascularization before vascular surgery does not
type of stent implanted. improve clinical outcomes in stable patients.
A second prospective, randomized trial included 208 patients,
selected on the basis of a revised cardiac risk index, who were
Recommendations on the timing of non-cardiac surgery scheduled for major vascular surgery.153 Patients were randomly
in cardiac-stable/asymptomatic patients with previous allocated to either a ‘selective strategy’ in which coronary angiog-
revascularization raphy was performed, based on the results of non-invasive tests,
or to a ‘systematic strategy’, in which patients routinely underwent
Recommendations Class a Level b Ref. c a pre-operative coronary angiography. While the rate of myocardial
It is recommended that, except for revascularization was higher in the systematic strategy group (58.1%
high-risk patients, asymptomatic
patients who have undergone CABG vs. 40.1%), the perioperative, in-hospital, adverse cardiac event rate
in the past 6 years be sent for non- I B 147,148 (defined as mortality, non-fatal myocardial infarction, cerebrovas-
urgent, non-cardiac surgery without cular accident, heart failure, and need for new cardiac revasculariza-
angiographic evaluation.d
tion procedures), although higher in the selective strategy group,
Consideration should be given to was not significantly different from that in the systematic strategy
performing non-urgent, non-cardiac
surgery in patients with recent BMS group (11.7% vs. 4.8%; P ¼ 0.1). In contrast, the long-term
implantation after a minimum of 4 IIa B 129 outcome (after 58 + 17 months) in terms of survival and freedom
weeks and ideally 3 months following from cardiac events was significantly better in the systematic strat-
the intervention.d egy group.
Consideration should be given to A recent randomized, prospective, controlled trial, focussing on a
performing non-urgent, non-cardiac
surgery in patients who have had
particular homogeneous subset of non-cardiac surgical interventions
recent DES implantation no sooner (CEA), examined the value of pre-operative coronary angiography
than 12 months following the IIa B 149,150 and stenting in 426 patients without history of CAD or cardiac symp-
intervention. This delay may be toms and with normal cardiac ultrasound and electrocardiography
reduced to 6 months for the new- results. The patients were randomized to pre-operative coronary
generation DES.d
angiography and—if needed—revascularization, or to no coronary
In patients who have had recent
angiography. The primary combined endpoint was the incidence of
balloon angioplasty, surgeons should
consider postponing non-cardiac IIa B 127,151
any post-operative myocardial ischaemic events combined with the
surgery until at least 2 weeks after incidence of complications of coronary angiography and stenting.
the intervention. In the angiography group, 68 patients (31%) experienced a significant
coronary artery stenosis; 66 of these patients underwent stenting
BMS ¼ bare-metal stent; CABG ¼ coronary artery bypass graft surgery; (87% with a DES) and two underwent CABG, with no post-operative
DES ¼ drug-eluting stent.
a events. In the non-angiography group, nine ischaemic events
b
Level of evidence. were observed (4.2%; P ¼ 0.01). In this particular group of patients,
c
Reference(s) supporting recommendations. the results suggest a short-term benefit of systematic coronary
d
Aspirin to be continued throughout perioperative period.
angiography.76
Covering 3949 patients enrolled in 10 studies between the years
4.4.1 Prophylactic revascularization in patients with 1996 and 2006 (nine observational and the CARP randomized
asymptomatic or stable ischaemic heart disease trial), a meta-analysis that addressed the value of pre-operative cor-
Giving clear recommendations on prophylactic revascularization in onary revascularization before non-cardiac surgery revealed no sig-
patients with asymptomatic or stable IHD is challenging, as most of nificant difference between coronary revascularization and medical
the data are derived from retrospective studies and registries. management groups, in terms of post-operative mortality and

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myocardial infarction (OR 0.85; 95% CI 0.48 – 1.50 and OR 0.95; main trunk lesions) unless the need for a shorter duration of
95% CI 0.44 – 2.08, respectively).154 There were no long-term DAPT, using new-generation DES devices, is confirmed.
outcome benefits associated with prophylactic coronary revascu-
larization (OR 0.81; 95% CI 0.40 – 1.63 for long-term mortality
Recommendations for prophylactic revascularization in
and OR 1.65; 95% CI 0.70 – 3.86 for late adverse cardiac events);
stable/asymptomatic patients
thus, in asymptomatic patients or those with stable CAD, prophy-
lactic coronary angiography—and, if needed, revascularization
Recommendations Classa Level b Ref. c
before non-cardiac surgery—does not confer any beneficial
effects as compared with optimal medical management in terms Performance of myocardial
revascularization is recommended
of perioperative mortality, myocardial infarction, long-term mortal- according to the applicable I B 56
guidelines for management in stable
ity, and adverse cardiac events. coronary artery disease.
Successful performance of a vascular procedure, without pro-
Late revascularization after
phylactic revascularization, in a stable coronary patient, does successful non-cardiac surgery
not imply that the patient would not require subsequent revasculariza- should be considered, in I C
accordance with ESC Guidelines on
tion. Despite the lack of extensive scientific data, myocardial revascu- stable coronary artery disease.
larization may be recommended in patients presenting with persistent
Prophylactic myocardial
signs of extensive ischaemia before elective non-cardiac surgery similar revascularization before high-risk
to non-surgical settings recommended by the ESC Guidelines.56 surgery may be considered, IIb B 147
depending on the extent of a stress-
induced perfusion defect.
4.4.2 Type of prophylactic revascularization in patients Routine prophylactic myocardial
with stable ischaemic heart disease revascularization before low- and
intermediate-risk surgery in patients III B 152
Occasionally, patients with stable IHD may require elective surgery, with proven IHD is not
which may be postponed for several months and up to a year. There recommended.
are no solid data to guide a revascularization strategy in such a case.
It seems reasonable to propose a cardiovascular work-up according IHD ¼ ischaemic heart disease.
a
to the ESC Guidelines on stable angina pectoris.56 Revascularization b
Level of evidence.
should be considered, in order to improve symptoms and prognosis c
in patients with obstructive CAD. All patients considered for revas-
cularization should receive optimal medical treatment. The timing
of revascularization is critical and depends on the clinical presenta- 4.4.3 Revascularization in patients with non-ST-elevation
tion: stable vs. ACS. The type of revascularization, CABG vs. PCI, acute coronary syndrome
depends on the extent of CAD and technical feasibility and is dis- No trial has yet investigated the role of prophylactic revasculariza-
cussed in detail in the ESC Guidelines on myocardial revascularization in patients with NSTE-ACS requiring non-cardiac surgery;
tion,74 of which a new edition will be published in 2014. therefore, if the clinical condition requiring non-cardiac surgery is
Percutaneous coronary intervention should be performed to not life-threatening, priority should be given to the management
improve symptoms in stable symptomatic patients with single or of NSTE-ACS. In such cases, the 2011 ESC Guidelines on the
multi-vessel disease, in whom intervention is technically appropri- management of NSTE-ACS apply.73 With regard to the type of
ate and procedural risk does not outweigh the potential benefit. coronary revascularization employed in patients later requiring
The choice between PCI and CABG, often a matter of debate, non-cardiac surgery, most undergo PCI. In the rare scenario of
will depend on several factors: according to the 5-year results of NSTE-ACS linked with the need for subsequent early non-cardiac
the Synergy between Percutaneous Coronary Intervention with surgery, at the time of PCI, preference should be given either to
TAXUS and Cardiac Surgery (SYNTAX) trial, CABG should BMS, in order to avoid delaying surgery beyond 1 and preferably
remain the standard of care for patients with complex lesions 3 months, or to new-generation DES if data from recent trials
(high or intermediate SYNTAX scores). For patients with less- confirm non-inferiority.156,157 In rare cases, balloon angioplasty
complex disease (low SYNTAX scores) or left-main coronary alone may be a reasonable strategy if a good acute result is expected,
disease (low or intermediate SYNTAX scores) PCI is an acceptable because aspirin—rather than dual anti-platelet therapy—may be
alternative.155 In the presence of minimal symptoms or their sufficient.156
absence, these patients may be treated medically. If PCI is per- The value of coronary revascularization for NSTE-ACS, in patients
formed before non-cardiac surgery, according to the previous who later require non-cardiac surgery, has been addressed in a retro-
edition of these Guidelines, BMS is advocated in order not to spective analysis covering 16 478 patients who, between 1999 and
delay the surgery; however, if the data from recent trials evaluating 2004, had a myocardial infarction and underwent hip surgery, chole-
newer DES devices are confirmed, this recommendation may no cystectomy, bowel resection, elective AAA repair, or lower extrem-
longer be valid and certain new-generation DES may be used in ity amputation in a period of up to three years following the
low-risk patients requiring early non-cardiac surgery.132 If non- myocardial infarction. This study showed that patients who were
cardiac surgery cannot be postponed, CABG should be favoured revascularized before surgery had an approximately 50% lower
over BMS-based PCI in patients with a higher risk of re-stenosis rate of re-infarction (5.1% vs. 10.0%; P , 0.001) as well as 30-day
(small diameter vessel; long lesions; multiple stents required; left- (5.2% vs. 11.3%; P , 0.001) and 1-year mortality (18.3% vs. 35.8%;

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P , 0.001) compared with those who were not revascularized. This of 160 000 Medicare procedures on patients aged ≥65 years, heart
large sample, representing real-world practice, suggests that patients failure was present in 18% and was associated with a 63% increased
with a recent myocardial infarction can benefit from pre-operative risk of operative mortality and a 51% greater risk of 30-day all-cause
revascularization.158 re-admission, compared with the CAD group or patient group
without heart failure.163 A reduced LVEF of ≤35% was found to be
Recommendations on routine myocardial a strong predictor of post-operative cardiac events following vascular
revascularization in patients with NSTE-ACS surgery.165 The prognostic impact of HF-PEF on perioperative mor-
bidity and mortality is not well defined. One study found no significant
Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref. c differences in events between controlled HF-PEF and HF-REF
patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery,166 whereas another
If non-cardiac surgery can
safely be postponed, it is found that only those with severely depressed LVEF (,30%) had
recommended that patients 73,75, increased perioperative event rates, compared with a group with
should be diagnosed and I A
133,158 moderate (LVEF 30–40%) or mildly (LVEF .40, ,50%) reduced
treated in line with the LV function.167 Compared with HF-REF patients, HF-PEF patients
guidelines on NSTE-ACS.
tend to be older, female, more likely to have hypertension and AF,
In the unlikely combination of
and less likely to have CAD; generally, their prognoses are also
a life-threatening clinical
condition requiring urgent
better.168 In the absence of evidence-based studies, the similar peri-
non-cardiac surgery and operative management can be recommended in patients with HF-PEF
revascularization for NSTE- IIa C 133 as in patients with HF-REF, with emphasis also on parameters besides
ACS, the expert team should LVEF, such as general clinical status, evidence of volume overload, and
discuss, case by case, the increased levels of natriuretic peptides.
priority of surgery.
Transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) is a key element in the pre-
In patients who have operative assessment of patients with known or suspected heart
undergone non-cardiac
failure. LVEF, as well as LV and atrial volumes should be measured
surgery, aggressive medical
treatment and myocardial with bi-planar or three-dimensional echocardiography.169 Assess-
I B 73 ments of valve function and diastolic function (such as E/e’ ratio)
revascularization according to
the guidelines on NSTE-ACS are likewise of major importance,170 as is evaluation of inferior vena
are recommended following cava diameter for the determination of volume status and right
surgery.
atrial pressure. Deformation imaging with strain analysis may reveal
If PCI is indicated before semi-
urgent surgery, the use of
dysfunction that is not apparent using traditional methods.170 The in-
new-generation DES, BMS or formation on cardiac structure and function obtained by TTE pro-
I B 151,156
even balloon angioplasty is vides important prognostic information before non-cardiac
recommended. surgery.59,171 Thus, routine pre-operative echocardiography should
be considered in high-risk surgical populations; however, routine
ACS ¼ acute coronary syndromes; BMS ¼ bare-metal stent; DES ¼ drug-eluting echocardiography is not indicated in every cardiac patient. In a
stent; NSTE-ACS ¼ non –ST-elevation acute coronary syndrome; PCI ¼ large Canadian cohort study, pre-operative echocardiography was
percutaneous coronary intervention. not associated with improved survival or shorter hospital stay follow-
a
b
Level of evidence. ing major non-cardiac surgery.172 In emergency non-cardiac surgery,
c
Reference(s) supporting recommendations. a pre-operative-focussed TTE examination may significantly alter
diagnosis and management.173 In patients with a poor echocardio-
graphic window, CMR imaging is an excellent method for the evalu-
ation of both cardiac structure and function.174
5. Specific diseases The pre-operative levels of natriuretic peptides (BNP or NT
Several specific diseases merit special consideration in terms of proBNP) are strongly correlated to the prognosis of heart failure
cardiovascular pre-operative assessment. and to perioperative and post-operative morbidity and mortal-
ity.3,175,176 Compared with a pre-operative natriuretic-peptide meas-
5.1 Chronic heart failure urement alone, additional post-operative natriuretic-peptide
The diagnosis of heart failure requires the presence of symptoms and measurement enhanced risk stratification for the composite out-
signs typical of heart failure and, in addition, evidence of reduced LV comes of death or non-fatal myocardial infarction at 30 days
function [heart failure with reduced LVEF (HF-REF)] or a non-dilated and ≥ 180 days after non-cardiac surgery.55 Thus, the assessment
left ventricle with normal or nearly normal systolic function and rele- of natriuretic peptides should form part of a routine pre-operative
vant structural disease and/or diastolic dysfunction [heart failure with evaluation when cardiac dysfunction is known or suspected.
preserved LVEF (HF-PEF)].159 The prevalence of heart failure in The best assessment of a patient’s overall functional capacity is
developed countries is 1–2%, but rises to ≥10% among persons achieved by performing a cardiopulmonary exercise test (CPX/
≥70 years of age.160 CPET).177 Both the cardiac and pulmonary reserve and their inter-
Heart failure is a well-recognized factor for perioperative and post- action can then be evaluated; this is far more accurate than judging
operative cardiac events and is an important predictor in several the capacity by interview alone. An anaerobic threshold of
commonly used risk scores.41 – 43,161 – 164 In a large registry analysis ,11 mL O2/kg/min has been used as a marker of increased risk.177

