BGHiggins/UCDavis/March_2018

Momentum and Thermal Boundary

Layers
Application of the von Kármán-Pohlhausen Method
Background
Two dimensional flow over a flat plate is used in various undergraduate heat transfer classes to illus-
trate key concepts in force convection heat transfer. If the Reynolds number ℝe ( = ρ U∞ x /μ) for the
flow is below 3 x 105 , the flow can be considered laminar. In these note we will consider laminar flow
over a flat solid surface but at high Reynolds number. The assumption is that the flow in the neighbor-
hood of the body (or surface) can be described by the boundary layer equations in Cartesian coordi-
nates. For simplicity, we assume the flow is incompressible, steady, and two-dimensional. The relevant
boundary layer equations are then (Schlichting(1968)):
∂u ∂v
Continuity : + = 0, 0 < y < δ (x)
∂x ∂y

∂u ∂u 1 ∂p ∂2 u
x - Momentum : u +v =- +ν , 0 < y < δ (x)
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂y2
(1)
1 ∂p
y - Momentum : 0=- , 0 < y < δ (x)
ρ ∂y

∂T ∂T ∂2 T
Thermal Energy Balance : u +v =α , x > 0, 0 < y < δT (x)
∂x ∂y ∂y2
where δ(x) is the momentum boundary layer thickness at position x along the body. Outside the
boundary layer, i.e., y >δ(x), the free stream flow is assumed to be inviscid and can be described by
U(x). The thermal boundary layer is characterized by a thermal boundary layer δT (x) along the body.
Depending on the Prandtl number, δ(x) may be larger or smaller than δT (x). In this study we will
assume that the Prandtl number is greater than unity so that δT (x) << δ (x). That is the thermal bound-
ary layer is contained within the momentum boundary layer. Further, in the thermal boundary layer,
we will assume that viscous dissipation effects are negligible, as are buoyancy effects. Thus the fluid is
taken to be incompressible.
Although the thermal energy equation is linear in the temperature variable, it has variable coefficients
which are unknown at the outset. Thus the nonlinear boundary layer equations must be solve first. In
2 ��� VonKarman-PohlhausenMethod1.nb

this study we will illustrate how these complex equations can be solved using the Pohlhausen integral
approach. The strategy is to reformulate the differential equations as integral equations in terms of the
unknown velocity and temperature fields. We then select a trial velocity/temperature fields so as to
reduce the integral equations to simple ODEs for the momentum and thermal boundary layer thick-
nesses δ(x) and δT (x) respectively, see Eqns (23) and (67) below. Where possible we compare the
results with known exact solutions.

Analysis
It follows from the y-momentum equation that p=p(x), and noting that we can describe the inviscid
flow outside that boundary by the Bernoulli equation:
1
p (x) + ρ U2 (x) = Constant
2
(2)
ⅆp ⅆU
⟹ = -ρ U
ⅆx ⅆx
Thus the flow in the boundary layer is described by
∂u ∂v
Continuity : + = 0, 0 < y < δ (x)
∂x ∂y
(3)
∂u ∂u ⅆU ∂2 u
x - Momentum : u +v =U +ν , 0 < y < δ (x)
∂x ∂y ⅆx ∂y2
Next we integrate the x-momentum equation across the boundary layer
δ (x) ∂u ∂u δ (x) ⅆU δ (x) ∂2 u
 u +v  ⅆy =  U ⅆy + ν  ⅆy (4)
0 ∂x ∂y 0 ⅆx 0 ∂y2
Recall that
∂u ∂ ∂v
v = (u v) - u
∂y ∂y ∂y
But from the continuity equation we can simplify the above express to get
∂u ∂ ∂u
v = (u v) + u (5)
∂y ∂y ∂x
Substituting Eq. (5) into Eq. (4) gives
δ (x) ∂u δ (x) ⅆU δ (x) ∂2 u
 2u ⅆx + {uv}y=δ (x) - (uv)y=0 =  U ⅆy + ν  ⅆy (6)
0 ∂x 0 ⅆx 0 ∂y2
Regrouping terms in Eq. (6) gives
δ (x) ∂ U2 δ (x) ∂2 u
 u2 -  ⅆy = -(uv)y=δ (x) + (uv)y=0 + ν  ⅆy
0 ∂x 2 0 ∂y2
(7)
∂u ∂u
= -(uv)y=δ (x) + ν -ν
∂y y=δ (x) ∂y y=0
 VonKarman-PohlhausenMethod1.nb ��� 3

