II.

Ideal – fluid flow

● Ideal fluids are
● Inviscid
● Incompressible
● The only ones decently understood mathematically
● Governing equations
∇⋅u=0
Continuity

∂u 1
+( u⋅∇ ) u=− ρ ∇ p+ f
∂t Euler
Boundary conditions Normal to surface
Free-slip
u⋅n=U⋅n (velocity is parallel
to surface)
Velocity of surface

Potential flow (special case)

u =  (u = /x, v = /y, w = /z)
Potential flow is irrotational
Continuity equation for potential flow
  = 0
2

Continuity equation (with boundary conditions)

can be solved alone for velocity
Then plug  into momentum equation (Bernoulli
form) to solve for pressure
4. 2D potential flows
4.1. Stream function
● 2D ideal continuity equation
∂u ∂ v
+ =0
∂x ∂ y
●
Velocity potential 
∂φ ∂φ
u= , v=
∂x ∂y
●
Introduce streamfunction  (counterpart of
potential) so that
∂ψ ∂ψ
u= , v=−
∂y ∂x
Streamfunction satisfies continuity equation by
construction
2 2
∂ ψ ∂ ψ
− =0
∂x∂ y ∂ y∂ x
Streamfunction exists for any ideal 2D flow
Before going further, consider vorticity in 2D flow

[ ]
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
ω=∇ ×u=det
∂x ∂y ∂z
u v w
Streamfunction satisfies continuity equation by
construction
2 2
∂ ψ ∂ ψ
− =0
∂x∂ y ∂ y∂ x
Streamfunction exists for any ideal 2D flow
Before going further, consider vorticity in 2D flow

[ ]
i j k
∂ ∂ 0
ω=∇ ×u=det
∂x ∂y
u v 0
Vorticity in 2D flow For 2D,
effectively
a scalar

ω=k
∂v ∂u
−
∂x ∂y(=k ω
)
Now consider an irrotational 2D flow
∂v ∂u
ω= − =0
∂x ∂y
Express velocity in terms of streamfunction

ω=
∂
∂x
−
( ) ( )
∂ψ
∂x
−
∂ ∂ψ
∂y ∂y
=0

2
∇ ψ=0
Properties of streamfunction

●
Streamlines are lines of  = const
●
Difference in the value of  between two
streamlines equals the volume of fluid flowing
between them
●
Streamlines  = const and potential lines
 = const are orthogonal at every point in the
flow
Why  = const is a streamline

ds
dy dx

d ψ=
dψ
ds
ds=
(
∂ψ ∂ x ∂ψ ∂ y
+
∂ x ∂s ∂ y ∂s )
ds=−v dx+u dy

dy dx
d ψ=0 means v dx=u dy ; =
v u
Streamline
equation!
Flow rate between two streamlines
 =1 Direction along AB:
B ds = (dx,dy)
ds
v u
dn u
Direction normal to AB:
 =2 dn = (dy,-dx)
A
Volume flow rate
B B B B
Q=∫A u⋅n ds=∫A u⋅d n=∫ A u dy−∫A v dx
B
Q=∫A d ψ=ψ1−ψ2
Orthogonality between streamlines and potential
lines
Along a streamline d ψ=−v dx+u dy=0

Along an isopotential line ( = const)...

∂φ ∂φ
d φ= dx+ dy=u dx+v dy=0
∂x ∂y

Normal to streamline: (-v, u)

Normal to isopotential line: (u, v)
They are orthogonal: (-v, u)(u, v)  0
4.2. Complex potential and velocity

● Complex variable z = x+iy

● Function of a complex variable
F(z) =  (x,y) + i  (x,y)
● Cauchy-Riemann condition for function of a
complex variable to be holomorphic*
∂φ ∂ ψ ∂φ ∂ψ
= ; =− ;
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Holomorphic function – complex-valued function of a complex
variable which is differentiable in a neighborhood of every point
within its domain
Complex potential constructed from velocity
potential and streamfunction
F(z) =  (x,y) + i  (x,y)
Cauchy-Riemann condition satisfied by
construction
Advantages of using complex potential
●
If  and  are the real and imaginary parts of
any holomorphic function, 2 = 0 and 2 = 0
automatically
● Complex velocity w = dF/dz = u - iv – directly
related to flow velocity
Magnitude of complex velocity
w*w = (u + iv)(u – iv) = u2+v2 = uu = 