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Two review papers have assessed the role of CPX as a pre-operative from the non-surgical setting. The evaluation should include physical
evaluation tool.178,179 Meta-analyses are difficult, due to heterogen- examination, ECG, serial biomarker measurements for both
eity in methodology and outcome measures. There are no ’blinded’ ischaemic myocardial damage and natriuretic peptides, X-ray, and
studies and the CPX results may influence the decision on whether echocardiography. Special attention should be given to the patient’s
to operate on a patient with a potentially serious disease and progno- volume status since high-volume infusion is often needed in the
sis. One of the above papers concludes that paucity of robust data intra-operative and immediate post-operative setting. In the period
precludes routine adoption of CPX in risk-stratifying patients under- after surgery, fluids given during the operation may be mobilized,
going major vascular surgery,178 while the other reports that peak causing hypervolaemia and pulmonary congestion. Careful attention
oxygen consumption—and possibly anaerobic threshold—are to fluid balance is therefore essential.
valid predictors of perioperative morbidity and mortality in patients Once the aetiology of post-operative heart failure has been diag-
undergoing non-cardiopulmonary thoraco-abdominal surgery.179 nosed, treatment is similar to the non-surgical setting. Patients who
The current ESC Guidelines on acute and chronic heart failure give a develop heart failure have a significantly increased risk of hospital re-
strong recommendation for the use of optimal tolerated doses of ACE admission after surgical procedures, confirming the need for careful
inhibitors (or ARBs in the case of ACE intolerance), beta-blockers, and discharge planning and close follow-up, ideally using a multidisciplin-
aldosterone antagonists as primary treatment strategies in patients ary approach.159
with HF-REF, to reduce morbidity and mortality.159 Digitalis is a
third-level drug to be considered in patients treated optimally with Recommendations on heart failure
recommended drugs.159 All patients with heart failure, who are sched-
uled for non-cardiac surgery, should be treated optimally according to Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref. c
these recommendations. Furthermore, HF-REF patients with LVEF
It is recommended that patients with
≤35% and left bundle branch block with QRS ≥120 ms should be eval- established or suspected heart failure,
uated with respect to cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) or and who are scheduled for non-
cardiac intermediate or high-risk
CRT-defibrillator (CRT-D) therapy before major surgery.159 Diuretics surgery, undergo evaluation of LV 55,165,
I A
are recommended in heart failure patients who have signs or symp- function with transthoracic 167,175,176
echocardiography and/or assessment
toms of congestion (see section 4.1.7).159
of natriuretic peptides, unless they
In patients with newly diagnosed severe systolic heart failure, it is have recently been assessed for these.
recommended that non-urgent surgery be deferred for at least It is recommended that patients with
three months to allow a new medical therapy and/or intervention established heart failure, who are
scheduled for intermediate or high-
ample time to improve LV function and LV remodelling.164 Rapid pre- risk non-cardiac surgery, be
operative initiation of high doses of beta-blockers78 and/or ACEIs, therapeutically optimized as
necessary, using beta-blockers, ACEIs I A 159
without adequate time for dose titration, is not recommended.
or ARBs, and mineralocorticoid
Patients with heart failure should preferably be euvolemic before antagonists and diuretics, according to
elective surgery, with stable blood pressure and optimal end-organ ESC Guidelines for heart failure
treatment.
perfusion.
In patients with newly diagnosed heart
Although continuation of ACEIs/ARBs until the day of surgery has failure, it is recommended that
been associated with an increased incidence of hypotension,180 it is intermediate- or high-risk surgery be
deferred, preferably for at least 3
in general recommended that all heart-failure medications, such as months after initiation of heart failure I C 164
ACE inhibitors, ARBs, and beta-blockers, be continued and that the therapy, to allow time for therapy up-
patient’s haemodynamic status be carefully monitored and give titration and possible improvement of
LV function.
appropriate volume replacement when necessary. In patients con-
It is recommended that beta blockade
sidered susceptible to hypotension, transient discontinuation be continued in heart failure patients
the day before surgery may be considered. Evening dosage of throughout the peri-operative period,
ACEIs/ARBs the day before surgery—and not on the morning of whereas ACEIs/ARBs may be omitted
on the morning of surgery, taking into
surgery—may be considered in order to avoid hypotension, consideration the patient’s blood I C
whereas beta-blockade should be continued if possible. Heart pressure. If ACEIs/ARBs are given, it is
failure medications should be re-instituted post-operatively, as important to carefully monitor the
patient's haemodynamic status and
soon as clinical conditions allow. Consider also the possibility of give appropriate volume replacement
giving the medications via nasogastric tube or bioequivalent intra- when necessary.
venous dose. Regarding patients with LV-assist devices, who are Unless there is adequate time for
scheduled for non-cardiac surgery, they should be evaluated dose-titration, initiation of high-dose
beta-blockade before non-cardiac III B
pre-operatively by the centre responsible for implantation and surgery in patients with heart failure is
follow-up. Patients with HF-PEF have an increased stiffness of the not recommended.
left ventricle and are susceptible to pulmonary oedema with
fluid overload. Adequate perioperative monitoring, attention to ACEI ¼ angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor; ARB ¼ angiotensin receptor
volume status, control of afterload, and adequate diuretic treatment blocker; ESC ¼ European society of cardiology; LV ¼ left ventricular.
a
are important considerations for these patients. b
Level of evidence.
Post-operative heart failure may pose diagnostic challenges, c
as it often presents atypically and may have a different aetiology

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5.2 Arterial hypertension Recommendations on arterial hypertension

In general, the presence of arterial hypertension is a risk factor, but
not a very strong independent one for cardiovascular complications
in non-cardiac surgery. In a systematic review and meta-analysis of Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref. c
30 observational studies, pre-operative hypertension was asso-
ciated with a 35% increase in cardiovascular complications;181 It is recommended that patients with
a new diagnosis of hypertension pre-
however, uncontrolled blood pressure is one of the commonest operatively be screened for end-organ I C
causes of deferred operation.182 When raised blood pressure is dis- damage and cardiovascular risk
covered in a pre-operative evaluation, it is advisable to search for factors.
target organ damage and evidence of associated cardiovascular Large peri-operative fluctuations in
pathology (ECG, renal function parameters, and evidence of blood pressure in hypertensive IIa B 187
heart failure), and to initiate therapy to lower the blood pressure patients should be avoided.
to an appropriate level; this is particularly important for those Clinicians may consider not deferring
with concomitant risk factors. It is also important to validate the non-cardiac surgery in patients with
diagnosis by multiple measurements, considering ambulatory mon- grade 1 or 2 hypertension (systolic IIb B 182
blood pressure <180 mm Hg; diastolic
itoring if necessary.183
blood pressure <110 mm Hg).
During the induction of anaesthesia, sympathetic activation can
cause an increase in blood pressure of 20–30 mm Hg and a heart
a
rate increase of 15– 20 bpm in normotensive individuals.184 This Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
response may be more pronounced in patients with untreated c
hypertension. As the period of anaesthesia progresses, patients
with pre-existing hypertension are more likely to experience lability
of intra-operative blood pressure, which may lead to myocardial
ischaemia. Avoiding excessive peaks in pressure is important but
the hypertensive patient may also be unstable, and profound
5.3 Valvular heart disease
hypotension—especially when associated with baroreflex-mediated Patients with VHD are at increased risk of perioperative cardiovascu-
tachycardia—may be equally detrimental. In a study on hypertensive lar complications during non-cardiac surgery.69 The risk is highly vari-
and diabetic patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery, a decrease in able, according to the type and severity of VHD and the type of
blood pressure of .20 mm Hg for .1 hour was found to be a risk non-cardiac surgery.
factor for complications.185 It is recommended that perioperative 5.3.1 Patient evaluation
blood pressure be kept at 70 –100% of baseline, avoiding excessive Echocardiography should be performed on any prospective non-
tachycardia. Post-surgical elevation of blood pressure is frequently cardiac surgery patient with known or suspected VHD, in order to
brought about by anxiety and pain after awakening, and may return assess its severity and consequences. This is particularly relevant in
to normal after treating these factors. the presence of a cardiac murmur. In the presence of severe VHD,
Common reasons for delaying surgery in patients with hyperten- it is recommended that a clinical and echocardiographic evaluation
sion are poorly controlled blood pressure of grade 3 (systolic be performed and, if necessary, treated before non-cardiac surgery.
blood pressure ≥180 mm Hg and/or diastolic blood pressure As for the general evaluation of a patient with VHD, the key issues
≥110 mm Hg), discovery of end-organ damage that has not previous- are to assess the severity of VHD, the symptoms and their relation-
ly been evaluated or treated, or suspicion of secondary hypertension ship to VHD, and the estimated risks of valvular intervention and of
without properly documented aetiology. In patients with grade 1 or 2 cardiac complications according to the type of non-cardiac surgery.
hypertension (systolic blood pressure ,180 mm Hg; diastolic blood The usual classification of non-cardiac surgery, using the three risk
pressure ,110 mm Hg) there is no evidence of benefit from delaying groups defined in Table 3, should also be used in patients with VHD.
surgery to optimize therapy.182 In such cases, antihypertensive med-
ications should be continued during the perioperative period. In 5.3.2 Aortic stenosis
patients with grade 3 hypertension, the potential benefits of delaying Aortic stenosis is the most common VHD in Europe, particularly
surgery to optimize the pharmacological therapy should be weighed among the elderly. Severe aortic stenosis is defined according to an
against the risk of delaying the procedure. In a randomized study, integrative approach taking into account valve area (,1.0 cm2 or
when compared with deferred surgery, immediate blood pressure 0.6 cm2/m2 body surface area, except in obese patients), and flow-
reduction with nifedipine was associated with similar complication dependent indices (maximum jet velocity 4 m/sec and mean aortic
rates but a shorter hospital stay.186 pressure gradient ≥40 mm Hg).
There is no clear evidence favouring one mode of antihypertensive Severe aortic stenosis constitutes a well-established risk factor for
therapy over another in patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery. perioperative mortality and myocardial infarction. In the case of
Patients with arterial hypertension should be managed according urgent non-cardiac surgery in patients with severe aortic stenosis,
to existing ESC Guidelines.183 For more information on periopera- such procedures should be performed under more invasive haemo-
tive use of hypertensive medications, see section 4.1. dynamic monitoring, avoiding rapid changes in volume status and

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heart rhythm as far as possible. In the case of elective non-cardiac regurgitation is due to IHD, those for IHD. Because secondary
surgery, the presence of symptoms is essential for decision-making.69 mitral regurgitation is variable according to loading conditions, par-
In symptomatic patients, aortic valve replacement should be con- ticular attention should be paid to the assessment of volume status
sidered before elective surgery.69 In patients who are not candidates and heart rhythm during the perioperative period.
for valve replacement, due either to high risks associated with serious
comorbidities or refusal to undergo the operation, non-cardiac 5.3.6 Patients with prosthetic valve(s)
surgery should be performed only if is essential. In patients at high Patients who have undergone previous surgical correction of VHD and
risk or contra-indicated for aortic valve replacement, balloon aortic have a prosthetic valve can undergo non-cardiac surgery without add-
valvuloplasty or, preferably, transcatheter aortic valve implantation itional risk, provided that there is no evidence of valve or ventricular
(TAVI) may be a reasonable therapeutic option before surgery.69 dysfunction. In current practice, the main problem is the need for a
The choice between balloon aortic valvuloplasty and TAVI should modification of the anticoagulation regimen in patients in the peri-
take into account the impact of non-cardiac disease on life expect- operative period, with oral anticoagulants being temporarily replaced
ancy and the degree of urgency of the non-cardiac surgery. by UFH or LMWH at therapeutic doses (see section 4.3).
In asymptomatic patients, non-cardiac surgery of low to intermedi- 5.3.7 Prophylaxis of infective endocarditis
ate risk can be performed safely;188 If possible, the absence of symp- Indications for antibiotic prophylaxis are limited to high-risk patients
toms should be confirmed by exercise testing. If high-risk surgery is undergoing dental care; however, non-specific prophylaxis remains
planned, further clinical assessment is necessary to assess the risk recommended in all patients at intermediate or high risk of infective
of aortic valve replacement. In those at high risk for aortic valve re- endocarditis. This is of particular importance in the field of non-
placement, elective surgery under more invasive haemodynamic cardiac surgery, given the increasing burden of healthcare-related in-
monitoring should be performed only if strictly necessary. In the fective endocarditis. Prophylaxis of infective endocarditis is discussed
remaining patients, aortic valve replacement should be considered in detail in specific ESC guidelines.190
as the initial procedure.69
5.3.3 Mitral stenosis Recommendations on VHD

