Metar Bueno

THE METAR & TAF
QUICK REFERENCE MANUAL
eBook Series Version 1.3
Copyright 2012 Find-it Fast Books
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by
Jerry Miller
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Montoursville, PA 17754
www.finditfastbooks.com
“The writer does the most

who gives his reader the most knowledge,
and takes from him the least time.”
-Sydney Smith (1771-1845)
Table of Contents
24 Hour Clock Conversion ............................. 56
30 Hour TAF Format/Airports ........................ 49-A
Abbreviations, METAR/TAF ............................ 1-7
Altimeter, METAR ..................................... 34
BCMG Group (A Gradual Change),TAF ................ 54, 55
Body of Report, TAF .................................. 50
Conversion Chart, Temperature ........................ 33
Date and Time, METAR ................................. 18
TAF
Date and Time of Origin, TAF ......................... 49
32 18
Dewpoint, METAR ......................................
FM Group (After), TAF ................................ 54
Format, METAR ..................................... 14-15
Glossary, METAR/TAF Terms .......................... 8-13
Location Identifier, METAR ........................... 17
Location Identifier, TAF ............................. 48
METAR Format ..................................... 14, 15
Meters to Miles Conversion Chart ..................... 46
Modifier, Auto, A01, A02, METAR ...................... 18
Obscurations, Partial, METAR ......................... 28
Obscurations and Weather, METAR ................... 25-27
Partial Obscurations, METAR .......................... 28
PROB40 Forecast (Chance), TAF ........................ 53
Remarks, METAR .................................... 35-44
Report Elements, TAF ................................. 47
Runway Visual Range, METAR ........................ 23-24
RVR, METAR ........................................ 23-24
Sky Condition, TAF ................................... 52
Sky Conditions, METAR ............................. 29-31
Station Identifier, METAR ............................ 17
Station Identifier, TAF .............................. 48
TAF Report Elements Introduction ..................... 47
Temperature and Dewpoint, METAR ................... 32-33
Temperature Conversion Chart ......................... 33
TEMPO Group (Occasional), TAF ........................ 55
Time Conversion, UTC .................................
56 57
Time of Report, METAR ................................ 18
Time of Origin, TAF .................................. 49
Type of Report, TAF .................................. 48
Valid Period of Forecast, TAF ........................ 49
Visibility, METAR ................................. 21-22
Visibility, TAF ...................................... 51
Weather and Obscurations, METAR ................... 25-27
Wind, METAR ....................................... 19-20
Wind, TAF ............................................ 50
Wind Shear, TAF ...................................... 52
i
Introduction
METAR: Routine Weather Report
TAF: Routine Aviation Terminal Forecast
This convenient cockpit companion is designed to give you the most accurate and
complete information available on weather reporting and forecasting formats.
An initial review of this manual provides a good overview of the METAR and TAF. And
after you have developed a basic familiarity with the METAR and TAF, you will find this
guide helpful by saving you time in looking up those items you have not committed to
memory.
Section one offers a means to rapidly translate the METAR code so you can clearly
understand this report. As you read a METAR and come upon an abbreviation you
cannot interpret, you will easily determine its meaning by using the quick reference
index.
Over time, you may not need to refer to this guide as often as you once did. You will
become skilled in reading the METAR and TAF. But with the change in weather seasons
you will, once again, appreciate having this resource to reacquaint yourself with those
terms you have not seen in a METAR or TAF for six months, or so.
In section two, the TAF is examined in detail. The TAF is a concise statement of
meteorological conditions expected at an airport during a specified period, usually 24
hours. As of November, 2008, 32 of the largest air carrier “high-impact” U.S. airports
issue 30 hour TAFs. A listing of these airports follows page 49, on page 49-A.
The TAF uses the same weather code as METAR weather reports.
Explanatory note of the list of METAR abbreviations on the following pages:
These abbreviations are located at the front of this manual because you will be referring
to this list frequently as you decipher METAR and TAF elements. The abbreviations
defined by quotation marks are examples of how an element is spoken. The numerical
values are an arbitrary choice in creating the example. Simply substitute the numbers
contained in the METAR/TAF element you are translating and use the same words
contained in the example.
Following each definition, page references are linked to the pages containing additional
information or an example of that particular abbreviation used in a METAR or TAF.