Polar coordinates in complex plane

y
x + iy = r (cos  + i sin ) = rei
u = ur cos  - u sin 
eq
er

v = ur sin  + u cos 

r
x
q
w = (ur - iu) e-i
4.3. Uniform flow
−i α
F (z )=C e z
dF −i α
w (z )= =C e =C cos α−iC sin α
dz
u=C cos α , v=C sin α
y

x
4.4. Source, sink, and vortex
iθ
F (z )=C log z=C log (r e )=C (log r+i θ)
First, let C be real and positive
φ=C log r , ψ=C θ
dF C C −i θ
y w (z )= = = e
dz z r
C
u r= , uθ =0
x r

Source at z = 0
Source strength (discharge rate)
2π 2π
m=∫0 u r r d θ=∫0 C d θ=2 πC
Complex potential of a source of strength m at
z = z0
m
F ( z )= log(z −z 0)
2π
Complex potential of a sink of strength m at z = z0
m
y F ( z )=− log ( z−z 0 )
2π
x
Now consider a purely imaginary constant in the
logarithmic potential:
iθ
F (z )=−iC log z =−iC log (r e )=−iC log r+C θ
φ=C θ , ψ=−C log r
dF C C −i θ
w (z )= =−i =−i e
y
dz z r
C
u r=0, u θ=
r
x Point vortex
Vortex strength (circulation)
2π
Γ=∮ u⋅d l =∫0 u θ r d θ=2 π C
L
Complex potential of a vortex with circulation G at
z = z0
F ( z )=−i Γ log (z−z 0 )
2π
Note 1. z = z0 is a singularity (uq  )
Note 2. This flow field is called a free vortex:

Γ L' =∮ u⋅d l ≡0
L' Any contour not
including z0
4.5. Flow in a sector
n
F (z )=U z , n⩾1
Abraham de Moivre's formula

Abraham de Moivre
1667-1754
Author of The Doctrine of Chances
4.5. Flow in a sector
n
F (z )=U z , n⩾1
Abraham de Moivre's formula
inθ n
e =( cos θ+i sin θ ) =cos (n θ)+i sin(n θ)

Use polar coordinates

iθ
z=r e
n n
F (z )=U r cos(nθ)+i U r sin (n θ)
Potential and stream function
n n
φ=U r cos (n θ) , ψ=U r sin( n θ)
Complex velocity
n−1 n−1 i(n−1)θ
w (z )=nUz =n U r e =
=( n U r cos n θ+i nU r sin n θ ) e
n−1 n−1 −i θ

Velocity components
n−1
u r=n U r cos n θ
n−1
u θ=−n U r sin n θ
n = 1: uniform flow
n = 2: flow in a
right-angle corner
q=p/n
n = 3: shown
4.6. Flow around a sharp edge
1 /2 1 /2 i θ /2
F (z )=C z =C r e
Potential and streamfunction
φ=C r 1 /2 θ 1/ 2
cos , ψ=C r sin θ
2 2
Complex velocity
dF 1 −1 / 2 C −iθ / 2
w (z )= = C z = 1 /2 e =
dz 2 2r
C −iθ i θ/ 2 C θ θ
2r 2r (
= 1 /2 e e = 1 /2 cos +i sin e
2 2)−i θ