To proceed further, we integrate the continuity equation across the boundary layer:
δ (x) ∂u ∂v
  +  ⅆy = 0
0 ∂x ∂y
(8)
δ (x) ∂u
⟹ v (x, δ) = -  ⅆy
0 ∂x
where we have assumed that the boundary at y=0 is impervious, i.e., v·n=0, or v(x,0)=0.
The next important assumption concerns conditions on the velocity at the edge of the boundary layer
y=δ(x). We will make the following assumptions:
u (x, δ) = U (x)

(9)
∂u
=0
∂y y=δ (x)

Condition (9a) assumes that the velocity in the stream-wise direction u(x,y) at the edge of the boundary
layer is equal to the inviscid flow outside the boundary layer U(x), i.e., there is no jump discontinuity.
The latter condition (9b) ensures that the boundary layer merges smoothly into the free stream flow
given by U(x).
Thus the RHS of Eq. (7) becomes
∂u ∂u
-(uv)y=δ (x) + ν -ν
∂y y=δ (x) ∂y y=0
∂u
= -U (x) v (x, δ) - ν
∂y y=0
(10)
τ0
= -U (x) v (x, δ) -
ρ
δ (x) ∂u τ0
= U (x)  ⅆy -
0 ∂x ρ
where τ0 = μ(∂u/∂y)y=0 is the shear stress at the surface of the body, and u(x,δ)=U(x). Hence Eq. (7) can
be expressed as
δ (x) ∂ U2 δ (x) ∂u τ0
 u2 -  ⅆy - U (x)  ⅆy = - (11)
0 ∂x 2 0 ∂x ρ
Expanding the LHS of Eq. (11) gives
δ (x) ∂u ⅆU ∂u τ0
 2 u -U -U  ⅆy = - (12)
0 ∂x ⅆx ∂x ρ
But we have the following identity:
∂u ⅆU ∂u ∂ ⅆU
2u -U -U = (u (u - U)) + (u - U)
∂x ⅆx ∂x ∂x ⅆx

∂u ⅆU ⅆu ⅆU ⅆU
=2u -u -U +u -U
∂x ⅆx ⅆx ⅆx ⅆx
4 ��� VonKarman-PohlhausenMethod1.nb

∂u ⅆu ⅆU
=2u -U - U
∂x ⅆx ⅆx
Thus Eq. (11) can be rewritten as
δ (x) ∂ ⅆU δ (x) τ0
 {u (u - U)} ⅆy +  (u - U) ⅆ y = -
0 ∂x ⅆx 0 ρ
(13)
δ (x) ∂ ⅆU δ (x) τ0
⟹  {u (U - u)} ⅆy +  (U - u) ⅆ y =
0 ∂x ⅆx 0 ρ
The quantity
1 ∞
δ1 =  (U - u) ⅆ y (14)
U 0

is called the displacement thickness, and

1 ∞
δ2 =  u (U - u) ⅆy (15)
U2 0

is called the momentum thickness.

The displacement thickness δ1 is a measure of the distance that the external streamlines are displaced
by the boundary layer. We can show this relationship by solving the macroscopic continuity equation.
Consider the following control volume , shown in red. The width of the control volume in the direc-
tion z normal to the plane x-y is taken to be unity.

First, we integrate the continuity equation over the control volume :

 ∇ · v ⅆV = 0 (16)


Next, we use the divergence theorem to write Eq.(16) as

 ∇ · v ⅆV =  v · n ⅆ S = 0 (17)
 

Since v·n=0 along sides 2-3 and 4-1 of the control volume , Eq. (17) becomes
H H+δ1
-  U ⅆy +  u ⅆy = 0 (18)
0 0
 VonKarman-PohlhausenMethod1.nb ��� 5

Integrating and rearranging we get

H+δ1 H+δ1 H+δ1
UH =  u ⅆy =  (U + u - U) ⅆ y = U (H + δ1 ) +  (u - U) ⅆ y (19)
0 0 0

Hence
H+δ1
U δ1 =  (u - U) ⅆ y (20)
0

Solving for the displacement thickness δ1 , we get

1 H+δ1
δ1 =  (u - U) ⅆ y (21)
U 0

Application: Flow over a Flat Plate

Consider boundary layer flow over a flat plate. In that case the free stream velocity U(x) is uniform and
therefore our momentum integral equation (13) becomes
δ (x) ∂ τ0
 {u (U - u)} ⅆy = (22)
0 ∂x ρ
We can use Leibniz rule to take the derivative outside the integral to get
ⅆ δ (x) ⅆδ τ0
 {u (U - u)} ⅆy - {u (U - u)}y=δ (x) =
ⅆx 0 ⅆx ρ
(23)
ⅆ δ (x) τ0
⟹  {u (U - u)} ⅆy =
ⅆx 0 ρ
as u(x,y)=U at y=δ(x). To solve Eq. (23), we will choose a trial velocity profile in the stream-wise direc-
tion:
y y 2 y 3
u (x, y) = a (x) + b (x) + c (x) + d (x) +… (24)
δ (x) δ (x) δ (x)
Note that it is not necessary to group the coordinate y with δ(x). It turns out if one does so, the subse-
quent algebra is reduced. The next step is to find the functions a(x), b(x),c(x), d(x), etc., such that
Eq.(24) satisfies the boundary conditions imposed on the flow.