Non-cardiac surgery can be performed with relatively low levels of
risk in patients with non-significant mitral stenosis (valve area Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref. c
.1.5 cm2) and in asymptomatic patients with significant mitral sten- Clinical and
osis (valve area ,1.5 cm2) and systolic pulmonary artery pressure echocardiographic
evaluation is
,50 mm Hg. Pre-operative surgical correction of mitral stenosis in recommended in all
these patients is not indicated. Control of heart rate is essential to patients with known or
I C
avoid tachycardia, which may cause pulmonary oedema. Attentive suspected VHD, who are
control of fluid overload is also important. Development of AF may scheduled for elective
cause serious clinical deterioration. With the high risk of embolism, intermediate or high-risk
anticoagulation control is important.69,189 In asymptomatic patients non-cardiac surgery.
with significant mitral stenosis and systolic pulmonary artery pres- Aortic valve replacement
sure .50 mm Hg, and in symptomatic patients, the risk related to is recommended in
symptomatic patients with
the non-cardiac procedure is significantly higher, and these patients severe aortic stenosis,
may benefit from percutaneous mitral commissurotomy (or open who are scheduled for
I B 69
surgical repair) particularly before high-risk surgery.69,189 elective non-cardiac
surgery, provided that
5.3.4 Primary aortic regurgitation and mitral regurgitation they are not at high risk
of an adverse outcome
Non-significant aortic regurgitation and mitral regurgitation do not
from for valvular surgery.
independently increase the risk of cardiovascular complications
Aortic valve replacement
during non-cardiac surgery. In asymptomatic patients with severe should be considered in
aortic or mitral regurgitation and preserved LV function, non-cardiac asymptomatic patients
surgery can be performed without additional risk. Symptomatic with severe aortic
stenosis, who are
patients—and those who are asymptomatic with severely impaired scheduled for elective IIa C
LVEF (,30%)—are at high risk of cardiovascular complications, high-risk non-cardiac
and non-cardiac surgery should be performed only if necessary.69 surgery, provided that
they are not at high risk
Patients with severe aortic or mitral regurgitation and heart failure
of an adverse outcome
may benefit from optimization of pharmacological therapy to from for valvular surgery.
produce maximal haemodynamic stabilization before undergoing Elective low or
high-risk surgery (see section 5.1). intermediate-risk non-
5.3.5 Secondary mitral regurgitation cardiac surgery should be
Secondary mitral regurgitation is due to LV remodelling that causes a considered in
asymptomatic patients IIa C
distortion of the subvalvular apparatus on a structurally normal valve. with severe aortic
In the case of non-cardiac surgery, these patients should undergo stenosis if there has been
perioperative evaluation and management according to the recom- no previous intervention
on the aortic valve.
mendations for LV systolic dysfunction and, if secondary mitral

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on 31 May 2018
Treatment steps for VPBs include identifying and correcting the re-
Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref. c versible causes (e.g. hypoxia, hypokalemia and hypomagnesaemia).
In symptomatic patients There is no evidence that VPBs or non-sustained VTs alone are asso-
with severe aortic ciated with a worse prognosis or that suppressive therapy is beneficial.
stenosis who are
The American College of Cardiology/American Heart Asso-
scheduled for elective
non-cardiac surgery, TAVI ciation/ESC Guidelines for management of patients with ventricular
or balloon aortic arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death recommend
valvuloplasty should be IIa C that, regardless of the cause, sustained monomorphic VT with
considered by the expert haemodynamic compromise must be treated promptly with electric
team if they are at high
cardioversion. Intravenous amiodarone can be used for initial treat-
risk of an adverse
outcome from for valvular ment of patients with stable sustained monomorphic VT, to
surgery. prevent recurrences.191
Immediate defibrillation is required to terminate ventricular
Elective non-cardiac
surgery should be fibrillation and sustained polymorphic VT. Beta-blockers are useful
considered in patients in patients with recurrent sustained polymorphic VT, especially if is-
with severe valvular chaemia is suspected or cannot be excluded. Amiodarone is reason-
IIa C
regurgitation, who do not
able for patients with recurrent sustained polymorphic VT in the
have severe heart failure
absence of long QT syndrome.191 Torsades de pointes (TdP) may
or LV dysfunction.
occur and the withdrawal of any offending drugs and correction of
Percutaneous mitral
electrolyte abnormalities are recommended. Management with mag-
commissurotomy should
nesium sulphate should be considered for patients with TdP and long
be considered in patients
with severe mitral QT syndrome.192 Beta-blockade, combined with temporary pacing,
stenosis, who have is suggested in patients with TdP and sinus bradycardia. Isoproterenol
IIa C is recommended in patients with recurrent, pause-dependent TdP,
symptoms of pulmonary
hypertension and are who do not have congenital long QT syndrome.191
scheduled for elective If the diagnosis is unclear, wide-QRS tachycardia should be pre-
intermediate- or high-risk sumed to be VT until proven otherwise. Calcium channel blockers,
non-cardiac surgery.
such as verapamil and diltiazem, should not be used in patients to ter-
minate wide-QRS-complex tachycardia of unknown origin, especially
LV ¼ left ventricular; TAVI ¼ transcatheter aortic valve implantation; VHD ¼ in patients with a history of myocardial dysfunction.191
valvular heart disease.
a
b
Level of evidence. 5.4.2 Management of supraventricular arrhythmias and
c
Reference(s) supporting recommendations. atrial fibrillation in the pre-operative period
Supraventricular arrhythmias and AF are more common than ven-
tricular arrhythmias in the perioperative period. The aetiology of
5.4 Arrhythmias these arrhythmias is multifactorial. Sympathetic activity, as the
Cardiac arrhythmias are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality primary autonomic mechanism, can be responsible for triggering AF.
in the perioperative period. Although the mechanisms for While initiating specific drug therapy, possible aggravating factors
arrhythmias in patients with structural heart disease are reasonably such as respiratory failure or electrolyte imbalance should also be
well-defined, the modulating influence of transient physiological corrected. No medication is recommended to suppress supraventri-
imbalance in patients undergoing surgery is less certain. Before cular premature beats. Vagal manoeuvres may terminate SVT in some
surgery, patients with a history of arrhythmias should be reviewed cases; they usually respond well to treatment with adenosine. In cases
by a cardiologist. Arrhythmias such as AF and ventricular tachycardia with incessant or commonly recurring SVT in the perioperative
often indicate underlying structural heart disease; therefore the setting, where prophylactic treatment is needed, beta-blockers,
discovery of such pre-operative arrhythmias should lead to evalu- calcium channel blockers, or amiodarone treatment can be used.
ation, including echocardiography, before surgery.* In rare cases (and taking into account the urgency and nature of
planned surgery), pre-operative catheter ablation of the arrhythmia
5.4.1 New-onset ventricular arrhythmias in the substrate may be considered, e.g. for patients with Wolff-Parkinson-
pre-operative period White syndrome and pre-excited AF.
Ventricular arrhythmias, including ventricular premature beats The objective in managing perioperative AF is usually ventricular rate
(VPBs) and ventricular tachycardia (VT) are particularly common control. As recommended in the ESC Guidelines for management of
in high-risk patients. Monomorphic VT may result from myocardial AF, beta-blockers and calcium channel blockers (verapamil, diltiazem)
scarring, and polymorphic VT is a common result of acute myo- are the drugs of choice for rate control.144 Amiodarone can be used
cardial ischaemia. Pre-operative detection of these arrhythmias asafirst-linedruginpatientswithheartfailure,since digoxinisfrequently
should therefore lead to evaluation including methods such as ineffective in high adrenergic states such as surgery. Beta-blockers
echocardiography, coronary angiography (with revascularization) have been shown to accelerate the conversion of AF to sinus rhythm
and, in selected cases, invasive electrophysiological study, as in the intensive care unit (ICU) after non-cardiac surgery.193 Anticoagu-
appropriate. lation must be based on the individual clinical situation.

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5.4.3 Perioperative bradyarrhythmias Recommendations on supraventricular arrhythmias

Perioperative bradyarrhythmias usually respond well to short-
term pharmacological therapy; temporary cardiac pacing is
Recommendations Classa Levelb
rarely required. Prophylactic pacing before non-cardiac surgery
is not commonly indicated. Pre-operative establishment of tem- Continuation of oral anti-
porary or permanent cardiac pacing may be appropriate for arrhythmic drugs before surgery is I C
patients with complete heart block or symptomatic asystolic epi- recommended.
sodes. The indications for temporary pacemakers during the peri- Electrical cardioversion when
operative period are generally the same as those for permanent haemodynamic instability occurs is I C
pacemakers. Asymptomatic bifascicular block, with or without recommended.
first-degree atrioventricular block, is not an indication for tempor- Vagal manoeuvres and anti-
ary pacing; however, the availability of an external pacemaker for arrhythmic therapy for termination
of SVT in haemodynamically stable I C
transcutaneous pacing is appropriate.
patients is recommended.
5.4.4 Perioperative management of patients with
pacemaker/implantable cardioverter defibrillator SVT ¼ supraventricular tachycardia.
Patients with a permanent pacemaker can safely undergo surgery if a
appopriate precautions are taken.194 The use of unipolar electro-
b
Level of evidence.
cautery represents a significant risk, as the electrical stimulus from
electrocautery may inhibit ’demand’ pacemakers, or may reprogram
the pacemaker. These problems can be avoided or minimized by Recommendations on bradyarrhythmias and
using bipolar electrocautery, correct positioning the ground plate pacemakers
for the electrical circuit. Keeping the electrocautery device away
from the pacemaker, giving only brief bursts, and using the lowest
possible amplitude may also decrease the interference. The pace- Recommendations Classa Levelb
maker should be set in an asynchronous or non-sensing mode in
patients who are pacemaker-dependent. This is most easily done in The indications for temporary
pacemakers during the peri-operative
the operating room by placing a magnet on the skin over the pace- I C
period are generally the same as those
maker. Patients whose underlying rhythm is unreliable should have for permanent pacemakers.
pacemaker interrogation after surgery, to ensure appropriate pro-
It is recommended that the hospital
gramming and sensing-pacing thresholds.
nominate a person who is responsible for
Interference with the function of implantable cardioverter defibril- programming of the implanted arrhythmia I C
lators (ICD) can also occur during non-cardiac surgery, as a result of devices before and after surgery.
the electrical current generated by electrocautery. The ICD should
Patients with ICDs, whose devices have
be turned off during surgery and switched on in the recovery phase been pre-operatively deactivated, should
before discharge to the ward. The defibrillator function of an ICD be on continuous cardiac monitor
can be temporarily deactivated by placing a magnet on the skin throughout the period of deactivation. I C
over the ICD. While the device is deactivated, an external defibrilla- External defibrillation equipment should
tor should be immediately available. be readily available.
Patients who have asymptomatic
Recommendations for ventricular arrhythmias bifascicular or trifascicular block are not
recommended for routine management III C
with a peri-operative temporary pacing
wire.
Continuation of oral anti-
arrhythmic drugs before surgery is I C
a
recommended. Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
Anti-arrhythmic drugs are
recommended for patients with
sustained VT, depending on the I C
5.5 Renal disease
patient’s characteristics.
Impaired renal function is associated with a significantly increased risk
Anti-arrhythmic drugs are not
of CVD and is an independent risk factor for adverse post-operative
recommended for patients with III C
VPBs.
cardiovascular outcomes, including myocardial infarction, stroke, and
progression of heart failure. The development of acute kidney injury
(AKI) after major surgery reduces long-term survival in patients with
VT ¼ ventricular tachycardia; VPB ¼ ventricular premature beats.
a normal baseline renal function.195 Risk factors for the development
b
Level of evidence. of post-operative AKI following non-cardiac surgery have been iden-
tified and include age .56 years, male sex, active cardiac failure,