C θ C θ
u r= 1/ 2 cos , u θ=− 1 /2 sin
2r 2 2r 2
 y

Singularity

 = 0, q = 0 x
 = 0, q = 2p

C θ C θ
u r= 1/ 2 cos , u θ=− 1 /2 sin
2r 2 2r 2
4.7. Doublet
y

Source at x = -e Sink at x = +e

Now let e  0

Complex potential of source and sink
m m
F (z )= log(z +ε)− log ( z−ε)
2π 2π
m z+ε m 1+ε/ z
F (z )= log = log
2π z−ε 2 π 1−ε/ z
For small /z, expand denominator into series:
−1
(1−ε/ z) =1+ε/ z+…
Plug that into F(z)
m
F (z )= log ( ( 1+ε /z )( 1+ε/ z+…) )
2π
m ε
F (z )=
2π (
log 1+2 +…
z )
Use series expansion for logarithm near 1
m ε m ε
F (z )=
2π (
log 1+2 +… =
z )
2 +…
2π z ( )
If we take the limit of this as   0, the result will
be trivial: F(z) = 0
For a non-trivial result, let lim mε=πμ
ε →0
Then
μ μ x−iy x−iy
lim F (z)= = =μ =μ 2 2
ε →0 z x+iy (x+iy)(x−iy) x +y
x y
φ=μ 2 2 , ψ=−μ 2 2
x +y x +y
Consider a streamline  = const
y
ψ=−μ 2 2
x +y
2 2
ψ( x + y )=−μ y
2 2 μ
x + y + ψ y=0
2 2
μ μ μ
2 2
x + y + ψ y+
( ) ( )
2ψ
=
2ψ
2 2
μ μ
2
( 2ψ) ( 2ψ)
x + y+ =

Circle of radius m/(2y) and center at x = 0, y = -m/(2y)

y

x
 μ μ −2i θ μ −iθ
w (z )=− 2 =− 2 e =− 2 e (cos θ−i sin θ)
z r r
μ
y u r=− 2 cos θ
r
μ
u θ=− 2 sin θ
r
x
Doublet of strength m at z = z0
μ
F (z )=
z−z 0
4.8. Circular cylinder flow
Let uniform flow go past a doublet
μ
F ( z )=Uz+
z
Potential and stream function
μ μ μ
iθ
( )
F (z )=Ure + i θ = Ur+ cos θ+i Ur− sin θ
re r r ( )
Potential Stream function

Consider streamline y = 0

Ur = m/r means that this streamline is a circle of
1/2
radius a = (m/U)
Can rewrite complex potential as

( )
2
a
F ( z )=U z+
z
z → ∞ , F (z)→ U z
Uniform flow dominates the far field
2
a
z → 0, F ( z )→U
z
Doublet dominates the flow near the origin
 Singularity at origin
Velocity=0
Velocity=0
(rear
(forward
stagnation
stagnation
point)
point)

Flow symmetry: F(-z) = -F(z)

4.9. Cylinder with circulation
Take cylinder flow, add rotation around the origin

( )
2
a iΓ
F (z )=U z+ + log z+C
z 2π Constant to
Vortex at origin keep y = 0 at r = a

Pretty easy to find C, tuck it into the logarithm

( )
2
a iΓ z
F (z )=U z+ + log
z 2π a
Complex velocity

( )
2
dF a iΓ 1
w= =U 1− 2 +
dz z 2π z
 ( ) ( )
2 2
a iΓ 1 a −2 i θ i Γ 1 −iθ
w=U 1− 2 + =U 1− 2 e + e
z 2π z r 2π r

[( ) ]
2
a −i θ i Γ 1 −i θ
iθ
w= U e − 2 e + e
r 2π r

[( ) (( ) )]
2 2
a a Γ −i θ
w= U 1− 2 cos θ+i U 1+ 2 sin θ+ e
r r 2πr

Remember that w = (ur-iuq)e-iq

( ) ( )
2 2
a a Γ
u r=U 1− 2 cos θ , uθ =−U 1+ 2 sin θ−
r r 2π r
On the surface (r = a),
Γ
u r=0, u θ=−2 U sin θ−
Boundary! 2πa
Find stagnation points (velocity = 0, r = a)

sin θs =− Γ
4 πU a
Possibilities:
2 stagnation points on the cylinder
1 stagnation point on the cylinder
0 stagnation points on the cylinder (but maybe
somewhere else in the flow?)
Two stagnation points

0< Γ <1
4 πUa

One stagnation point

Γ =1
4 π Ua
No stagnation points on the cylinder
Γ >1
4 π Ua
Look for stagnation point (rs, qs) elsewhere (for
rs > a) Cannot
be 0 Must be 0!