Boundary Conditions
At the solid surface at y=0 we have the no-slip/no penetration condition. Since the Von Karman-
Pohlhausen method reformulates the problem in terms of the stream wise velocity u(x,y), we need
boundary conditions on u(x,y) only. The obvious one is that u(x,y) should satisfy the no-slip condition
on the flat plate:
BC1 : y = 0, u (x, y) = 0 (25)

At the edge of the boundary layer y=δ(x), the velocity in the boundary layer should equal the free-
stream velocity:
BC2 : y = δ (x), u (x, y) = U (26)
6 ��� VonKarman-PohlhausenMethod1.nb

In addition, we require that the velocity in the boundary layer merges smoothly into the free-stream.
Thus
∂u ∂2 u ∂n u
BC3 : y = δ (x), = 0, = 0, …, =0 (27)
∂y ∂y2 ∂yn
There is also an additional equation that we can impose at y=0. Recall for flow over a flat plate, the
governing boundary layer equation is given by
∂u ∂u ∂2 u
u +v =ν (28)
∂x ∂y ∂y2
If we evaluate this equation at y=0, we find that u(x,y) must satisfy
∂2 u
= 0, at y = 0 (29)
∂y2
as u=v=0 at y=0. Note: this is not a true boundary condition, but a constraint on the velocity field.

Example Calculations
In this section we will examine various approximations to the trial velocity profile through the imposed
boundary conditions, and illustrate how such assumptions influence the solution. In each case we will
compute: (i) the boundary layer thickness δ(x), (ii) the displacement thickness δ1 (x), and (iii) the wall
shear stress τ0 (x) and compare the results with the known exact solution for boundary layer flow over a
flat plate.

Case 1:
The simplest candidate for the velocity field is a quadratic function in y/d
y y 2
u1 (x, y) = a (x) + b (x)   + c (x)   (30)
δ δ
The no-slip condition at y=0 implies that a(x)=0 in Eq. (30). BC2 at y=δ(x) implies that
U = b+c (31)

while the requirement that ∂u/∂y=0 at y=δ(x) gives

∂u b 2c
= + =0 (32)
∂y y=δ δ δ

Solving these equations gives

c = -U, b = 2 U (33)

so that the velocity profiles is

y y 2
u1 (x, y) = U2   -    (34)
δ δ
We will use this profile to compute δ(x), δ1 (x) and τ0 (x).

Boundary Layer Thickness δ(x):

 VonKarman-PohlhausenMethod1.nb ��� 7

To determine the unknown boundary layer thickness δ(x), we substitute the approximate velocity
profile u1 (x) into Eq. (23):
ⅆ δ (x) τ0 μ ∂u1
 {u1 (U - u1 )} ⅆ y = = (35)
ⅆx 0 ρ ρ ∂y y=0

In effect, what we are requiring is that our velocity profile given by Eq. (34), satisfy the momentum
equations in some average sense. To minimize the algebra we introduce the new variable z=y/δ. The
result is
ⅆ 1 μ U
δ  {u1 (U - u1 )} ⅆ z = 2
ⅆx 0 ρ δ

ⅆ 1 μ U
U2 δ  2 z - z2 1 - 2 z + z2  ⅆ z = 2
ⅆx 0 ρ δ
(36)
2 ⅆδ 2μU
δ U2 =
15 ⅆx ρ

ⅆδ2 30 μ
=
ⅆx ρU
Integrating and noting that δ(0)=0, we get
30 x μ
δ2 (x) =
ρU
(37)
νx
⟹ δ (x) = 5.47
U

Displacement Thickness, δ1(x) :

Recall the displacement thickness δ1 (x) is given by Eq. (14):
1 ∞
δ1 (x) =  (U - u) ⅆ y (38)
U 0

Again for algebraic convenience, we introduce the new variable z=y/δ such that
1 δ
δ1 (x) =  (U - u) ⅆ y
U 0

1
= δ  1 - 2 z + z2  ⅆ z
0

(39)
δ (x)
= δ (1 - 1 + 1 / 3) =
3
8 ��� VonKarman-PohlhausenMethod1.nb

νx
= 1.825
U

Shear Stress at the Plate, τ0(x)

Recall the shear stress at the plate at y=0, is given by
∂u 2 2 U
τ0 (x) = μ =μU =μU
∂y y=0 δ 5.47 νx
(40)

U
= 0.365 μ U
νx

Case 2:
In this example our candidate for the velocity field is a cubic function in y/δ(x)
y y 3
u2 (x, y) = a (x) + b (x)   + c (x)   (41)
δ δ
We will use the following BCs
BC1 : u (x, 0) = 0
BC2 : u (x, δ (x)) = U
(42)
∂u
BC3 : =0
∂y y=δ (x)

The no-slip condition at y=0 implies that a(x)=0 in Eq. (43).