Page references preceded with an abbreviation contained in parenthesis refer to that
specific letter, or letters, of the complete abbreviation listed in the left column.
ii
Abbreviations
$ indicates maintenance needed on ASOS system 44
- light intensity 25
+ heavy intensity 25
/ indicator that visual data follows
/ separator between temperature and dew point data 14 32
00000KT calm wind [wind speed less than one knot] 19 51
A2985 “altimeter two niner eight five” 34
ACC altocumulus castellanus 30 42
ACFT MSHP aircraft mishap 16 42
ACSL altocumulus standing lenticular cloud 30 42
AO1 automated station without precipitation discriminator 18 37
AO2 automated station with precipitation discriminator 18 37
ALP airport location point 39
AMD TAF AMD - Amended forecast 48
APRNT apparent
APRX approximately
ASOS automated surface observing system
AUTO fully automated report, no human backup 8
B began 39 40
BC patches [spoken as “patchy” a descriptor] 25
BCFG patchy fog [patches of fog] 25
BECMG “a gradual change” [in forecast conditions, see page 54 55
for a complete explanation]
BKN broken [5/8 to 7/8 sky cover] 29 31
BKN000 between 5/8 to 7/8 of the sky is obscured [spoken as
“broken clouds less than five zero”] 10 28 41
BKN030 “ceiling three thousand broken” 29 31
BKN040CB “ceiling four thousand broken, cumulonimbus” 29 30
BKN050TCU “ceiling five thousand broken, towering cumulus” 29 30
BKN030 V OVC “broken layer at three thousand variable to overcast” (V) 31 41
BL blowing [a descriptor] 25 27
BLDU blowing dust 25
BLPY blowing spray 25
BLSA blowing sand 25
BLSN blowing snow 25 27
BR mist [visibility 5/8SM to 6SM] 10 25 27
BR HZ mist haze [visibility is 5/8 SM or more] 9 10 25 27
C center [referring to runway designation]
CA cloud to air lightning 38 39
CAVOK ceiling and visibility OK [not used in U.S.]
CB cumulonimbus cloud 29-30 42 52
CBMAM cumulonimbus mammatus cloud 30 42
CB S MOV E “cumulonimbus south moving east” 29 30 42
1
Abbreviations
CC cloud to cloud lightning 38 39
CCSL cirrocumulus standing lenticular cloud 30 42
CCSL OVR MT E “standing lenticular cirrocumulus over the mountain[s] east” 30 42
CG cloud to ground lightning 38 39
CHI cloud height indicator
CHINO sky condition at secondary location not available 43 44
CIG ceiling 8 29
CIG 004V008 “ceiling variable between four hundred and eight hundred” 8 29
CIG 010 RY20 “ceiling one thousand at runway two zero” 38 42
CLR clear [0 or 0 below 12,000 feet sky cover] 29
CONS continuous [lightning-more than 6 flashes/minute] 38 39
COR correction to a previously disseminated observation/forecast 18 48
DR low drifting [a descriptor] 10 25
DRDU low drifting dust less than 6 ft high 10 25
DRSA low drifting sand less than 6 ft high 10 25
DRSN low drifting snow less than 6 ft high 10 25
DS dust storm 25
DSIPTG dissipating
DSNT distant 36
DU widespread dust 13 25
DVR dispatch visual range
DZ drizzle 8 25 27
DZB drizzle began (B) 39 40
DZE drizzle ended (E) 39 40
E east or ended 39 40
FC funnel cloud 9 25 37
+FC tornado or waterspout 13 25 37
FEW few clouds greater than 0 but less than 2/8 sky cover] 9 29
FEW000 from 0 to 2/8 of the sky is obscured [spoken as “few clouds less than
five zero”] 10 28 41
FEW040 “few clouds at four thousand” 29
FEW050CB “few clouds at five thousand, cumulonimbus” (CB) 29 30
FEW060TCU “few clouds at six thousand. towering cumulus” (TCU) 29 30
FG fog [visibility less than 5/8 statute mile] 9 25 29
FG BKN000 “fog obscuring five to seven-eighths of the sky” 28
FG FEW000 “fog obscuring zero to two-eighths of the sky” 28
FG SCT000 “fog obscuring three to four-eighties of the sky” 28
FIBI filed but impractical to transmit
FM “after” - [a rapid change in forecast conditions see page 54 for a
complete explanation]
FRQ frequent [lightning-about 1 to 6 flashes/minute] 38 39
2