( )
2
a
u r=U 1− 2 cos θs =0,
rs

( )
2
a Γ
u θ=−U 1+ 2 sin θ s− =0
rs 2πrs
cos qs = 0 means qs = p/2 or qs = 3p/2

( )
2
a Γ
U 1+ 2 sin θ s=−
rs 2 π rs
positive negative

Must be
-1, so qs = 3p/2

( )
2
a Γ
U 1+ 2 =
rs 2π rs
Solve this for rs
 √(
2
r s= Γ ± Γ
4πU 4πU )
−a2

Two stagnation points

- inside the cylinder (so who cares?)
+ outside the cylinder (good stuff)
4.10. Blasius integral laws

● Find potential
● Find velocity components
● Plug velocity into Bernoulli equation to find
pressure on body surface
● Integrate to find
● Hydrodynamic force on the body
● Hydrodynamic moment on the body
● MUCH simpler with complex potential!
Any contour fully enclosing the body

C0 Body of an arbitrary shape

Surface: streamline y = 0

Complex force:
Y FFororcece X - iY
y c.g.
M X

Blasius first law Blasius second law

ρ ρ
( ∮zw )
2
X −iY =i ∮ w dz
2
M= ℜ dz
2C 0
2 C0
Evaluating complex integrals
Taylor series (real variable)
(n)
∞
f ( x 0)
f ( x−x 0)=∑ a n ( x−x 0 ) , a n=
n

n=0 n!
This expansion is valid in an interval |x - x0| < dx
Evaluating complex integrals
Laurent series (complex variable)
∞
f ( z−z 0 )= ∑ a n ( z−z 0 ) ,
n

n=−∞
1
a n= ∮
2π i C
f (ζ )( ζ−z 0)−n−1
dζ

This expansion is valid in an annulus where f is

holomorphic: R1 < |z - z0| < R2
C
If R1 = 0, z0 – isolated singularity
 z0
Coefficient a-1 of Laurent series:
residue of f at z0
Cauchy theorem
If complex function f(z) is holomorphic
everywhere inside contour C,

∮ f (z)dz=0
C

Cauchy residue theorem

If complex function f(z) is holomorphic
everywhere inside contour C, except isolated
singularities,
∮ f (z)dz=2iπ ∑ a−1, k
C k
Example
ez – holomorphic everywhere in a disk of radius r
with center at z = 0
2 3
z z z
e =1+z+ + +…
2 6
ez/z – holomorphic everywhere in a disk of radius r
with center at z = 0, except at it center
z 2
e 1 z z
= +1+ + +…
z z 2 6
a-1=1

Note. a-m  0, a-m-k  0, k = 1,2, ... at z = z0 –

z0 is a pole of order m
4.11. Force and moment on a circular
cylinder
Complex potential

( )
2
a iΓ z
F (z )=U z+ + log
z 2π a
Complex velocity

( )
2
dF a iΓ
w= =U 1− 2 +
dz z 2πz
Blasius first law
ρ
X −iY =i ∮ w dz
2
2C 0
 2 2 2 4 2
2 2U a U a i U Γ i U Γ a
2 Γ 2
w =U − + 4 + − − 2 2
z 2
z πz πz 3
4π z
0 -2 -4 -1 -3 -2
Term order in z
iU Γ
a−1= π

z = 0 – sole isolated singularity of w2, thus

iU Γ
X −iY =2iπ ∑ a−1,k =2iπ π =−iρ U Γ
k
X = 0 (D'Alembert's paradox)
Y = rUG (Zhukovsky-Kutta law)

Similar analysis for zw2 produces M = 0

4.12. Conformal transformations
Helps deal with boundaries
z = x+iy y z = x+ih h

x x
z = f(z)

It's only good if the Laplace equation is also

transformed into something nice...
● Consider f – holomorphic function mapping (x,y)
into (x,h)
●
In (x,y) plane, let 2(x,y) = 0
●
Then in (x,h) plane, 2(x,h) = 0
(proof: p. 93)
● Laplace equation is preserved by conformal
mapping
● What happens with complex velocity?
dF dF ( ζ) d ζ d ζ
w (z )= = = w( ζ)
dz d ζ dz dz
Velocity scales during conformal mapping
Let's prove that conformal mapping preserves
sources, sinks, etc.
C Γ=∮ u⋅dl =∮ ( u dx+v dy )
C C