BC2 at y=δ(x) implies that
U = b+c (43)

while BC3 has the requirement that ∂u/∂y=0 at y=δ(x) which gives
∂u b 3c
= + =0 (44)
∂y y=δ δ δ

Solving these equations gives

U 3
c=- , b= U (45)
2 2
so that the velocity profiles is
3 y 1 y 3
u2 (x, y) = U  -    (46)
2 δ 2 δ

Boundary Layer Thickness δ(x)

To determine the unknown boundary layer thickness δ(x), we substitute the approximate velocity
profile u2 (x) into Eq. (23):
 VonKarman-PohlhausenMethod1.nb ��� 9

ⅆ δ (x) τ0 μ ∂u2
 {u2 (U - u2 )} ⅆ y = = (47)
ⅆx 0 ρ ρ ∂y y=0

In effect, what we are requiring is that our velocity profile given by Eq. (46), satisfy the momentum
equations in some average sense. To minimize the algebra we introduce the new variable z=y/δ. The
result is
ⅆ 1 μ 3 U
δ  {u2 (U - u2 )} ⅆ z =
ⅆx 0 ρ 2 δ

ⅆ 1 3 1 3 1 μ 3 U
U2 δ   z- z3 1- z+ z3  ⅆ z =
ⅆx 0 2 2 2 2 ρ 2 δ
(48)
39 ⅆδ 3μU
δ U2 =
280 ⅆx 2ρ

ⅆδ2 (280) (3) μ

=
ⅆx (39) ρ U
Integrating and noting that δ(0)=0, we get
(280) (3) μ
δ2 (x) = μx
(39) ρ U
(3) 1/2 νx
⟹ δ (x) = (280) (49)
39 U
νx
= 4.64095
U

Displacement Thickness δ1(x)

Recall the displacement thickness δ1 (x) is given by Eq. (14):
1 ∞
δ1 =  (U - u) ⅆ y (50)
U 0

Again for algebraic convenience, we introduce the new variable z=y/δ such that
1 δ
δ1 =  (U - u) ⅆ y
U 0

1 3 1
=δ 1- z+ z3 ⅆz
0 2 2

3 δ (x)
8 (51)

3 νx
= 4.64095
8 U
10 ��� VonKarman-PohlhausenMethod1.nb

νx
= 1.74036
U

Shear Stress at the Plate τ0(x) :

Recall the shear stress at the plate at y=0, is given by
∂u 3 3 1
τ0 = μ =μU =μU
∂y y=0 2δ 2
νx
4.64095 U

(52)

U
= 0.32321 μ U
νx

Exact Solution:
The exact solution for boundary flow over a flat plate yields the following values for δ(x), δ1 (x), andτ0 :
νx
δ (x) = 5.0
U

νx
δ1 (x) = 1.72 (53)
U

U
τ0 = 0.332 μ U
νx
Thus our approximate solution base on the von Kármán-Pohlhausen method yields a solution that is in
very good agreement with the known analytical solution.

Thermal Boundary Layer over a Flat Plate

Assumptions
In this section we will derive the integral formulation for the development of a thermal boundary layer
over a flate plate.
Thermal convection within a thermal boundary layer with thickness δT (x) is described by following
thermal energy equation :
∂T ∂T ∂2 T
u +v =α , x > 0, 0 < y < δT (x) (54)
∂x ∂y ∂y2
where α = kρCp is the thermal diffusivity. We are ignoring heating effects due to viscous dissipation
within the thermal boundary layer, and consistent with the boundary layer approximation we assume
 VonKarman-PohlhausenMethod1.nb ��� 11

that thermal diffusion in the stream-wise direction is negligible relative to thermal diffusion in the
cross-flow direction, i.e., ∂2 T /∂y2 >> ∂2 T /∂x 2 .
To keep the derivation manageable, we will take α to be a constant, and assume the fluid is essentially
incompressible, i.e., buoyancy effects are ignored.