Abbreviations
FROPA frontal passage 20 37 38
FT feet
FU smoke 12 25
FU SCT010 “scattered layer of smoke aloft at one thousand” 25 41
FZ freezing [a descriptor] 25
FZDZ freezing drizzle 9 25 27
FZDZB freezing drizzle began 25 (B) 39 40
FZDZE freezing drizzle ended 25 (E) 39 40
FZFG freezing fog [ice fog] 9 25
FZRA freezing rain 9 25
FZRAB freezing rain began 25 (B) 39 40
FZRAE freezing rain ended 25 (E) 39 40
FZRANO freezing rain sensor not available 43
G gust 9 19 50 51
GR hail 9 25 40
GRB hail began (B) 39 40
GRE hail ended (E) 39 40
GR 1 1/2 “hailstones one and one-half inches in diameter” 40
GS small hail and/or snow pellets 12 25 40
GSB small hail or snow pellets began (B) 39 40
GSE small hail or snow pellets ended (E) 39 40
HLSTO hailstone
HZ haze 9 25 27
IC ice crystals or in-cloud lightning 10 38 39
INCRG increasing
INTMT intermittent
KT knot[s] 19 50 51
L left [referring to runway designation]
LTG lightning 38 39
LWR lower
M minus, “less than” 23 24 32
M1/4SM “visibility less than one quarter” 22
M10/M12 “temperature minus one zero, dew point minus one two” 32
M15/ “temperature minus one five, dew point missing” 32
M1000FT “R-V-R less than one thousand” 23
MAX maximum
METAR routine weather report provided at fixed intervals 14-16
MI shallow [a descriptor] 11 25
MIFG shallow fog 12 27
MIN minimum
MOV moved/moving/movement 40
MT mountains
3
Abbreviations
N north
N/A not applicable
NCDC National Climatic Data Center
NE northeast
NIL part-time TAF not issued yet, See 49 for a complete explanation
NIL AMD SKED AFT [closing time]Z appears at end of part-time TAF
See 49 for a complete explanation
NOSPECI no SPECI reports are taken at this station 43
NSW no significant weather [understand this completely!] 45 51
NW northwest
00000KT “wind calm” 19 50 51
OCNL occasional [lightning-less than 1 flash/minute] 38 39
OHD overhead 30 40
OVC overcast [8/8 sky cover] 10 29 31
OVC008 “ceiling eight hundred overcast” 29 31
OVC020CB “ceiling two thousand overcast, cumulonimbus” (CB) 29 30
OVC010TCU “ceiling one thousand overcast, towering cumulus” (TCU) 29 30
P “more than” indicated greater than the highest reportable value 23 24
P6SM “visibility more than six” [statute miles] 51
P6000FT “more than six thousand” [RVR] 23 24
PCPN precipitation
PK WND peak wind 11 20
PK WND 27050/25 “peak wind two seven zero at five zero occurred at two five
past the hour” 20
PK WND 32045/1735 “peak wind three two zero at four five occurred at one
seven three five” 20
PL ice pellets 10 25
PLB ice pellets began (B) 39 40
PLE ice pellets ended (E) 39 40
PNO precipitation amount not available 43
PO dust/sand whirls [dust devils] 25
PR partial [a descriptor] 10 25
PRFG partial fog 10 25
PRES pressure
PRESFR pressure falling rapidly 11 34 42
PRESRR pressure rising rapidly 11 34 42
PROB30 “slight chance” [10% to 29% probability] 53
PROB40 “chance” [30% to 50% probability, see page 53 for a full explanation]
PWINO precipitation identifier sensor not available 43
PY spray 12 25
R right [referring to runway designation]
RA rain 25 26 27
+RA heavy rain 26 27
4
Abbreviations
-RA light rain 25 26 27
RAB rain began (B) 39 40
RAE rain ended (E) 39 40
RA FG rain, fog (RA FG) 25 27 (FG) 9
RAPL rain, ice pellets 10 25
RASNDZ rain, snow, drizzle 25 26 27
RTD Routine Delayed [late] forecast 48
RV reportable value
RVR Runway Visual Range 11 23 24
RVRNO RVR system values not available 23 43
RY runway
S south
SA sand 11 25
SCSL stratocumulus standing lenticular cloud 12
SCT scattered [3/8 to 4/8 sky cover] 11 29 30
SCT000 between 3/8 & 4/8 of the sky is obscured [spoken as “scattered clouds
less than five zero”] 10 28 41
SCT V BKN “scattered layer variable to broken” 41
SCT010 V BKN “scattered layer at one thousand variable to broken” (V) 31 41
SCT035 “three thousand five hundred scattered” 11 29 30