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Table 7 Summary of definitions of acute kidney injury
AKI ¼ acute kidney injury; AKIN ¼ Acute Kidney Injury Network; ESRD ¼ end-stage renal disease; GFR ¼ glomerular filtration rate; KDIGO ¼ Kidney Disease: Improving Global
Outcomes; RIFLE ¼ Risk, Injury, Failure, Loss, End-stage renal disease; RRT ¼ renal replacement therapy.
presence of ascites, hypertension, emergency surgery, intraperito- studies.199 The most frequent causes for AKI in hospitalized
neal surgery, pre-operative creatinine elevation, and diabetes mellitus. cardiac patients relate to the combination of a low cardiac
Patients with ≥6 of these factors have a 10% incidence of AKI, and a output/high venous pressure, and/or the administration of iodi-
hazard ratio of 46 as compared with those with ,3 risk factors.196 nated contrast media during diagnostic and interventional vascu-
Further, the relationship between chronic kidney disease (CKD) lar procedures. Contrast-induced AKI (CI-AKI) is defined as a
and cardiovascular morbidity/mortality is independent of hyperten- rise of serum creatinine of 44 mmol/L (0.5 mg/dL) or a 25% rela-
sion and diabetes. tive rise from baseline at 48 hours (or 5 – 10% at 12 hours) fol-
Chronic kidney disease is defined as impaired kidney function or lowing contrast administration. It occurs in up to 15% of
raised proteinuria, confirmed on two or more occasions at least patients with chronic renal dysfunction who are undergoing
three months apart. Here, the estimated glomerular filtration rate radiographic procedures.200 Although most cases of CI-AKI are
(eGFR) should be calculated using the Chronic Kidney Disease Epi- self-limiting, with renal function returning to normal within 7
demiology Collaboration (CKD-EPI) formula, which uses sex, age, days of the procedure, these patients occasionally (in 0.5 – 12%
ethnic origin, and serum creatinine concentration. Additionally, pro- of cases) develop overt renal failure, associated with increased
teinuria should be assessed using the urinary albumin–creatinine morbidity and mortality. In some, severe renal impairment
ratio. Chronic kidney disease is thus classified into six stages of necessitates renal-replacement therapy and can lead to perman-
eGFR and three stages of proteinuria.197 A comparison of the most ent renal injury. The pathogenesis of CI-AKI is multifactorial, and
recent definitions of AKI is shown in Table 7. is thought to include a decrease in glomerular filtration and renal
Renal function can be calculated routinely using the Cockcroft- hypoperfusion, together with renal medullary ischaemia, direct
Gault formula, or an eGFR calculated from serum creatinine using tubular toxicity via reactive oxygen species, and direct cellular
the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) study or the toxicity from the contrast agent.
CKD-EPI equations. The use of newer biomarkers in the diagnosis of A number of risk factor scoring systems exist for predicting CI-AKI.
AKI is still under investigation. Normal GFR values are 100–130 mL/ These include the urgency of the procedure, baseline renal function,
min/1.73 m2 in young men, and 90–120 mL/min/1.73 m2 in young diabetes, and contrast volume. A range of strategies has been pro-
women, and vary depending on age, sex, and body size. A cut-off posed to prevent CI-AKI, including minimizing the volume of contrast
GFR value of ,60 mL/min/1.73 m2 correlates significantly with medium administered, use of less-nephrotoxic contrast agents, pro-
major cardiovascular adverse events. Identification of patients at risk vision of prophylactic renal-replacement therapy, patient hydration,
of perioperative worsening of renal function is important, in order and use of pharmacological agents to counteract the nephrotoxicity
to initiate supportive measures such as maintenance of adequate intra- of contrast agents.198
vascular volume for renal perfusion and use of vasopressors.198 The relationship between the volume of contrast agent ad-
Susceptibility to developing AKI after exposure to a specific ministered and the development of CI-AKI is well known, and
insult has been identified according to a number of observational exceeding the maximum contrast dose (contrast volume/eGFR) is

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strongly associated with the development of CI-AKI. The impact of Pre-procedural hydration with intravenous isotonic fluids is the
the osmolality of contrast agent on nephrotoxicity has been most effective method of reducing the risk of CI-AKI.198 Normal
evaluated in a number of randomized controlled trials, with dissimilar saline or isotonic sodium bicarbonate (1.26%) may be used and per-
results; however, based on a number of meta-analyses, the use of low ipherally administered, with the advantage that it requires only one
osmolar contrast media (LOCM) or iso-osmolar contrast media hour of pre-treatment and may therefore present the preferred
(IOCM) is recommended in patients with mild, moderate, or option in patients scheduled for urgent or outpatient proce-
severe CKD, who are undergoing contrast-enhanced radiography. dures.202 N-acetyl cysteine may be considered for prophylaxis of
Numerous studies have addressed the use of renal-replacement CI-AKI, given its low cost and toxicity profile; however, the evi-
therapies to prevent CI-AKI.201 Although renal-replacement dence for its benefit remains inconclusive. A number of small
therapy has a favourable effect, in terms of reducing CI-AKI (relative studies undertaking alkalinization of urine using a range of agents
risk 0.19; P , 0.001) in patients with stage 4 or 5 CKD, haemodialysis (bicarbonate, sodium/potassium citrate, acetazolamide) have
has been found to be non-beneficial (and potentially harmful) for the shown a reduction in the incidence of contrast-induced nephropa-
prevention of CI-AKI in those with baseline CKD stage ≤3. thy; recent information suggesting the use of high-dose statins in
preventing CI-AKI is promising.203 Although there are theoretical
benefits from the use of loop diuretics in early or established AKI,
Recommendations on renal function
these have not been supported by data in studies, and diuretics
are therefore not recommended for the prevention or treatment
of AKI.198
Patients undergoing contrast-enhanced radiographic
procedures
Patients should be assessed 5.6 Cerebrovascular disease
IIa C
for risk of CI-AKI.
The majority of the literature on perioperative stroke focuses on
Prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy in
patients with moderate or moderate-to-severe CKD cardiac surgery, with an event rate ranging from 2 – 10%, according
to the type of operation.204 With respect to non-cardiac surgery,
Hydration with normal
perioperative stroke has been reported in 0.08 – 0.7% of patients
saline is recommended
before administration of I A 198 undergoing general surgery, in 0.2 – 0.9% of patients requiring
contrast medium. orthopaedic surgery, in 0.6 – 0.9% of lung operations, and in 0.8 –
Use of LOCM or IOMC is 3.0% of surgeries involving the peripheral vasculature.204,205 The
recommended. I A 198 associated mortality ranges from 18 – 26%.204,205 A more recent
It is recommended that the analysis on 523 059 patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery
volume of contrast media I B 198 reported a lower incidence of perioperative stroke (0.1%).206
be minimized. The occurrence of this adverse event was associated with a
Hydration with sodium 700% increase in perioperative mortality, corresponding to an ab-
bicarbonate should be solute risk increase exceeding 20%. Multivariate analysis identified
considered before IIa A 202 age, history of myocardial infarction within 6 months prior to
administration of contrast
surgery, acute renal failure, history of stroke, history of TIA, dialysis,
medium.
hypertension, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD),
Short-term high-dose and current tobacco use as independent predictors of periopera-
statin therapy should be IIa B 203 tive stroke, while high body mass index was found to be
considered.
protective.206
Patients with severe CKD Perioperative strokes are mainly ischaemic and cardioembolic
In patients with stage 4 or and AF is often the underlying leading condition. Triggers
5 CKD, prophylactic include the withdrawal of anticoagulation and the hypercoagul-
haemofiltration may be able state related to surgery. Additional aetiologies include ather-
considered before complex IIb B 201
oembolism, originating from the aorta or the supra-aortic vessels,
intervention or high-risk
and local atherothrombosis in the presence of intracranial small-
surgery.
vessel disease. Hypoperfusion—related to perioperative arterial
In patients with stage 3 hypotension and/or severe stenosis of the cervicocranial
CKD, prophylactic III B 201 vessels—is an unusual cause of perioperative stroke.207 Rarely,
haemodialysis is not
perioperative stroke may be due to air, fat, or paradoxical
recommended.
embolisms.
CI-AKI ¼ contrast-induced acute kidney injury; CKD ¼ chronic kidney disease;
In an attempt to attenuate the risk of perioperative stroke, anti-
GFR ¼ glomerular filtration rate; IOMC ¼ iso-osmolar contrast medium; platelet/anticoagulant treatments should be continued whenever
LOCM ¼ low-osmolar contrast medium. possible throughout the perioperative period. Alternatively, the
a
b
Level of evidence.
period of drug withdrawal should be kept as short as possible while
c
Reference(s) supporting recommendations. weighting thrombo-embolic and haemorrhagic risks (see sections
4.2 and 4.3). Adequate selection of the anaesthetic technique

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(regional vs. neuraxial vs. general anaesthesia), prevention and treat-

Recommendations on patients with suspected or
ment of AF, euglycaemic control (avoiding both hyperglycaemia and
established carotid artery disease
hypoglycaemia), as well as meticulous perioperative blood pressure
control, may all contribute to reducing the risk of perioperative
stroke.
Patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery should be questioned Pre-operative carotid artery and
cerebral imaging are recommended in
about previous neurological symptoms, and those with symptoms patients with a history of TIA or stroke I C
suggestive of TIA or stroke in the preceding 6 months should in the preceding 6 months.
undergo pre-operative neurological consultation as well as neuro- Pre-operative, routine carotid artery
vascular and brain imaging, where appropriate. In the absence of imaging may be considered in patients IIb C
dedicated studies addressing this issue, the criteria for carotid undergoing vascular surgery.
revascularization described in the 2011 ESC Guidelines on the Whenever possible, continuation of
diagnosis and treatment of peripheral artery disease should also anti-platelet and statin therapies should
guide the management of patients with carotid disease, who are be considered throughout the peri- IIa C
undergoing non-cardiac surgery.19 In patients with symptomatic operative phase in patients with carotid
artery disease.
carotid disease (i.e. with a stroke or TIA affecting the correspond-
ing vascular territory in the preceding 6 months), carotid revascu- For patients with carotid artery disease
undergoing non-cardiac surgery, the
larization should performed first and non-cardiac surgery
same indications for carotid IIa C
postponed. revascularization should apply as for
Owing to the increasing average age of the population, an in- the general population.
creasing number of patients referred for non-cardiac surgery Pre-operative routine carotid artery
may have associated asymptomatic carotid artery disease. imaging is not recommended in
According to a meta-analysis of studies covering a total of 4573 patients undergoing non-vascular III C
patients with PAD, the rates of asymptomatic carotid stenosis surgery.
.50% and .70% were 25% and 14%, respectively.208 Carotid
imaging, while not indicated routinely in patients undergoing non- TIA ¼ transient ischaemic attack.
a
cardiac surgery, may be considered before vascular surgery, due Class of recommendation.
b
Level of evidence.
to the high prevalence of carotid artery disease in this patient
group.
The question as to whether patients with severe asymptomatic
carotid occlusive disease, who are undergoing elective major non- 5.7 Peripheral artery disease
cardiac surgery, require pre-operative carotid revascularization Patients with PAD (defined as an ankle–brachial ratio of ,0.9, or
remains a matter of debate. Importantly, the purpose of carotid previously revascularized with surgery or percutaneous transluminal
revascularization in this setting is more the long-term prevention angioplasty) usually have advanced atherosclerotic disease affecting
of stroke than perioperative stroke reduction; therefore, if most vascular beds in varying degrees and have a worse prognosis
carotid revascularization is indicated, this may be performed than patients without PAD.210,211 Even in patients without known
before or after the planned non-cardiac surgery. Independently of CAD, peripheral artery surgery is associated with an increased inci-
the revascularization strategy, patients with carotid artery stenosis dence of perioperative acute myocardial infarction.212 Peripheral
benefit from aggressive cardiovascular risk-factor modification to artery disease is thus an established risk factor for non-cardiac
prevent perioperative myocardial ischaemia. Accordingly, patients surgery and it is reasonable to assess the presence of IHD from the
with carotid artery disease suffer a high incidence of CAD. In a pro- patient’s history and routine clinical examinations and tests;
spective investigation in 390 patients undergoing elective carotid however, it is not recommended to routinely perform exercise or
artery revascularization, systematic coronary angiography showed imaging test to detect cardiac ischaemia in PAD patients without clin-
the presence of one-, two-, and three-vessel disease, and left main ical symptoms, unless the patient has more than two of the clinical risk
coronary stenoses in 17%, 15%, 22%, and 7% of patients, respective- factors detailed in Table 4. In a randomized trial, prophylactic coron-
ly.209 Consequently, statins should be continued; whenever pos- ary revascularization before major vascular surgery in stable PAD
sible aspirin and beta-blockers should not be withdrawn, and patients did not reduce the incidence of major clinical endpoints.152
blood pressure should be carefully controlled (see sections 4.1 However, patients with severely reduced LV function or left main
and 5.2). disease were excluded.
Apart from TIA or stroke, transient or even permanent changes in All patients with PAD should be treated with statins and platelet
mental status may occur following non-cardiac surgery, including inhibitors according to guidelines.211 Blood pressure control and life-
spatio-temporal disorientation, memory loss, hallucinations, style measures should be attended to, as recommended in the ESC
anxiety or depression. These findings may especially be encountered Guidelines on cardiovascular prevention.210 It is not recommended
in patients with known cognitive impairment. The underlying that beta-blocker therapy be routinely initiated pre-operatively
mechanisms, often elusive, may include surgery-induced systemic in- unless there are other indications, such as heart failure or ischaemic
flammation and cerebral hypoperfusion. coronary disease (see section 4.1).