Integral Formulation
First, we integrate the thermal energy equation (Eq. 54) over the thickness of the thermal boundary
layer δT (x) :
δT (x) ∂T ∂T δT (x) ∂2 T
 u +v  ⅆy = α  ⅆy, x > 0, 0 < y < δT (x) (55)
0 ∂x ∂y 0 ∂y2
The RHS can be readily integrated to give
δT (x) ∂T ∂T ∂T
 u +v  ⅆ y = -α , x > 0, 0 < y < δT (x) (56)
0 ∂x ∂y ∂y 0

where we have assumed that the temperature profile in the thermal BL merges smoothly into the
temperature outside the thermal boundary layer. Those assumptions are described mathematically as
follows:
∂T
T (x, δT ) → T∞ , ⟶ 0, as y → δT (x) (57)
∂y
We can simplify the LHS of Eq. (56) by invoking the following identity
∂ ∂ ∂T ∂T ∂u ∂v
(u T) + (v T) = u +v +T +
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
(58)
∂T ∂T
=u +v
∂x ∂y
where the last term on the RHS is identically zero because the fluid is taken to be incompressible.
Applying Eq. (58) to the LHS of Eq. (56) gives:
δT (x) ∂ ∂ ∂T
  (u T) + (v T) ⅆy = -α , x > 0, 0 < y < δT (x) (59)
0 ∂x ∂y ∂y 0

The integral on the LHS of Eq. (59) can be simplified by integration to give
δT (x) ∂ ∂T
 (u T) ⅆy + v (δT ) T (δT ) = - α , x > 0, 0 < y < δT (x) (60)
0 ∂x ∂y 0

Recall that v(0)T(0)=0 as v(0)=0 along the impervious plate at y=0. Next we use Leibniz’s rule to move
the differential operator outside the integral:
ⅆ δT (x) ⅆδT ∂T
 u T ⅆy - u (δT ) T (δT ) = - v (δT ) T (δT ) - α ,
ⅆx 0 ⅆx ∂y 0 (61)
x > 0, 0 < y < δT (x)
Next we integrate the continuity equation over the thermal boundary layer:
12 ��� VonKarman-PohlhausenMethod1.nb

δT (x) ∂u ∂v δT (x) ∂u
  +  ⅆy =  dy + v (δT ) - v (0) = 0 (62)
0 ∂x ∂y 0 ∂x
Since v(0)=0, we can simplify the above expression to get
δT (x) ∂u
 dy = -v (δT ) (63)
0 ∂x
Then the application of Leibniz’s rule gives
ⅆ δT (x) ⅆδT
 u ⅆy = u (δT ) - v (δT ) (64)
ⅆx 0 ⅆx
Recall that v(δT )≠0 , as the thermal boundary layer is contained within the momentum boundary layer.
We now return to Eq. (61). We can use Eq. (64) to eliminate the second term on the LHS of Eq. (61). The
result is
ⅆ δT (x) ⅆ δT (x)
 u T ⅆy - T (δT )  u ⅆ y - v (δT ) T (δT ) =
ⅆx 0 ⅆx 0
(65)
∂T
- v (δT ) T (δT ) - α , x > 0, 0 < y < δT (x)
∂y 0

Simplifying we get
ⅆ δT (x) ⅆ δT (x) ∂T
 u T ⅆy - T (δT )  u ⅆ y = -α ,
ⅆx 0 ⅆx 0 ∂y 0 (66)
x > 0, 0 < y < δT (x)
We can rearranging the LHS as follows
ⅆ δT (x) ∂T
 u [T (x, y) - T (δT )] ⅆ y = -α ,
ⅆx 0 ∂y 0 (67)
x > 0, 0 < y < δT (x)
Equation 67 is the Pohlhausen Integral equation for a growing thermal boundary layer δT (x) along a
flat plate. Note starting from Eq. (54) we have made no further assumptions, and hence Eq. (67) is thus
an exact result. However, in order to solve this integral equation we need to assume an appropriate
trial expression for the velocity u(x,y) in the momentum boundary layer, as well as an appropriate trial
expression for the temperature profile. With these trial profiles, Eq. (67) is then reduces to an ordinary
differential equation for the thermal boundary layer thickness δT (x). One the temperature profile is
known, one can then also compute the heat flux from the fluid to the surroundings.