SE southeast
SFC surface
SFC VIS 1 “surface visibility one” 21 38
SG snow grains 12 25
SGB snow grains began (B) 39 40
SGE snow grains ended (E) 39 40
SH shower[s][a descriptor] 12 25
SHGR hail showers, (SH) 12 15 (GR) 9
SHGS small hail shower or snow pellet showers (SH) 12 25 (GS) 12
SHPL ice pellet showers (SH) 12 25 (PE) 10
SHRA rain showers (SH) 12 25 (RA) 25 26
SHSN snow showers (SH) 12 25 (SN) 12 25
SKC sky clear [reported by manual stations] 29
SLP sea-level pressure 11 34 42
SLP142 “sea-level pressure one zero one four point two hectopascals”
(SLP) 11 34
SLPNO sea-level pressure not available 34 42
SM statute miles 21 51
SN snow 12 25 27
+SN heavy snow 12 25 27
-SN light snow 12 25 27
SNB snow began (B) 39 40
SNE snow ended (E) 39 40
5
Abbreviations
SNGS snow, snow pellets (SN) 12 25 (GS) 12 40
SNINCR snow increasing rapidly 25
SPECI an unscheduled weather report when certain criteria have
been met 15 16 22 24 31
SQ squall[s] 12 25 26
SS sandstorm, 11, 25
STN station
SW southwest
TAF Routine Aviation Terminal Forecast 45 47 48
TCU towering cumulus 29 30 42
TCU OHD “towering cumulus overhead” 29 30 42
TEMPO an “occasional” condition in a forecast [see page 55 for a
complete explanation]
TS thunderstorm [implies showery precipitation, if occurring,
a descriptor] 12 25 26 27
TSB thunderstorm began, (TS) 12 25 26 27 (B) 39 40
TSE thunderstorm ended, (TS) 12 25 26 27 (E) 39 40
TSGR thunderstorm, hail, (TS) 12 25 26 27 (GR) 9 25 40
TSGS thunderstorm, small hail/ice pellets, (TS) 12 25 26 27
(GS) 12 25 40
TSNO thunderstorm information not available 43
TSPL thunderstorm, ice pellets (TS) 12 25 26 27 (PE) 10 25
TSRA thunderstorm, rain, (TS) 12 25 26 27 (RA) 25 26 27
TSSN thunderstorm, snow, (TS) 12 25 26 27 (SN) 25 26 27
TWR tower
TWR VIS 2 “tower visibility two” 21 38
UNKN unknown
UP unknown precipitation 13 25 26 51
UPB unknown precipitation began (B) 39 40
UPE unknown precipitation ended (E) 39 40
UTC Coordinated Universal Time 18 49
V variable 19 24 31 38 41
VA volcanic ash 25 37
VC in the vicinity 13
VCBLDU blowing dust in the vicinity (VC) 13 (BLDU) 8 25
VCBLSA blowing sand in the vicinity (VC) 13 (BLSA) 8 25
VCBLSN blowing snow in the vicinity (VC) 13 (BLSN) 8 25 27
VCDS dust storm in the vicinity (VC) 13 (DS) 25
VCFC funnel cloud in the vicinity (VC) 13 (FC) 9 25
VCFG fog in the vicinity (VC) 13 (FG) 9 25
VCPO dust devils in the vicinity (VC) 13 (PO) 25
VCSH showers in the vicinity (VCSH) 13 (SH) 12 25 26 27
VCSS sandstorm in the vicinity (VC) 13 (SS) 11 25
6
Abbreviations
VCTS thunderstorms in the vicinity (VC) 13 (TS) 12 25 26 27 40
VIRGA precipitation that is observed but not reaching
the ground 13 41
VIS visibility 21 22 38
VIS2V3 “visibility variable between two and three” 21 38
VIS E 2 “visibility east two” 22 38
VIS N 1 “visibility north one” 22 38
VIS S 3 “visibility south three” 22 38
VIS W 4 “visibility west four” 22 38
VISNO visibility at secondary location not available 43 44
VIS 1 RY22 “visibility one, at Runway two-two” 22 38
VR visual range
VRB variable 13 20 21 50 51
VRB03KT “wind variable at three” 20
VV indefinite ceiling [vertical visibility] 29 52
VV003 “indefinite ceiling 300” [vertical visibility 300 feet] 29 52
VV/// indefinite ceiling height not available
W west
WS windshear 52
WS020/17040KT “Low level wind shear at two thousand, wind
one seven zero at four zero” 52
WND wind 19 20
WSHFT windshift 13 20 37 38
WSHFT 35 “windshift at three five” 13 20 37 38
WSHFT 20 FROPA “windshift at two zero due to frontal passage”
13 20 37 38
Z zulu [Coordinated Universal Time - UTC ] 18
7
Glossary
augmented report. A meteorological report prepared by an automated surface weather
observing system for transmission with certified weather observers signed on to the system to
add information to the report.