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Recommendation on PAD In patients with COPD who are having non-cardiac surgery, the
pre-operative treatment goals are to optimize pulmonary function
and minimize post-operative respiratory complications; this includes
Recommendation Classa Levelb
using the pre-operative period for education, including possible ces-
Patients with PAD should be clinically sation of smoking (.2 months before surgery), instruction in chest
assessed for ischaemic heart disease and, if
physiotherapy and lung expansion manoeuvres, muscular endurance
more than two clinical risk factors (Table 4) IIa C
are present, they should be considered for training, and re-nutrition if required. Beta-adrenergic agonists and
pre-operative stress or imaging testing. anticholinergic agents should be continued until the day of surgery
in all symptomatic COPD patients with bronchial hyper-reactivity.
PAD ¼ peripheral artery disease.
In some cases, short-term systemic/inhaled steroids may be consid-
a
Class of recommendation. ered. Any associated ventricular failure should be managed accord-
b
Level of evidence. ingly. Where there is active pulmonary infection, appropriate
antibiotics should be administered for at least 10 days and, if possible,
surgery should be delayed.215
5.8 Pulmonary disease OHS is defined as the triad of obesity, daytime hypoventilation, and
The co-existence of pulmonary disease in patients undergoing non- sleep-disordered breathing. Although distinct from simple obesity and
cardiac surgery may increase the operative risk. Such diseases sleep apnoea, it is estimated that 90% patients with OHS also have ob-
include acute respiratory infections, COPD, asthma, cystic fibrosis, structive sleep apnoea. The prevalence of OHS is 0.15–3% of adults,
interstitial lung disease, and other conditions causing impairment of and 7–22% in patients undergoing bariatric surgery.216 Obesity and ob-
respiratory function. Pre-existing pulmonary disease has a significant structive sleep apnoea are associated with a number of comorbidities
impact on perioperative risk, but the most common effect is to in- including CAD, heart failure, stroke, and metabolic syndrome. OHS is
crease the risk of post-operative pulmonary complications. These associated with even higher morbidity, including heart failure (and
complications are in part a consequence of the development of atel- obesity-related cardiomyopathy), angina pectoris, pulmonary hyperten-
ectasis during general anaesthesia; however, factors that result in sion (30–88%) and cor pulmonale, and increased perioperative mortal-
post-operative hypoventilation, reduced tidal volumes, and impaired ity.216 Pre-operatively, the presence of a high body mass index and
lung expansion may cause persistent lung collapse and increase the apnoea–hypopnea index should alert the physician to screen for
risk of respiratory infection. These complications occur particularly OHS, including the use of screening questionnaires, peripheral
after abdominal or thoracic surgery, and the risk seems to be oxygen saturations, and serum bicarbonate levels. Patients at high risk
increased in smokers. Certain respiratory conditions are associated of OHS who are undergoing major surgery should be referred for add-
with cardiovascular pathology and may require special cardiac risk as- itional specialist investigation for sleep disordered breathing and pul-
sessment and management, in addition to dealing with pulmonary monary hypertension, with pre-operative initiation of appropriate
disease per se. Three such conditions are COPD, obesity hypoventi- positive airway pressure therapy, and planning of perioperative techni-
lation syndrome (OHS), and pulmonary artery hypertension (PAH). ques (anaesthetic and surgical) and post-operative positive airway pres-
COPD is characterized by airflow obstruction that is usually pro- sure management within an appropriate monitored environment.216
gressive, not fully reversible, and does not change markedly over Pulmonary hypertension is a haemodynamic and pathophysio-
several months. The disease is predominantly caused by smoking logical condition, defined as an increase in mean pulmonary arterial
and is well-recognized as a major cause of morbidity and mortality.213 pressure .25 mm Hg at rest, as assessed by right heart catheteriza-
The prevalence of COPD in Europe is 4–10% of adults, therefore up tion, and can be found in multiple clinical conditions.217 Pulmonary
to one patient in ten undergoing non-cardiac surgery may have artery hypertension (PAH) is a clinical condition, characterized by
COPD. Cor pulmonale with associated right-heart failure may be a the presence of pre-capillary pulmonary hypertension in the
direct complication of severe COPD; however, COPD is also asso- absence of other causes, such as pulmonary hypertension due to
ciated with an increased risk of CAD. COPD is a risk factor for lung diseases, chronic thrombo-embolic pulmonary hypertension,
IHD and sudden death by unknown mechanisms, although there or other rare diseases. Pulmonary artery hypertension includes dif-
are several shared risk factors for both types of disease (smoking, dia- ferent forms that share a similar clinical picture and virtually identical
betes, hypertension, systemic inflammation, increased plasma fi- pathological changes of the lung microcirculation.217 From surveys
brinogen). Epidemiological evidence suggests that reduced forced and population studies, the prevalence of PAH is reported to be
expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1) is a marker for cardiovascular between 15– 150 cases per million adults, with approximately 50%
mortality, independent of age, gender, and smoking history, with a of cases being idiopathic. The prevalence is thus low and consequent-
30% increase in cardiovascular mortality and 20% increase in non- ly the condition is uncommon in surgical practice. Pulmonary artery
fatal coronary events for every 10% decrease in FEV1.213 Although hypertension is associated with increased post-operative complica-
patients with COPD have an increased risk of CVD, there is no evi- tions, including right ventricular failure, myocardial ischaemia, and
dence that COPD is related to a higher risk of perioperative post-operative hypoxia and, in patients undergoing cardiopulmonary
cardiac complications. Post-operative pulmonary complications bypass surgery, a mean pre-operative pulmonary artery pressure
result in significant mortality and morbidity, however. Pre-operative .30 mm Hg is an independent predictor of mortality. In patients
evaluation, using specific post-operative pulmonary complication with pulmonary hypertension undergoing non-cardiac surgery,
tools, can be used to stratify patients at risk and allow optimal pre- outcome predictors include New York Heart Association functional
operative and perioperative management.214 Class .III, intermediate to high-risk surgery, right ventricular

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dysfunction, and long duration of anaesthesia. This condition has an who are undergoing surgery should have an optimized treatment
associated perioperative cardiopulmonary complication rate of regimen before any surgical intervention, and be managed in a
38%, and mortality of 7%.218,219 The initial approach after diagnosing centre with appropriate expertise. Interventions for high-risk
PAH is the adoption of general measures and supportive therapy, and patients should be planned by the multidisciplinary pulmonary hyper-
referral to an expert centre for initiation of advanced pulmonary tension team. Patients receiving PAH-specific therapy must not have
hypertensive therapies. Owing to the potential for anaesthesia and drugs withheld for the pre-operative fasting state, and may require
surgery to be complicated by acute right heart failure and pulmonary temporary conversion to intravenous and/or nebulized treatment
hypertensive crisis, surgical interventions in patients with PAH should until they are able to reliably absorb via the enteral route. As the
be avoided unless absolutely necessary. Ideally, patients with PAH highest mortality is in the post-operative period, it is recommended
that facilities for appropriate monitoring should be available, and
Recommendations on PAH and pulmonary diseases monitoring continued for at least 24 hours. In case of progression
of right heart failure in the post-operative period, it is recommended
Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref. c that the diuretic dose should be optimized and, if necessary, inotropic
It is recommended that patients with support with dobutamine be initiated. Starting new, specific PAH
severe PAH, who are undergoing drug therapy in the perioperative period has not been established.
I C 217
elective surgery, be managed in a In the case of severe right heart failure that is not responsive to sup-
centre with appropriate expertise.
portive therapy, the temporary administration of pulmonary vasodi-
It is recommended that interventions
for high-risk patients with PAH be lators (inhaled and/or intravenous) may be considered, under the
217,
planned by the multidisciplinary I C
220
guidance of a physician experienced in PAH.
pulmonary hypertension team.
It is recommended that patients with 5.9 Congenital heart disease
PAH have an optimized treatment
regimen before any non-emergency I C 217 Children, adolescents and adults with congenital heart disease are
surgical intervention. generally regarded as being at increased risk when undergoing non-
It is recommended that patients cardiac surgery but this risk will vary enormously, according to the
receiving PAH-specific treatment degree of associated heart failure, pulmonary hypertension, arrhyth-
continue this in the pre-, peri-, and I C 217 mias, and shunting of blood—with or without associated oxygen de-
post-operative period without saturation and by the complexity of the underlying condition.222 A
interruption.
thorough understanding of the underlying congenital heart disease,
It is recommended that monitoring
of patients with PAH continue for at including anatomy, physiology, and identification of risk factors, is
I C
least 24 hours in the post-operative vital before surgery. When the defect is simple, the circulation physio-
period. logically normal and the patient well compensated, the risk may be quite
In the case of progression of right
low; however, complicated patients with congenital heart disease
heart failure in the post-operative
period of patients with PAH, it is should only undergo non-cardiac surgery after thorough evaluation
recommended that the diuretic dose by a multidisciplinary team in a specialized centre. Prophylaxis for endo-
be optimized and, if necessary, 217,
I C
221
carditis should be initiated according to the ESC Guidelines on congeni-
intravenous vasoactive drugs be
tal heart disease and infective endocarditis.190,222
initiated under the guidance of a
physician experienced in the
management of PAH. Recommendation on patients with congenital heart
In patients with COPD, smoking disease
cessation (>2 months before surgery)
is recommended before undertaking I C
Recommendation Classa Levelb
surgery.
In the case of severe right heart It is recommended that, patients with
failure that is not responsive to complex congenital heart disease be
supportive therapy, the temporary referred for additional specialist I C
administration of pulmonary investigation before undergoing elective
I C 217
vasodilators (inhaled and/or non-cardiac surgery, if feasible.
intravenous) is recommended, under
the guidance of a physician
a
experienced in PAH. Class of recommendation.
b
In patients at high risk of OHS Level of evidence.
additional specialist investigation
before major elective surgery should IIa C 216
be considered.
6. Perioperative monitoring
PAH ¼ pulmonary artery hypertension; OHS ¼ obesity hypoventilation syndrome.
a
b
Level of evidence.
6.1 Electrocardiography
c
Reference(s) supporting recommendations. Continuous ECG monitoring is recommended for all patients under-
going anaesthesia. The patient should be connected to the ECG

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monitor before induction of anaesthesia or institution of a regional 6.2 Transoesophageal echocardiography

block. The duration of ST-segment changes correlates positively Transoesophageal echocardiography (TOE) has frequently been
with the incidence of perioperative myocardial infarction; 223 there- used as a monitoring tool during cardiac surgery. TOE has
fore, when ST-segment changes occur, the clinician should assume several advantages. It is rapidly available, relatively non-invasive,
that myocardial ischaemia is present if the patient has a history of and provides more versatile and comprehensive information;
pre-existing cardiac disease or is undergoing surgery. however, although TOE is in general a safe procedure, serious
It is not clear, however, whether ECG monitoring is sufficiently adverse events can occur. The complication rates relate to the ex-
sensitive to identify patients with myocardial ischaemia. In addition, perience of the operator and the presence of oesophageal or
ECG monitoring is of limited value in patients who have intraventri- gastric diseases. Specific training of users is essential to avoid in-
cular conduction defects and ventricular paced rhythms. In one study, accurate interpretation.
Holter recordings were used as the reference standard for detection Myocardial ischaemia can be identified by abnormalities in re-
of intra-operative ischaemia and the ST-trending monitors were gional wall motion and thickening. The agreement between
found to have overall sensitivity of 74% and specificity of 73%.224 intra-operative TOE and ECG is rather weak.229 Both ST-segment
The choice and configuration of the leads used for monitoring may changes and regional wall motion abnormalities can be present in
influence the ability to detect significant ST-segment changes. Al- the absence of acute ischaemia. Wall motion abnormalities may
though V5 has for many years been regarded as the best choice for be difficult to interpret in the presence of left bundle branch
the detection of intra-operative ischaemia, one study found that V4 block, ventricular pacing, or right ventricular overload. The reso-
was more sensitive and appropriate than V5 for detecting prolonged lution of ischaemia is not necessarily detectable if ischaemia is fol-
post-operative ischaemia and infarction.225 lowed by myocardial stunning. Episodes of new or worsened wall
As many ischaemic events are dynamic and may not always be motion abnormalities have been shown to be relatively infrequent
detected by the same lead, reliance on a single lead for monitoring (20%) in high-risk patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery.229
results in a greater risk of failing to detect an ischaemic event. With They were more common in patients submitted to aortic vascular
the use of selected lead combinations, more ischaemic events can be surgery. Episodes were poorly correlated with post-operative
precisely diagnosed in the intra-operative setting. In one study, although cardiac complications.229
the best sensitivity was obtained with V5 (75%), followed by V4 (61%), For the purpose of identifying patients at high risk of perioperative
combining leads V4 and V5 increased the sensitivity to 90%. When the ischaemic outcomes, routine monitoring for myocardial ischaemia with
leads II, V4 and V5 were used simultaneously, the sensitivity was greater TOE or 12-lead ECG during non-cardiac surgery is of little more clinical
than 95%.225,226 In another study, in which two or more pre-cordial value than pre-operative clinical data and intra-operative monitoring
leads were used, the sensitivity of ECG monitoring was greater than using a 12-lead ECG.230
95% for detection of perioperative ischaemia and infarction.225 It was TOE is recommended if acute and severe haemodynamic
also shown that ECG monitoring with fewer leads (as few as three) instability or life-threatening abnormalities develop during or after
has lower sensitivity than monitoring with 12 leads and there is a stat- surgery.231 It is a useful technique in the context of hypotension
istically significant association, independent of perioperative troponin during non-cardiac surgery. In a prospective study including 42
values, between perioperative ischaemia on a 12-lead ECG and long- adults, TOE was performed before any other haemodynamic moni-
term mortality.227,228 Thus, 12-lead ECG monitoring is recommended toring when severe hypotension developed. It was useful for deter-
especially in high-risk patients, although correct positioning of 12 leads mining the cause of severe hypotension, hypovolaemia, low
is not feasible in high abdominal and thoracic surgery. ejection fraction, severe embolism, myocardial ischaemia, cardiac
tamponade, or dynamic LV outflow tract obstruction.232 The value
Recommendations on ECG monitoring
of TOE for systematic haemodynamic monitoring in patients at
risk is more controversial. There is no evidence that haemodynamic
Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref. c monitoring by TOE accurately stratifies risk or predicts outcome.
TOE can be useful in the operating room in patients with severe
Peri-operative ECG monitoring is
recommended for all patients I C valvular lesions. The loading conditions during general anaesthesia
undergoing surgery. differ from those present in the pre-operative evaluation. Second-
Selected lead combinations should be ary mitral regurgitation is usually reduced during general anaesthe-
considered for better detection 225,
IIa B
226 sia; on the other hand, primary mitral regurgitation can increase. In
of ischaemia in the operating room.
the setting of severe mitral regurgitation, the LVEF overestimates
When feasible, twelve-lead ECG
LV function and other parameters may be more accurate, such as
monitoring should be considered 227,
for high-risk patients undergoing IIa B myocardial deformation obtained by two-dimensional speckle
228
surgery. tracking. More validation is needed before this method can be
used routinely in this setting. In patients with severe aortic stenosis,
ECG ¼ electrocardiogram. appropriate pre-load is important during surgery. Monitoring of LV
a
Class of recommendation. end-diastolic volume with TOE may be more accurate than by pul-
b
Level of evidence.
c monary capillary pressure. An appropriate heart rate is crucial in
patients with mitral stenosis and aortic regurgitation: a sufficient