Analysis
In this section we will illustrate how Eq. (67) can be used to compute the local Nusselt number at the
surface of the flat plate. Note: the Nusselt number describes the heat flux to the plate. Our first step is
to construct a suitable temperature profile. It will be algebraically convenient to define the tempera-
ture profile as
T (x, y) - T∞
θ (x, y) = , where T∞ = T (x, δT ), T0 = T (x, 0)
T0 - T ∞
 VonKarman-PohlhausenMethod1.nb ��� 13

We will suppose that the temperature profile can be approximated by a quadratic function in y:
y y 2
θ (x, y) = A + B +C
δT δT
We will invoke the following BCs:
∂θ
θ (x, 0) = 1, θ (x, δT ) = 0, =0
∂y y=δT

Applying these BCs to the temperature profile gives

y y 2
θ (x, y) = 1 - 2 +
δT δT
To facilitate later algebraic manipulations we define the new variable
ξ = y / δT ⟹ θ (x, ξ) = 1 - 2 ξ + ξ2

Example 1:
We will assume that the thickness of the thermal boundary, denoted by δT is significantly larger than
the momentum boundary layer thickness δ(x). This will occur when Prandtl number (ℙr=ν/α) is much
less than unity. Note ν and α are properties of the fluid. For liquid metals and air, ℙr<<1. Recall ν is the
kinematic viscosity of the fluid and α is the thermal diffusivity of the fluid. Thus at the outset we will
assume Pr <<1 such that the momentum boundary layer in contained within the thermal boundary
layer, δT (x) >> δ (x).
Since δT >> δ, we can assume that u (x, y) ≈ U∞ within the thermal boundary layer. Obviously near
the plate u(x,y) varies with y, but we take this region to be very small. In the next example we will relax
this assumption. Recall that the thermal BL is given by
ⅆ δT (x) ∂T
 u [T (x, y) - T (δT )] ⅆ y = -α , x > 0, 0 < y < δT (x)
ⅆx 0 ∂y 0

In terms of the new variable θ , and noting that u(x,y) ≈ U∞ within the thermal boundary layer, we get
ⅆ δT (x) ∂θ
 U∞ (T0 - T∞ ) θ (x, y) ⅆ y = -α (T0 - T∞ ) ,
ⅆx 0 ∂y 0

x > 0, 0 < y < δT (x)

Reorganizing gives
ⅆ δT (x) ∂θ
U∞ (T0 - T∞ )  θ (x, y) ⅆy = - α (T0 - T∞ ) ,
ⅆx 0 ∂y 0

x > 0, 0 < y < δT (x)

Next we introduce the new variable ξ = y /δT :
ⅆ 1 ∂θ ⅆξ
U∞ (T0 - T∞ )  δT θ (x, ξ) ⅆξ = - α (T0 - T∞ ) ,
ⅆx 0 ∂ξ 0 ⅆy
x > 0, 0 < y < δT (x)
Simplifying gives
14 ��� VonKarman-PohlhausenMethod1.nb

ⅆ 1 α ∂θ
2
U∞  δT 1 - 2 ξ + ξ  ⅆ ξ = - , x > 0, 0 < y < δT (x)
ⅆx 0 δT ∂ξ 0

ⅆ 1 2α
⟹ U∞ δT 1 - 1 + = , x > 0, 0 < y < δT (x)
ⅆx 3 δT

ⅆδT 6α
⟹ =
ⅆx U∞ δ T

12 α x
⟹ δT (x) =
U∞

The heat flux at the plate surface is given by

∂T
qx = -k = h (T0 - T∞ )
∂y y=0

Solving for the heat transfer coefficient h gives

k (T0 - T∞ ) ∂θ
h=-
(T0 - T∞ ) ∂y y=0

∂θ ⅆξ 2
= -k = -k -
∂ξ ⅆy δT

⟹ h = 2 k  δT

We can express this result in terms of a local Nusselt Number:

hx 2x 2x U∞ 1/2
ℕu ≡ = =
k δT 12 αx

2 U∞ x 1/2 ν 1/2
=  
12 ν α

= 0.577 ℕ1/2 1/2

Re ℕPr

Note, the exact result from boundary layer theory is

ℕu = 0.51 ℕ1/2 1/2
Re ℕPr

Thus our von Kármán - Pohlhausen method once again gives a very reasonable solution!

Example 2:
In this example we will again assume that the thickness of thermal boundary layer δT is less than the
thickness of the momentum boundary layer δ, but the velocity profile depends on the variable y. Hence
 VonKarman-PohlhausenMethod1.nb ��� 15

we will be required to account for the velocity field in the momentum boundary as well as a tempera-
ture field in the thermal boundary layer. For the momentum boundary layer we will assume the follow-
ing velocity profile:
y y 2
u1 (x, y) = a (x) + b (x)   + c (x)  
δ δ
The boundary conditions on the velocity field are taken to be
BC1 : y = 0, u (x, y) = 0

BC2 : y = δ (x), u (x, y) = U

BC3 : y = δ (x), ∂u
∂y
= 0,

so that the velocity profiles is

y y 2
u1 (x, y) = U2   -   
δ δ
We introduce the dimensionless variable ξ=y/δ in the momentum boundary so that the velocity field
becomes
u1 (x, ξ) = U2 ξ - ξ2 , where ξ = y / δ