Circulation of all
point vortices inside
C
dy dl
dx
m=∮ u⋅dn=∮ ( u dy−v dx )
C C
Strength of all
sources/sinks inside
C
 ∮ w( z ) dz=
C

=∮ ( u−iv )( dx+idy )=∮ ( u dx+v dy )+i ∮ ( udy−vdx )=

C C C
=Γ+i m
Could have proven the same with residue
theorem...
Now consider a conformal mapping (x,y)  (x,h)
( Γ+i m )∣z =∮ w(z )dz=
dζ
C∣z
=∮ w(ζ) dz =
C∣
dz
=∮ w(ζ) d ζ=( Γ+i m )∣ζ
z

C ∣ζ
Conformal mapping preserves strength of
sources, sinks, and vortices
4.13. Zhukovsky transformation
2
c
z=ζ+
ζ
∣ζ∣→ ∞ , z → ζ
2
dz c
=1− 2
dζ ζ
z = 0: singularity (let's contain it Nikolai Egorovich
Zhukovsky
inside the body) (1847-1921)
“Man will fly using the
dz power of his intellect
ζ=±c , =0 rather than the strength
dζ of his arms.”

z = c: critical points (angle not preserved)

Critical points of Zhukovsky transform
z = x+iy z = x+ih h
y z0
z0

q2 q1 x n2 n1 x
-2c +2c -c +c

2
c
ζ=±c z=±c+ =±2c
±c
Can prove: q1 - q2 = 2 (n1 - n2)
A smooth curve passing through z = c will
correspond to a curve with a cusp in z-plane
Example: z = cein
z = x+iy z = x+ih h
y

x x
-2c +2c -c +c

2
c
z=ce + i ν =c ( e +e ) =2c cos ν
iν iν −i ν

ce
Zhukovsky transform recipe. Start with flow
around a cylinder in z-plane, map to something
4.14. Flow around ellipses
Circle in z-plane, radius a > c, center at origin
iν
ζ=a e

( ) ( )
2 2 2
c −i ν
iν c c
z=a e + e = a+ cos ν+i a− sin ν
a a a
Major semiaxis Minor semiaxis
Parametric equation of an ellipse
z = x+iy z = x+ih h
y

x x
-2c +2c -c +c
Flow past a cylinder

( )
2
a
F ( z )=U z+
z
Now consider freestream flow at an angle
Can get this by conformal
mapping too (in plane z':
x'
z = eiaz' - rotation)
y'

Correspondingly,
z' = e-iaz
In plane z'

( )
2
a
F (z ')=U z ' +
z'

( ) ( )
2 2
−i α a −i α a iα
F =U z e + −i α =U z e + e
ze z
Let's have this flow in z-plane:

( )
2
−i α a iα
F (ζ)=U ζ e + e
ζ
Now recall that
2
c
z=ζ+
ζ
Express z in terms of z:
2 2
ζ +c −ζ z =0

(√ )
2
z z 2
ζ= ± −c
2 2
Recall that for z  , z  z. Thus select

(√ )
2
z z 2
ζ= + −c
2 2
Plug this into F(z) to get F(z)... (skip derivation)
 [ ( )( √( ) )]
2 2
−i α a i α −i α z z 2
F ( z )=U ze + 2 e −e − −c
c 2 2

Uniform flow at angle a approaching an ellipse

with major semiaxis a + c2/a and minor semiaxis
a - c2/a
a

Stagnation points: z =aeia

Stagnation points in z-plane...
2
c −i α
iα
z=±ae ± e
a

a
 ( ) ( )
2 2
c c
z=± a+ cos α±i a− sin α
a a

( )
2
c
x=± a+ cos α
a

( )
2
c
y=± a− sin α
a
- forward stagnation point
+ downstream stagnation point
a = 0: horizontal flow approaching horizontal
ellipse
a = p/2: vertical flow, horizontal ellipse (or
horizontal flow, vertical ellipse)
4.15. Kutta condition and the flat-plate airfoil