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on 31 May 2018
diastolic period in the former and an appropriate—not long—dur- drawn in a separate review commissioned by the UK’s National
ation of diastole in the latter. When inappropriate control of heart Health Service (NHS) Centre for Evidence-based Purchasing, per-
rate occurs, the consequences should be assessed: changes in trans- formed in three NHS hospitals, with 626 patients being assessed
mitral mean gradient and pulmonary artery pressures in mitral sten- before- and 621 patients after implementation of an intra-operative
osis, and changes in LV volumes and indices of LV function in aortic TOD-guided fluid optimization strategy. The findings of the NHS
regurgitation. review showed a 67% decrease in intra-operative mortality, a 4-day
reduction in mean duration of post-operative hospital stay, a 23% re-
Recommendations on intra-operative and/or duction in the need for central venous catheter insertion, a 33% de-
perioperative TOE for detection of myocardial crease in complication rates, and a 25% reduction in re-operation
ischaemia rate.234
Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref. c 6.3 Right heart catheterization

The use of TOE should be considered Despite more than 30 years’ experience with the pulmonary artery
in patients who develop ST-segment catheter (PAC) and right heart catheterization, little evidence
IIa C 230
changes on intra-operative or
peri-operative ECG monitoring. exists in the medical literature to demonstrate a survival benefit asso-
The use of TOE may be considered ciated with PAC in perioperative patients. A case-control analysis,
in patients at high risk of developing carried out in a subset of patients from a large observational study
myocardial ischaemia, who IIb C 230
undergo high-risk non-cardiac surgery. who underwent PAC placement, and who were matched with a
similar number of patients who did not undergo right heart catheter-
ization, demonstrated a higher incidence of post-operative heart
ECG ¼ electrocardiogram; TOE ¼ transoesophageal echocardiography.
a
Class of recommendation. failure and non-cardiac events than the control group.236
b
Level of evidence. Similarly, a Cochrane review of 12 randomized, controlled clinical
c
Reference(s) supporting recommendations. trials studying the impact of PAC in a large spectrum of patients—in-
cluding patients who were undergoing surgery or who were admitted
to the ICU with advanced heart failure, acute respiratory distress syn-
Recommendations on intra-operative and/or
drome, or sepsis—failed to demonstrate a difference in mortality and
perioperative TOE in patients with or at risk of
length of hospital stay, suggesting that PAC does not provide informa-
haemodynamic instability
tion that is not otherwise available to select a treatment plan.237
Routine PAC and right heart monitoring is therefore not re-
commended in patients during non-cardiac surgery. The use of
TOE is recommended when acute other non-invasive perioperative cardiac output monitoring techni-
sustained severe haemodynamic ques (including TOE with Doppler monitoring) to optimize cardiac
disturbances develop during I C 235 output and fluid therapy in high-risk patients undergoing non-cardiac
surgery or in the peri-operative
surgery, seems to be associated with reduction in length of stay and
period.
complications,238 yet convincing data on hard end-points are still
TOE monitoring may be
lacking.
considered in patients at increased
risk of significant haemodynamic IIb C
disturbances during and after high- 6.4 Disturbed glucose metabolism
risk non-cardiac surgery. Diabetes mellitus is the most common metabolic disorder in Europe,
TOE monitoring may be with a prevalence of 6.4% in 2010, which is predicted to increase to
considered in patients who 7.7% by 2030.239 Type 2 diabetes accounts for .90% of cases, and
present severe valvular lesions is expected to increase, probably due to the obesity epidemic in
during high-risk non-cardiac IIb C children and young adults. The condition promotes atheroscler-
surgery procedures accompanied osis, endothelial dysfunction, activation of platelets, and synthesis
by significant haemodynamic of pro-inflammatory cytokines. According to the World Health
stresses.
Organization, approximately 50% of patients with type 2 diabetes
die of CVD. It is well established that surgery in patients with dia-
TOE ¼ transoesophageal echocardiography. betes is associated with longer hospital stay, greater use of health-
a
b
Level of evidence.
care resources, and higher perioperative mortality. Elevated levels
c
Reference(s) supporting recommendations. of glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1c)—a marker of poor glycaemic
control—are associated with worse outcomes in surgical and crit-
Transoesophageal Doppler (TOD) (without echocardiography) ical care patients.240 Further, surgical stress increases the pro-
can be also used to monitor cardiac output. A government- thrombotic state, which may present a particular issue in patients
sponsored systematic review performed in the USA concluded with diabetes; thus diabetes is an important risk factor for peri-
that a strong level of evidence existed to support the usefulness of operative cardiac complications and death. Critical illness is also
TOD in reducing the rate of major complications and the length of characterized by dysglycaemia, which may develop in the absence
hospital stay after major surgery.233 A similar conclusion was of previously diagnosed diabetes, and has repeatedly been

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identified as an important risk factor for morbidity and mortality.240 hyperglycaemia. In the ICU setting, insulin infusion should be
More recently, the emphasis has shifted from diabetes to hypergly- used to control hyperglycaemia, with the trigger for instigating
caemia, where new-onset hyperglycaemia (compared with hyper- intravenous insulin therapy set at 10.0 mmol/L (180 mg/dL) and
glycaemia in known diabetics) may hold a much higher risk of relative trigger at 8.3 mmol/L (150 mg/dL). Although there is a
adverse outcome.240,241 Studies in the field of critical care have lack of agreement on target glucose range,targets below
demonstrated the detrimental effect of hyperglycaemia, due to 6.1 mmol/L (110 mg/dL) are not recommended.240,241
an adverse effect on renal and hepatic function, endothelial func-
tion, and immune response, particularly in patients without under- Recommendations on blood glucose control
lying diabetes. Oxidative stress (a major cause of macrovascular
disease) is triggered by swings in blood glucose, more than by sus- Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref. c
tained and persistent hyperglycaemia. Minimization of the degree of Post-operative prevention of
glucose variability may be cardioprotective, and mortality may cor- hyperglycaemia [targeting levels at
relate more closely with blood glucose variability than mean blood least <10.0 mmol/L (180 mg/dL)]
by intravenous insulin therapy is 240,
glucose per se.240,241 I B
recommended in adults after high- 241
A significant number of surgical patients will have previously un- risk surgery that requires
diagnosed pre-diabetes, and are at increased risk of unrecognised admission to the intensive care
perioperative hyperglycaemia and the attendant adverse out- unit.
comes. Although there is no evidence that screening low- or In patients at high surgical risk,
moderate-risk adults for diabetes improves outcomes, it may clinicians should consider
screening for elevated HbA1c
reduce complications in high-risk adults. Screening patients using before major surgery and IIa C
a validated risk calculator (e.g. FINDRISC) can identify high or improving pre-operative glucose
very high-risk adults; this can be followed up by screening every control.
3 – 5 years with HbA1C.242,243 In patients with diabetes, pre- Intra-operative prevention of
operative or pre-procedural assessment should be undertaken hyperglycaemia with insulin may be IIb C
to identify and optimize comorbidities, and determine the peri- considered.
procedural diabetes management strategy. For non-cardiac Post-operative targets <6.1
mmol/L (110 mg/dL) are not 240,
surgery patients without known diabetes, evidence for strict III A
recommended. 241
blood glucose control is derived largely from studies in critically
ill patients, and is disputed.240,241 Early randomized controlled
trials of intensive insulin therapy maintaining strict glycaemic HbA1c ¼ glycosylated haemoglobin.
a
control showed morbidity benefits in medical patients in b
Level of evidence.
ICUs, and reduced mortality and morbidity in surgical patients c
in ICUs. Subsequent studies, however, found a reduction in
mortality in those whose blood glucose control was less strict
[7.8 – 10 mmol/L (140 – 180 mg/dL)] than in those in whom it was
tightly controlled [4.5 – 6 mmol/L (81 – 108 mg/dL)], as well as 6.5 Anaemia
fewer incidents of severe hypoglycaemia. Subsequent meta-
Anaemia can contribute to myocardial ischaemia, particularly in
analyses have demonstrated no reduction in 90-day mortality with
patients with CAD. In emergency surgery, transfusion may be
intensive blood glucose control but a five- to six-fold incidence of
needed and should be given according to clinical needs. In elective
hypoglycaemia.240,241 Several suggestions have been put forward
surgery, a symptom-guided approach is recommended as no scientif-
to explain the differences in outcome between these studies,
ic evidence is available to support other strategies.
including enteral vs. parenteral feeding, the target for insulin initiation,
compliance with therapy, accuracy of glucose measurements,
mechanism or site of insulin infusion, type of protocol used, and
the nurse’s level of experience. In addition, there is disagreement
on the timing of the initiation of insulin therapy: tight intra-operative
7. Anaesthesia
glucose control may provide benefit but appears to be difficult and, The optimal perioperative course for high-risk cardiovascular
thus far, studies have mainly been undertaken in patients undergoing patients should be based on close co-operation between cardio-
cardiac surgery. logists, surgeons, pulmonologists, and anaesthesiologists. Pre-
The correlation of poor surgical outcome with high HbA1c sug- operative risk assessment and pre-operative optimization of
gests that screening patients and improving glycaemic control cardiac disease should be performed as a team exercise. Guidelines
before surgery may be beneficial. Although recommendations for on pre-operative evaluation of the adult patient undergoing non-
perioperative management of impaired glucose metabolism are cardiac surgery have previously been published by the European
extrapolated largely from the critical care literature, general con- Society of Anaesthesiology.244 The present edition focuses on
sensus is that interventions in the acutely unwell or stressed patients with cardiovascular risk factors and diseases and also takes
patient should be directed towards minimizing fluctuations in into account more recent developments, as well as perioperative
blood glucose concentration whilst avoiding hypoglycaemia and management of patients at increased cardiovascular risk.