As in the previous example, the procedure for determining the displacement thickness δ(x) is identical.
and the result is the same:
νx
δ (x) = 5.47
U
Likewise, the shear stress along the plate is
∂u U
τ0 (x) = μ = 0.365 μ U
∂y y=0 νx

Consider next the thermal boundary layer δT (x ). We will use the same expression for temperature
profile as in the previous example
y y 2
θ (x, y) = 1 - 2 +
δT δT
To facilitate later algebraic manipulations we define a new variable ζ for the temperature field in the
thermal boundary
ζ = y / δT ⟹ θ (x, ζ) = 1 - 2 ζ + ζ2 , where ζ = y / δT
Recall that the integral form for the thermal BL is given by
ⅆ δT (x) ∂T
 u (x, y) [T (x, y) - T (δT )] ⅆ y = -α ,
ⅆx 0 ∂y 0

x > 0, 0 < y < δT (x)

Since δT < δ, we cannot assume that u(x,y) is a constant in the thermal boundary layer as done in the
previous example. For subsequent computations we will express u(x,y) in terms of the ζ variable
16 ��� VonKarman-PohlhausenMethod1.nb

y y 2
u1 (x, y) = U2   -   ,
δ δ
u1 (x, ξ) = U2 ξ - ξ2 , where ξ = y / δ

Thus ξ = ζ δT /δ. Hence the velocity profile becomes

δT δT ζ 2
u1 (x, ζ) = U2 ζ- , where ζ = y / δT , and δT / δ < 1
δ δ
Note that when ζ=0, u1 (x, 0) = 0. And at the edge of the thermal boundary layer where ζ=1,
u1 (x, 1) = U δδT 2 - δδT  ≠U

Also recall that

∂T ∂θ 2
= (T0 - T∞ ) = -(T0 - T∞ )
∂y 0 ∂y 0 δT

Simplifying approximation
We will assume that the two boundary layer thicknesses δ(x) and δT (x) have a constant ratio, so that
δT (x)
Δ= = constant
δ (x)
Hence the assumption is that Δ is independent of x. There are two possibilities to consider Δ≤1, and
Δ≥ 1. We will focus on the first case.
◼ Δ≤1
The velocity profile u1 (x, ζ) in terms of Δ is
δT δT ζ 2
u1 (x, ζ) = U2 ζ-  = U2 Δ ζ - (Δ ζ)2 
δ δ
Expressing the thermal BL equation in terms of ζ variable gives
ⅆ 1
2 2
(T0 - T∞ )  U 2 Δ ζ - (Δ ζ)  1 - 2 ζ + ζ  ⅆ ζ =
ⅆx 0
∂θ ⅆζ
-α (T0 - T∞ ) , x > 0, 0 < y < δT (x)
∂ζ 0 ⅆy
On integration the above integral becomes
1
2 2
Δ Δ2
 U 2 Δ ζ - (Δ ζ)  1 - 2 ζ + ζ  δ ⅆζ = U - δ
0 6 30
Thus the thermal BL becomes
Δ Δ2 ⅆδ ∂θ ⅆζ 2α
U - = -α =
6 30 ⅆx ∂ζ 0 ⅆy δT

ⅆδT 2α
δT =
Δ2
ⅆx U  Δ6 - 30

 VonKarman-PohlhausenMethod1.nb ��� 17

ⅆ δ2T 4α
=
Δ2
ⅆx U  Δ6 - 30


4αx 4 αx
δT (x) = =  
U  Δ6 - Δ2
  Δ6 - Δ2
 U
30 30

Our next task is to evaluate Δ. Recall we have already computed δ(x)

νx
δ (x) = 5.47
U
Now from the definition of Δ we have
4
Δ Δ2
 αUx  Δ
4
Δ2
δT (x)  -
6 30
  -
6 30

1
Δ= = =
δ (x) 5.47 r
νx
5.47 U

Thus we get
0.133686
Δ2 ⩵
Δ2
r  Δ6 - 30


This shows that Δ= f(ℙr). To find this dependence let us assume that ℙr = Δn . Thus we have
0.133686
Δ2 ⩵
Δ2
Δn  Δ6 - 30


Let us solve this nonlinear equation for n for select values of Δ<1. For Δ=0.6 we find n=-2.819
0.1337
�������� FindRootΔ2 ⩵ /. Δ → 0.6, {n, - 0.3, - 0.5}
Δ2
Δn  Δ - 
6 30

�������� {n → - 2.8188}

Thus Δ≈ ℙr-1/3 For other values of Δ<1 we obtain equivalent results. This dependence of Δ on ℙr
was also confirm by Schlichting in his famous textbook “Boundary-Layer Theory”.
Thus we can evaluate the thickness of the thermal boundary layer
δT (x) = δ (x) Δ = δ (x) r-1/3