Martin Wilhelm Kutta

(1867-1944)
4.15. Zhukovsky-Chaplygin postulate and
the flat-plate airfoil

Sergey Chaplygin
(1869-1942),
Hero of Socialist Labour
(1 February 1941)
4.15. Zhukovsky-Chaplygin postulate and
the flat-plate airfoil
Flow around a sharp edge (section 4.6)...
1 /2
F (z )=C z
dF C
w (z )= = 1/2
dz 2 z
z = 0: singularity

● At a sharp edge, velocity goes to infinity

4.15. Zhukovsky-Chaplygin postulate and
the flat-plate airfoil
Flow around a sharp edge (section 4.6)...
1 /2
F (z )=C z
dF C
w (z )= = 1/2
dz 2 z
z = 0: singularity

● At a sharp edge, velocity goes to infinity

● This is not the case in experiment, luckily
● Need a fix for theory near sharp edges
● That's not the only problem though...
 2
c
z=ζ+
ζ
z = x+iy z = x+ih

r = c

a a

Herein lies
the problem!
 Stagnation point is ALWAYS
at the trailing sharp edge!

Smoke visualization of wind tunnel flow past a lifting surface

Alexander Lippisch, 1953
Zhukovsky-Chaplygin postulate:
For bodies with sharp trailing edges at modest
angles of attack to the freestream, the rear
stagnation point will stay at the trailing edge

Dealing with trailing-edge singularity

In modeling real lifting surfaces, trailing edge has
sharp but finite curvature
How to “fix” the flat-plate flow?
z = x+ih

Angle of attack
 Add circulation...
z = x+iy z = x+ih

...to move the

stagnation point to the
trailing edge!
We want to move the rear stagnation point to
z = 2c
That would correspond to z = c in the z-plane
Need to move it there from z = ceia
For cylinder flow with circulation...
sin θs =− Γ
4 πU a
If sin qs = - sin a,
Γ=4 π U a sin α
Recipe for constructing a complex potential for
corrected flat-plate flow (Eq. 4.22b)
● Cylinder flow
●
Add circulation G = 4p a U sin a
●
Rotate the plane a degrees counterclockwise
● Zhukovsky transform
● ???
● Profit!
Lift on a flat-plate airfoil extending from -2a to 2a

Blasius law for cylinder flow:

Y =ρ U Γ
In our case
2
Y =4 π ρU a sin α
Introduce dimensionless lift coefficient
Y
C L=
1 2
wing ρU l
2
chord Characteristic length scale
(for wings – chord length)

For our flat plate, l = 4a and

C L =2π sin α

At small angles of attack, lift coefficient on a flat

plate increases with angle of attack!
4.16. Symmetrical Zhukovsky airfoil
Goal: airfoil with sharp trailing edge and blunt
leading edge
z = x+iy z = x+ih h
y

r = a = c(1 + e)

x x
l
t
-2c +2c -c +c

Center:
-m = -ec
-(c + 2m)
small
Leading edge in z-plane: -(c + 2m)
In z-plane, the leading edge is...
c 2
z=−c (1+2ε)− =−2c+O(ε )≈−2c
1+2 ε
Chord length l = 4c
Similarly (more series expansions, linearization)
thickness t 3 √3
t =3 √ 3c ε , = ε
l 4
Thickness ratio

Maximum thickness occurs at x = -c

Extra Flugzeugbau EA300, 1987, Walter
Extra design, Zhukovsky wing profile
Can find e in z-plane from desired l and t in z-
plane:
4 t t
ε= ≈0.77
3 √3 l l
Equation for symmetric Zhukovsky profile in z-
plane

)√ ( )
2
y
l
=±
2
3√3 (
1−2
x
l
1− 2
x
l

At zero angle of attack, stagnation point is at

trailing edge, lift = 0
Add angle of attack a...
To satisfy the Zhukovsky/Kutta/whatever
condition...
z = x+ih

Need to move this

r = a stagnation point...
x

...here!
a

For a cylinder of radius a, the needed amount of

circulation is (same as for flat plate...)
G = 4p a U sin a
Express radius a in terms of l and t...
l
a=c+m=c (1+ε)= 1+
4
4 t
3 √3 l ( )
For an angle of attack a, circulation we need to
add is...