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7.1 Intra-operative anaesthetic One meta-analysis reported significantly improved survival and
management reduced incidence of post-operative thrombo-embolic, cardiac,
and pulmonary complications using neuraxial blockade, compared
Most anaesthetic techniques reduce sympathetic tone, leading to a
with general anaesthesia.252 An analysis of a large cohort of patients
decrease in venous return due to increased compliance of the
undergoing colon resection also suggested improved survival with
venous system, vasodilatation and, finally, decreased blood pressure;
epidural analgesia.253 Randomized studies and a meta-analysis of
thus, anaesthesiological management must ensure proper mainten-
several randomized clinical trials in non-cardiac surgery patients,
ance of organ flow and perfusion pressure. Recent evidence suggests
comparing outcomes with regional and general anaesthetic techni-
that there is no universal ‘target blood pressure value’ to define
ques, have shown some evidence of improved outcome and
intra-operative arterial hypotension, but percentage decreases
reduced post-operative morbidity with regional anesthesia.254 – 256
.20% in mean arterial pressure, or mean arterial pressure values
A recent retrospective analysis, published in 2013, of nearly 400
,60 mm Hg for cumulative durations of .30 minutes, are associated
000 patients undergoing total hip or knee arthroplasty, observed a
with a statistically significant increase in the risk of post-operative
significantly lower incidence of major morbidity and mortality in
complications that include myocardial infarction, stroke, and
patients receiving neuraxial anaesthesia.257 The most recent
death.104,245,246 Similarly, increased duration (.30 minutes) of
meta-analysis stated that, when epidurals or spinals were used to
deep anaesthesia (bispectral index scale values ,45) was statistically
replace general anaesthesia (but not when used to reduce the quan-
associated with an increased risk of post-operative complications.246
tity of drugs required to provide general anaesthesia), there was a sig-
Efforts should be made to prevent intra-operative arterial hypoten-
nificant, 29% decrease in the risk of dying during surgery.10 In both
sion and inadequately deep anaesthesia.
situations there was a significant decrease in the risk of pneumonia
The choice of the anaesthetic agent has been considered to be of
(55% when replacing general anaesthesia and 30% when decreasing
little importance in terms of patient outcome, provided that vital func-
the requirements of drugs used for general anaesthesia). In both
tions are adequately supported. There is conflicting evidence, stem-
situations, neuraxial anaesthesia failed to decrease the risk of myocar-
ming from cardiac surgery, over whether a specific anaesthetic agent
dial infarction. In another recent meta-analysis that targeted patients
is superior in patients with cardiac disease, with the suggestion that
undergoing lower-limb revascularization (a category of patients with
volatile anaesthetic agents offer better cardioprotection than intraven-
risk factors for CVD), there was no difference in mortality, myocar-
ous agents. A meta-analysis published in 2013, combining standard and
dial infarction, or lower-limb amputation between patients allocated
Bayesian approaches on studies performed in adult cardiac surgery
to neuraxial anaesthesia vs. general anesthesia.258 Nevertheless,
patients, concluded that inhaled anaesthesia, as opposed to total intra-
neuraxial anaesthesia was associated with a significantly lower risk
venous anaesthesia, was associated with a 50% decrease in mortality
of pneumonia.258 Both meta-analyses were based on relatively
(from 2.6% in the total intravenous anaesthesia arm to 1.3% in the
small numbers of studies (with a high risk of bias) and patients, and
inhaled anaesthetics arm); the Bayesian meta-analysis concluded that
did not specifically target patients with documented cardiac
mortality was the lowest when sevoflurane was used as the anaesthetic
disease. Although there are no studies specifically analysing the
agent.247 Comparable data relating to non-cardiac surgery are scarce.
changes in outcome related to neuraxial anaesthetic techniques in
One small study observed a lower incidence of major cardiac events in
patients with cardiac disease, the use of this technique may be consid-
vascular surgery patients anaesthetized with a volatile agent than with
ered in patients who do not have a contra-indication after estimation
an intravenous anaesthetic,248 but two other studies in non-cardiac
of risk– benefit ratio. Cardiac patients are often on various types of
surgery patients observed no difference in outcome.249,250
drugs that interfere with coagulation and care should be taken to
However, the overall incidence of perioperative adverse events was
ensure sufficient coagulation ability when neuraxial blocks are
too low to be able to address the relationship between choice of an-
applied.259 Furthermore, combination of general anaesthesia with
aesthetic agent and patient outcome.251
thoracic epidural anaesthesia has been shown to statistically increase
the risk of arterial hypotension.260
7.2 Neuraxial techniques
Spinal or epidural (globally known as neuraxial) anaesthesia also 7.3 Perioperative goal-directed therapy
induces sympathetic blockade. When reaching the thoracic derma- There is accumulating evidence underlining the advantages of goal-
tome level 4, a reduction in cardiac sympathetic drive may occur, directed fluid therapy in non– cardiac-surgery patients. Goal-
with subsequent reduction in myocardial contractility, heart rate, directed therapy aims to optimize cardiovascular performance, in
and change in cardiac loading conditions. The benefit of neuraxial an- order to achieve normal or even supranormal oxygen delivery to
aesthesia vs. general anaesthesia is much debated in the literature, tissues, by optimizing pre-load and inotropic function using prede-
with proponents of a beneficial effect of neuraxial anaesthesia and fined haemodynamic targets. In contrast to clinical signs or arterial
proponents of the lack of effect on criteria such as mortality or pressure-orientated standard therapy, goal-directed therapy is
severe morbidity (myocardial infarction, other cardiac complications, based on flow or fluid responsiveness of haemodynamic variables,
pulmonary embolism, pulmonary complications, etc.). The same such as stroke volume, response to fluid challenges, stroke volume
debate applies to patients with CVDs who must undergo non-cardiac or pulse pressure variation, or similar cardiac output optimization.
surgery. Given the continuing debate on this subject we have esti- Although goal-directed therapy was initially based on the use of a pul-
mated that neuraxial anaesthesia and analgesia may be considered monary artery catheter, less-invasive techniques have been devel-
for the management of patients with cardiovascular risk factors or oped, such as oesophageal Doppler and transpulmonary dilution
diseases. techniques, as well as advanced pressure waveform analysis. Early

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goal-directed fluid therapy—in the right patient cohort and with a analysed the impact of epidural analgesia vs. systemic analgesia, con-
clearly defined protocol—has been shown to decrease post- cluded that epidural analgesia was associated with a significant, 40%
operative mortality and morbidity.261,262 The mortality benefit of decrease in mortality and a significant decrease in the risk of AF,
goal-directed fluid therapy was most pronounced in patients with SVT, deep-vein thrombosis, respiratory depression, atelectasis,
an extremely high risk of death (.20%). All high-risk patients under- pneumonia, ileus, and post-operative nausea and vomiting, and also
going major surgery had a benefit from goal-directed fluid therapy in improved recovery of bowel function, but significantly increased
terms of complications.263 A meta-analysis published in 2014 demon- the risk of arterial hypotension, pruritus, urinary retention, and
strated that, in patients with CVDs, goal-directed therapy decreased motor blockade.272
major morbidity without any increase in adverse cardiovascular The transition from acute, post-operative pain to chronic, post-
events.264 surgical pain is an unfortunate consequence of surgery that adversely
impacts the patient’s quality of life. The prevalence of chronic post-
7.4 Risk stratification after surgery surgical pain differs in various types of surgery. Limited data suggest
Several recent studies have demonstrated that it is possible to stratify that local or regional analgesia, gabapentin or pregabaline, or intra-
the risk of post-operative complications and mortality with a simple venous lidocaine, might have a preventive effect against persistent
surgical ‘Apgar’ score.265 This post-event stratification might allow post-surgical pain and could be used in a high-risk population.273
redirecting patients to higher intensity units or selected post-
Recommendations on anaesthesia
operative measurements of natriuretic peptides and troponin.3,266
7.5 Early diagnosis of post-operative Recommendations Classa Levelb Ref. c
complications Patients with high cardiac and

surgical risk should be
Several recent publications have demonstrated that differences IIa B 261–264
considered for goal-directed
between hospitals, in terms of post-operative mortality, are not due therapy.
to the incidence of complications but to the way in which they are
The measurement of
managed.267 These results suggest that early identification of post- natriuretic peptides and high-
operative complications, allied to aggressive management, could de- sensitivity troponin after 3,55,266,
crease post-operative morbidity and mortality. Several recent surgery may be considered in IIb B
268,272
meta-analyses have demonstrated that increased post-operative high-risk patients to improve
troponin and BNP concentrations after non-cardiac surgery were risk stratification.
associated with a significantly increased risk of mortality.55,266,268 Neuraxial anaesthesia (alone),
The prospective Vascular Events In Noncardiac Surgery Patients in the absence of contra-
indications and after
Cohort Evaluation (VISION) trial confirmed the results of these estimation of the risk–benefit
meta-analyses.3 Taken together, these results indicate that early tropo- ratio, reduces the risk of peri- IIb B 10,252–257
nin measurement in selected patients could trigger therapeutic conse- operative mortality and
quences. A non-randomized trial demonstrated that a bundle of morbidity compared with
interventions aimed at promoting homeostasis was associated with a general anaesthesia and may
be considered.
significantly decreased incidence of post-operative troponin elevation
and decreased morbidity.269 Pre-operatively and post-operatively, Avoiding arterial hypotension
(mean arterial pressure <60
patients who could most benefit from BNP or high-sensitivity troponin
mm Hg) for prolonged IIb B 104,245,246
measurements are those with METs ≤4 or with a revised cardiac risk cumulative periods (>30
index value .1 for vascular surgery and .2 for non-vascular surgery. minutes) may be considered.
Post-operatively, patients with a surgical Apgar score ,7 should also Neuraxial analgesia, in the
be monitored with BNP or high-sensitivity troponin measurements, in absence of contra-indications,
order to detect complications early, independently of their revised may be considered to provide IIb B 272
cardiac risk index values. post-operative analgesia.
Avoiding non-steroidal anti-
7.6 Post-operative pain management inflammatory drugs (especially
cyclo-oxygenase-2 inhibitors) IIb B 279
Severe post-operative pain, reported in 5–10% of patients, increases as the first-line analgesics in
sympathetic drive and delays recovery.270,271 Neuroaxial analgesia patients with IHD or stroke
with local anaesthetics, or opioids and/or alpha2-agonists, and intra- may be considered.
venous opioids, alone or in combination with non-steroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs, seem to be the most effective regimens. The IHD ¼ ischaemic heart disease
a
benefit of invasive (neuraxial) analgesic techniques should be b
Level of evidence.
weighed against potential dangers; this is especially important when c
considering the use of neuraxial blockade in patients on chronic
antithrombotic therapy, due to the increased risk of developing a Patient-controlled analgesia is an alternative for post-operative
neuraxial haematoma. A meta-analysis published in 2013, which pain relief. Meta-analyses of controlled, randomized trials have

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shown that patient-controlled analgesia has some advantages, with Step 1. The urgency of the surgical procedure should be assessed.
regard to patient satisfaction, over nurse-controlled or on-demand In urgent cases, patient- or surgery-specific factors dictate the strat-
analgesia. No difference has been demonstrated with regard to mor- egy and do not allow further cardiac testing or treatment. In these
bidity or final outcome. Patient-controlled analgesia is an adequate al- cases, the consultant provides recommendations on perioperative
ternative in patients not suited to regional anaesthesia. Routines for medical management, surveillance for cardiac events, and continu-
follow-up and documentation of effects should be in place.270,274 – 276 ation of chronic cardiovascular medical therapy.
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and cyclo-oxygenase-2 Step 2. If the patient is unstable, this condition should be
inhibitors have the potential for promoting heart and renal failure, clarified and treated appropriately before surgery. Examples are un-
as well as thrombo-embolic events, and should be avoided in patients stable coronary syndromes, decompensated heart failure, severe
with myocardial ischaemia or diffuse atherosclerosis. Recently, an arrhythmias, and symptomatic valvular disease. Stabilization usually
increased risk of cardiovascular events associated with diclofenac was leads to cancellation or delay of the surgical procedure. For instance,
detected, specifically in a high-risk population.277 Cyclo-oxygenase-2 patients with unstable angina pectoris should be referred for coronary
inhibitors cause less gastrointestinal ulceration and bronchospasm angiography to assess the therapeutic options. Treatment options
than cyclo-oxygenase-1 inhibitors. The final value of these drugs in should be discussed by a multidisciplinary expert team, including all
the treatment of post-operative pain in cardiac patients undergoing perioperative care physicians, because interventions might have
non-cardiac surgery has not been defined. These drugs should be implications for anaesthesiological and surgical care. For example,
avoided in cases of renal and heart failure, or in patients who are the initiation of dual anti-platelet therapy after coronary artery
elderly, on diuretics, or those with unstable haemodynamics.278 stent placement might complicate locoregional anaesthesia or specif-
ic surgical procedures. Depending on the outcome of this discussion,
patients may either proceed for coronary artery intervention, namely
CABG, balloon angioplasty, or stent placement, with the initiation of
8. Gaps in evidence dual anti-platelet therapy if the index surgical procedure can be
The Task Force has identified several major gaps in the available delayed, or proceed directly for operation with optimal medical
evidence: therapy if delay is incompatible.
Step 3. In cardiac-stable patients, determine the risk of the surgical
† There is lack of data on how non-cardiac risk factors (frailty,
procedure (Table 3). If the estimated 30-day cardiac risk of the pro-
extreme low or high body mass index, anaemia, immune status)
cedure in cardiac stable patients is low (,1%), it is unlikely that
interact with cardiovascular risk factors and how they impact on
test results will influence management and it would be appropriate
the outcomes of non-cardiac surgery.
to proceed with the planned surgical procedure. The physician can
† There is a need for risk scores that can predict mortality from non-
identify risk factors and provide recommendations on lifestyle and
cardiac causes.
medical therapy to improve long-term outcome, as outlined in
† Interventional or outcome studies need to be performed, that take
Table 8. Initiation of a beta-blocker regimen may be considered
into consideration increased pre-operative or post-operative
prior to surgery in patients with known IHD or myocardial ischaemia.
high-sensitivity troponin, BNP, and other biomarkers.
Treatment should ideally be initiated between 30 days and a minimum
† Areas of uncertainty remain in terms of the optimal type, dose, and
of 2 days before surgery and should be continued post-operatively.
duration of perioperative beta-blocker therapy in patients under-
Beta-blockade should be started with a low dose, slowly up-titrated
going high-risk non-cardiac surgery.
and tailored to achieve a resting heart rate of between 60 and 70 bpm
† It remains unknown whether or not patients at intermediate sur-
with systolic blood pressure .100 mm Hg. In patients with heart
gical risk derive benefit from perioperative beta-blocker therapy.
failure and systolic LV dysfunction, indicated by LVEF ,40%, ACEIs
† Areas of uncertainty remain in terms of the potential benefit of the
(or ARBs in patients intolerant of ACEIs) should be considered
introduction of statins in patients undergoing high-risk surgery.
before surgery. In patients undergoing vascular surgery, initiation of
† Interventional or outcome studies need to be performed on the
statin therapy should be considered. Discontinuation of aspirin
prevention or correction of haemodynamic abnormalities or
should be considered in those patients in whom haemostasis is diffi-
low bispectral index values that are statistically associated with
cult to control during surgery.
worse outcome.
Step 4. Consider the functional capacity of the patient. If an asymp-
† Information is lacking on the effects of patient status, operating team
tomatic or cardiac-stable patient has moderate or good functional
size or skills, and the invasiveness of procedures, on outcomes fol-
capacity (.4 METs), perioperative management is unlikely to be
lowing non-cardiac surgery and these will require investigations in
changed on the basis of test results, irrespective of the planned sur-
large, procedure-specific, randomized, multicentre studies.
gical procedure. Even in the presence of clinical risk factors, it is ap-
propriate to refer the patient for surgery. The recommendations
9. Summary for medication are the same as in Step 3.
Figure 3 presents, in algorithmic form, an evidence-based, stepwise Step 5. In patients with a moderate or poor functional capacity,
approach for determining which patients benefit from cardiac consider the risk of the surgical procedure, as outlined in Table 3.
testing, coronary artery revascularization, and cardiovascular Patients scheduled for intermediate-risk surgery can proceed for
therapy before surgery. For each step, the Committee has included surgery. In addition to the suggestions above, in patients with one
the level of the recommendations and the strength of evidence in or more clinical risk factors (Table 4), a pre-operative baseline ECG
the accompanying Table 8. is recommended to monitor changes during the surgical procedure.