νx
= 5.47 r-1/3
U
Next we can compute the heat flux at the plate surface
∂T
qx = -k = h (T0 - T∞ )
∂y y=0
18 ��� VonKarman-PohlhausenMethod1.nb

Solving for the heat transfer coefficient h gives

k (T0 - T∞ ) ∂θ
h=-
(T0 - T∞ ) ∂y y=0

∂θ ⅆζ 2
= -k = -k -
∂ζ ⅆy δT

⟹ h = 2 k  δT

Recall that
δT (x)
Δ= ⟹ δT = Δ δ (x)
δ (x)
Hence
2k
h=
Δ δ (x)
We can express this result in terms of a local Nusselt Number:
hx 2kx 2x 2x 1
ℕu ≡ = = =
k Δ δ (x) k Δ δ (x) r-1/3 δ (x)

2x 1 2 1 Ux
= =
r-1/3 5.47 r-1/3 ν
νx
5.47 U

= 0.366 ℕ1/2 1/3

Re ℕPr , where ℕRe = U x / ν, ℕPr = ν / α

The exact solution for this problem has the same dependence on ℕRe and ℕPr as found above. How-
ever, coefficient in the exact solution is around 0.67.
◼ Δ<<<1
The assumption Δ<<<1, implies that the thermal boundary layer δT (x) is much, much thinner than the
momentum boundary layer δ(x). Hence the velocity profile u1 (x, ζ) near the wall can be approximating
as a linear function of ζ, that is
δT δT ζ 2 δT
u1 (x, ζ) = U2 ζ-  ≈2U ζ
δ δ δ
Expressing the thermal BL equation in terms of ζ variable gives
ⅆ 1 ∂θ ⅆζ
(T0 - T∞ )  δT 2 U δT ζ / δ θ (x, ζ) ⅆζ = -α (T0 - T∞ ) ,
ⅆx 0 ∂ζ 0 ⅆy
x > 0, 0 < y < δT (x)
 VonKarman-PohlhausenMethod1.nb ��� 19

ⅆ 1
2
α (T0 - T∞ ) (- 2)
(T0 - T∞ )  δT (2 U δT ζ / δ) 1 - 2 ζ + ζ  ⅆ ζ = -
ⅆx 0 δT

ⅆ 1
2
2α
 δT (2 U δT ζ / δ) 1 - 2 ζ + ζ  ⅆ ζ =
ⅆx 0 δT

ⅆ U δ2T 2α
⟹ =
ⅆx 6δ δT
νx
Note that our analysis of the momentum boundary layer gives δ(x)=5.47 U
. As before we will
assume the
δT (x)
= Δ = constant,
δ (x)
with the restriction that Δ << < 1
Thus
ⅆδT
U Δ δT = 12 α
ⅆx

ⅆδT 12 α
δT =
ⅆx UΔ
Integrating gives
24 α
δT (x) = x
UΔ
Thus

24 α
UΔ
x
δT
Δ= =
δ 5.47 νx / U
Expanding the above gives
24 α x 1 U
Δ2 =
UΔ 5.472 ν x

24 α
Δ3 =
(5.47)2 ν
Simplifying gives
Δ = 0.929 Pr-1/3
Recall the definition for the Nusselt number is
hx 2k
ℕu = , where h=
k Δ δ (x)
20 ��� VonKarman-PohlhausenMethod1.nb

Thus
hx 2kx 2x 2x 1
ℕu ≡ = = =
k Δ δ (x) k Δ δ (x) 0.929 r-1/3 δ (x)

2x 1
= , as δ (x) = 5.47 νx / U
0.929 r-1/3 5.47 νx / U

2
= ℕPr 1/3 ℕ1/2
Re , where ℕRe = U x / ν
0.929 × 5.47

= 0.394 ℕPr 1/3 ℕ1/2

Re

which is in close agreement with the previous example for Δ<1. Recall in that case we had to solve
0.133686
Δ2 ⩵
Δ2
r  Δ6 - 30


and to do so we assume that ℙr = Δn and for select values of Δ determined n. When Δ<<<1, we can
solve the system directly.

References
The detailed derivation given in these notes are not normally found in textbooks. However, the method-
ology used can be found in a variety of well known textbooks. Ones that I have consulted are
◼ R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart and E. N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, 2nd Edition, Wiley, 2001
◼ V. S. Arpaci and P.S. Larsen, Convective Heat Transfer, Prentice-Hall, 1984
◼ H. Schlichting, Boundary-Layer Theory, McGraw-Hill, 1968