Γ=4 π U a sin α=π U l 1+

(
4 t
3√3 l
sin α
)
Lift coefficient for symmetrical Zhukovsky airfoil

( t
C L ≈2 π 1+0.77 sin α
l )
t  0, this reduces to lift coefficient of flat plate
Zhukovsky symmetrical profile has better lift!
 4.17. Arc airfoil
Airfoil of zero thickness but finite curvature
Use cosine theorem to z = x+ih h

get r a
2 2 2 π
a =r +m −2 r m cos −ν
( )

r
x

m
n
2 -c +c
In z-plane,
2
c −i ν
iν
z=r e + e =
r
x y

( ) ( )
2 2
c c
= r+ cos ν+i r− sin ν
r r
 ( ) ( )
4 4
2 c 2 2 22 2 2 c 2
x = r +2c + 2 cos ν , y = r −2c + 2 sin ν
r r
2
 sin n 2
 cos n

( )
4
2 2 2 c 2 22 2 2
r cos ν sin ν=x sin ν− 2 c + 2 cos ν sin ν
r
=

( )
4
2 2 2 c 2 2 2 2 2
r cos ν sin ν= y cos ν+ 2c − 2 cos ν sin ν
r
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x sin ν− y cos ν=4c cos ν sin ν
Use cosine theorem:

( )
2 2 2
r −c c 1 y
sin ν= = r− =
2 rm r 2 m 2 msin ν
y cannot be 2 y 2 y
sin ν= , cos ν=1−
negative!!! 2m 2m
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x sin ν− y cos ν=4c cos ν sin ν

x
2 y
2m
2
− y 1−
2
(
y
2m
2
)
=4 c
2
2 y
2m( 1−
y
2m )
x y 2c 2 y
− y+ = −c 2
2m 2m m m
2 2 2 2 y
x −2 m y+ y =4 c −2 c
m

[ ( )] [ ( ) ]
2 2
2 c m 2 c m
x + y +c − =c 4+ −
m c m c
 [ ( )] [ ( ) ]
2 2
2 c m 2c m
x + y +c − =c 4+ −
m c m c
y⩾0
Equation of an arc in the z-plane
z = x+iy z = x+ih h
y

a
h – will find

r
x

m
x n
-2c +2c -c +c
Otto Lilienthal and his glider, 1895
 [ ( )] [ ( ) ]
2 2
2 c m 2 c m
x + y +c − =c 4+ −
m c m c

Recall that m/c = e, linearize (not essential here

but nice)
2 2

( ) ( )
2
2 c 2 c
x + y+ =c 4+ 2
m m
Find arc height h
Since y = 2m sin2n, ymax = h =2m
Next have to add circulation to put stagnation
point at the trailing edge (trickier, because
cylinder is moved upward in the z-plane)
Stagnation point needs to rotate by a + tan-1(m/c)
Angle of attack Vertical shift

Linearize:
tan-1(m/c)  m/c = e, a  c
Amount of circulation to be added:
m
( )
Γ=4 π U a sin α+ ≈4 πU c sin α+
c
m
c ( )
Lift coefficient:

( )
m
C L =2π U c sin α+ =2 π U c sin α+2
c
h
l ( )
Again, more lift than flat plate!
4. 18. Zhukovsky airfoil

● Know how to create lifting surfaces with:

● Straight chord, finite thickness
● Zero thickness, small finite curvature (camber)
● Both improve lift, compared with flat plate
● Create a lifting surface with both thickness and
camber (Zhukovsky profile)
z = x+ih
h

r
h/2
x
-c +c
0.77 tc/l

l – chord
t – max. thickness
h – max. camber
z = x+iy
y

x
t
h
-2c +2c
l
Maxim Gorky (ANT-20, PS-124) plane, 1935
Circulation

( t
Γ=π U l 1+0.77 sin α+
l
thick
) (
2h
l
cam
)
ness ber
Lift coefficient

( t
C L =2π 1+0.77 sin α+
l ) (
2h
l )
Kalinin K-7 (Russia, 1930)
Dornier X flying boat (Germany, 1929)