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Patient or surgical specific factors dictate the strategy, and do not allow further
Step 1 Urgent surgery Yes cardiac testing or treatment. The consultant provides recommendations on
peri-operative medical management, surveillance for cardiac events and
continuation of chronic cardiovascular medical therapy.
No
Treatment options should be discussed in a multidisciplinary team, involving all
peri-operative care physicians as interventions might have implication on
anaesthesiological and surgical care. For instance in the presence of unstable
Step 2 One of active or unstable Yes angina, depending on the outcome of this discussion, patients can proceed for
cardiac conditions (table 9)
coronary artery intervention, with the initiation of dual-anti platelet therapy if
the index surgical procedure can be delayed, or directly for operation if delay
is impossible with optimal medical therapy.
No
The consultant can identify risk factors and provide recommendations on
lifestyle and medical therapy, according to the ESC Guidelines.
Step 3 Determine the risk of the In patients with one or more clinical risk factors, preoperative baseline
Low ECG may be considered to monitor changes during the peri-operative
surgical procedure (table 3)
period.
In patients with known IHD or myocardial ischaemia, initiation of a titrated
Intermediate or high low-dose beta-blocker regimen may be considered before surgery a.
In patients with heart failure and systolic dysfunction, ACEI should be
considered before surgery.
Step 4 Consider the functional In patients undergoing vascular surgery, initiation of statin therapy should
> 4 METs
capacity of the patient be considered.
< 4 METs
In addition to suggestions above:

Step 5 In patients with a poor functional capacity Intermediate In patients with one or more clinical risk factors, non-invasive stress testing
consider the risk of the surgical procedure
risk surgery may be considered.
High-risk
surgery
In addition to suggestions above:

Step 6 Rest echocardiography and biomarkers may be considered for evaluation of LV
Cardiac risk factors (table 4) <2
function and obtaining prognostic information for peri-operative and late
cardiac events
>3
Consider non-invasive testing. Non-

invasive testing can also be considered No/mild/ Proceed with the planned surgeryb.
prior to any surgical procedure for patient moderate
counselling, change of peri-operative stress-induced
Step 7 management in relation to type of ischaemia
surgery and anaesthesia technique.
An individualized peri-operative management is recommended considering
Extensive the potential benefit of the proposed surgical procedure compared with the
Interpretation of non-invasive stress-induced
stress test results predicted adverse outcome, and the effect of medical therapy and/or
ischaemia
coronary revascularization.
Balloon angioplasty: Bare-metal stent: Surgery can be performed

Surgery can be performed Surgery can be performed within 12 months after
> 2 weeks after intervention >4 weeks after intervention. intervention for old-generation
CABG
with continuation Dual antiplatelet therapy DES and within 6 months for
of aspirin treatment. should be continued for new-generation DES.
at least 4 weeks.
Continuation or discontinuation of aspirin in patients previously treated

with aspirin may be considered in the peri-operative period, and should be
based on an individual decision that depends on the peri-operative bleeding
risk weighed against the risk of thrombotic complications (see also Table 8).
Surgery
a
Treatment should be initiated optimally between 30 days and at least 2 days before surgery and should be continued postoperatively aiming at target resting heart rate of 60–70
beats per minute and systolic blood pressure >100 mmHg.
b
For strategy of anaesthesia and perioperative monitoring see appropriate sections.
ACEI = angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor; CABG = coronary artery bypass graft; DES = drug-eluting stent ECG = electrocardiogram; IHD = ischaemic heart disease;
MET = metabolic equivalent.
Figure 3 Summary of pre-operative cardiac risk evaluation and perioperative management.

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Table 8 Summary of pre-operative cardiac risk evaluation and peri-operative management
ACE ¼ angiotensin converting enzyme; BNP ¼ brain natriuretic peptide; ECG ¼ electrocardiogram; IHD ¼ ischaemic heart disease; LV ¼ left ventricular. Hatched areas: treatment
options should be considered by a multidisciplinary Expert Team.
a
Type of surgery (Table 3): risk of myocardial infarction and cardiac death within 30 days of surgery.
b
Clinical risk factors presented in Table 4.
c
In patients without signs and symptoms of cardiac disease or ECG abnormalities.
d
Non-invasive testing, not only for revascularization, but also for patient counselling, change of peri-operative management in relation to type of surgery, and anaesthesia technique.
e
Initiation of medical therapy, but in the case of emergency surgery, continuation of current medical therapy.
f
Treatment should be initiated ideally less than 30 days and at least 2 days before surgery and should be continued post-operatively, aiming at a target heart rate of 60 –70 beats per
minute and systolic blood pressure .100 mm Hg.
g
Unstable cardiac conditions presented in Table 9. Recommendations are based on current guidelines, recommending assessment of LV function and ECG in these conditions.
h
In the presence of heart failure and systolic LV dysfunction (treatment should be initiated at least 1 week before surgery).
i
In patients with known IHD or myocardial ischaemia.
j
In patients undergoing vascular surgery.
k
Evaluation of LV function with echocardiography and assessment of BNP are recommended in patients with established or suspected HF before intermediate- or high-risk surgery in
patients with established or suspected HF (I A).
l
In the presence of American Society of Anesthesiologists class ≥3 or revised cardiac risk index ≥2.
m
Aspirin should be continued after stent implantation (for 4 weeks after BMS and 3– 12 months after DES implantation).
Step 6. In patients scheduled for high-risk surgery, consider stress-induced ischaemia (as assessed by non-invasive testing),
non-invasive testing in patients with more than two clinical risk individualized perioperative management is recommended,
factors (Table 4). Non-invasive testing can also be considered taking into consideration the potential benefit of the proposed
before any surgical procedure for patient counselling, or change of surgical procedure, weighed against the predicted adverse
perioperative management in relation to type of surgery and anaes- outcome. Also, the effect of medical therapy and/or coronary
thesia technique. Risk factors can be identified and medical therapy revascularization must be assessed, not only for immediate post-
optimized as in Step 3. operative outcome, but also for long-term follow-up. In
Step 7. Interpretation of non-invasive stress test results: patients referred for percutaneous coronary artery intervention,
patients without stress-induced ischaemia—or with mild-to- the initiation and duration of anti-platelet therapy will
moderate ischaemia suggestive of one- or two-vessel disease—can interfere with the planned surgical procedure (see sections 4.2
proceed to the planned surgical procedure. In patients with extensive and 4.4).

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ology, Hana Skalicka – Denmark, Danish Society of Cardiology,

Table 9 Unstable cardiac conditions Lone Due Vestergaard – Estonia, Estonian Society of Cardiology,
Margus Viigimaa – Finland, Finnish Cardiac Society, Kai Lindgren
– France, French Society of Cardiology, Gérald Vanzetto –
Georgia, Georgian Society of Cardiology, Zurab Pagava –
Germany, German Cardiac Society, Malte Kelm – Greece, Hellen-
ic Cardiological Society, Costas Thomopoulos – Hungary, Hungar-
ian Society of Cardiology, Robert Gabor Kiss – Iceland, Icelandic
Society of Cardiology, Karl Andersen – Israel, Israel Heart
Society, Zvi Vered – Italy, Italian Federation of Cardiology, Fran-
a
cesco Romeo – Kyrgyzstan, Kyrgyz Society of Cardiology, Erkin
Myocardial infarction within past 30 days, according to the universal definition49
Mirrakhimov – Latvia, Latvian Society of Cardiology, Gustavs Lat-
kovskis – Lebanon, Lebanese Society of Cardiology, Georges
Saade – Libya, Libyan Cardiac Society, Hisham A. Ben Lamin –
Lithuania, Lithuanian Society of Cardiology, Germanas Marinskis
10. Appendix – Malta, Maltese Cardiac Society, Mark Sammut – Poland, Polish
Cardiac Society, Janina Stepinska – Portugal, Portuguese Society of
ESC National Cardiac Societies actively involved in the Cardiology, João Manuel Pereira Coutinho – Romania, Romanian
review process of the 2014 ESC/ESA Guidelines on Society of Cardiology, Ioan Mircea Coman – Russia, Russian
non-cardiac surgery: cardiovascular assessment and Society of Cardiology, Dmitry Duplyakov – Serbia, Cardiology
management Society of Serbia, Marina Deljanin Ilic – Slovakia, Slovak Society of
Cardiology, Juraj Dúbrava – Spain, Spanish Society of Cardiology,
Austria, Austrian Society of Cardiology, Bernhard Metzler – Vicente Bertomeu – Sweden, Swedish Society of Cardiology, Chris-
Azerbaijan, Azerbaijan Society of Cardiology, Rahima Gabulova tina Christersson – The Former Yugoslav Republic of
– Belarus, Belorussian Scientific Society of Cardiologists, Alena Kur- Macedonia, Macedonian FYR Society of Cardiology, Marija Vavlukis
lianskaya – Belgium, Belgian Society of Cardiology, Marc J Claeys – – Tunisia, Tunisian Society of Cardiology and Cardio-Vascular
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Association of Cardiologists of Bosnia & Surgery, Abdallah Mahdhaoui – Turkey, Turkish Society of Cardi-
Herzegovina, Ibrahim Terzić – Bulgaria, Bulgarian Society of Cardi- ology, Dilek Ural – Ukraine, Ukrainian Association of Cardiology,
ology, Assen Goudev – Cyprus, Cyprus Society of Cardiology, Alexander Parkhomenko – United Kingdom, British Cardiovascu-
Petros Agathangelou – Czech Republic, Czech Society of Cardi- lar Society, Andrew Archbold.
The CME text ‘2014 ESC Guidelines on non-cardiac surgery: cardiovascular assessment and management’ is accredited by the European Board for Accreditation in Cardiology (EBAC). EBAC
works according to the quality standards of the European Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education (EACCME), which is an institution of the European Union of Medical
Specialists (UEMS). In compliance with EBAC/EACCME Guidelines, all authors participating in this programme have disclosed any potential conflicts of interest that might cause a bias in
the article. The Organizing Committee is responsible for ensuring that all potential conflicts of interest relevant to the programme are declared to the participants prior to the CME activities.
CME questions for this article are available at: European Heart Journal http://www.oxforde-learning.com/eurheartj and European Society of Cardiology http://www.escardio.
org/guidelines.
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2014 ESC/ESA Guidelines On Non-Cardiac Surgery: Cardiovascular Assessment and Management

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European Heart Journal (2014) 35, 2383–2431 ESC/ESA GUIDELINES

2014 ESC/ESA Guidelines on non-cardiac surgery:

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Online publish-ahead-of-print 1 August 2014

6.4 Disturbed glucose metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2418 ECG electrocardiography/electrocardiographically/electro-

recommendation of particular management options were

Table 1 Classes of recommendations

Class I Evidence and/or general agreement Is recommended/is

Class IIa Weight of evidence/opinion is in Should be considered

Class IIb May be considered

Class III Evidence or general agreement that Is not recommended

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Consensus of opinion of the experts and/

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Table 3 Surgical risk estimate according to type of surgery or interventiona,b

CAS ¼ carotid artery stenting; CEA ¼ carotid endarterectomy.

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periprocedural myocardial infarction and cranial nerve palsy, the

vascular resistance impairing cardiac function.26,27 Therefore, com-

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and then extended, if indicated, to resting electrocardiography

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myocardial infarction (http://www.mdcalc.com/revised-cardiac-risk-

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detected during stress and at rest.66 Its accuracy in assessment

3.7 Invasive coronary angiography 4. Risk-reduction strategies

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non-cardiac surgery. All-cause post-operative mortality was not

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Table 6 Pharmacological features of non-vitamin K antagonist oral anticoagulants

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5.2 Arterial hypertension Recommendations on arterial hypertension

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5.3.3 Mitral stenosis Recommendations on VHD

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5.4.3 Perioperative bradyarrhythmias Recommendations on supraventricular arrhythmias

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Table 7 Summary of definitions of acute kidney injury

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(regional vs. neuraxial vs. general anaesthesia), prevention and treat-

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monitor before induction of anaesthesia or institution of a regional 6.2 Transoesophageal echocardiography

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