automated report. A meteorological report prepared by an automated surface weather

observing system for transmission, and with no certified weather observers signed on to the
system.
blowing (BL). A descriptor used to amplify observed weather phenomena whenever the
phenomena are raised to a height of 6 feet or more above the ground.
blowing dust (BLDU). Dust picked up locally from the surface of the earth and blown about in
clouds or sheets, reducing the horizontal visibility to less than 7 statute miles.
blowing sand (BLSA). Sand particles picked up from the surface of the earth by the wind to
moderate heights above the ground, reducing the reported horizontal visibility to less than 7
statute miles.
blowing snow (BLSN). Snow lifted from the surface of the earth by the wind to a height of 6
feet or more above the ground and blown about in such quantities that horizontal visibility is
restricted at and above that height.
blowing spray (BLPY). Water droplets torn by the wind from a body of water, generally from
the crests of waves, and carried up into the air in such quantities that they reduce the reported
horizontal visibility to less than 7 statute miles.
broken (BKN) layer. A cloud layer covering whose summation amount of sky cover is 5/8ths
through 7/8ths.
ceiling (CIG). The height above the earth's surface (field elevation or ground elevation) of the
lowest non-surface based layer that is reported as broken or overcast, or the vertical visibility
into an indefinite ceiling.
clear sky (SKC). The state of the sky when it is cloudless.
dew point. The temperature to which a given parcel of air must be cooled at constant pressure
and constant water-vapor content for saturation to occur.
drizzle (DZ). Fairly uniform precipitation composed exclusively of fine drops very close
together. Drizzle appears to float while following air currents, although unlike fog droplets, it
falls to the ground.
8
Glossary
dust (DU). see widespread dust.
few (FEW). A layer whose summation amount of sky cover is greater than zero but less than
2/8ths.
fog (FG). A visible aggregate of minute water particles (droplets) which are based at the Earth's
surface and reduces horizontal visibility to less than 5/8 statute mile and, unlike drizzle, it does
not fall to the ground.
freezing (FZ). A descriptor, FZ, used to describe drizzle and/or rain that freezes on contact with
the ground or exposed objects, and used also to describe fog that is composed of minute ice
crystals.
freezing drizzle (FZDZ). Drizzle that freezes upon contact with the ground, or other exposed
objects.
freezing fog (FZFG). A suspension of numerous minute ice crystals in the air, or water droplets
at temperatures below zero degrees Celsius, based at the earth's surface, which reduces
horizontal visibility; also called ice fog.
freezing precipitation. Any form of precipitation that freezes upon impact and forms a glaze on
the ground or exposed objects.
freezing rain (FZRA). Rain that freezes upon impact and forms a glaze on the ground or
exposed objects.
frozen precipitation. Any form of precipitation that reaches the ground in solid form (snow,
small hail and/or snow pellets, snow grains, hail, ice pellets, and ice crystals.
funnel cloud (FC). A violent, rotating column of air which does not touch the ground, usually
appended to a cumulonimbus cloud.
gust (G). Rapid fluctuations in wind speed with a variation of 10 knots or more between peaks
and lulls.
hail (GR). Precipitation in the form of small balls or other pieces of ice falling separately or
frozen together in irregular lumps.
haze (HZ). A suspension in the air of extremely small, dry particles invisible to the naked eye
and sufficiently numerous to give the air an opalescent appearance.
hectopascal. A unit of measure of atmospheric pressure equal to 100 newtons per square meter.
9
Glossary
ice crystals (IC). A fall of unbranched (snow crystals are branched) ice crystals in the form of
needles, columns, or plates.
ice fog. See freezing fog.
ice pellets (PL). Precipitation of transparent or translucent pellets of ice, which are round or
irregular, rarely conical, and which have a diameter of 0.2 inch (5mm), or less.
indefinite ceiling (VV). The ceiling classification applied when the reported ceiling value
represents the vertical visibility (VV) upward into surface-based obscuration.
low drifting (DR). A descriptor, DR, used to describe snow, sand, or dust raised to a height of
less than 6 feet above the ground.
low drifting dust (DRDU). Dust that is raised by the wind to less than 6 feet above the ground,
visibility is not reduced below 7 statute miles at eye level although objects below this level may
be veiled or hidden by the particles moving nearly horizontal to the ground.
low drifting sand (DRSA). Sand that is raised by the wind to less than 6 feet above the ground,
visibility is not reduced below 7 statute miles at eye level although objects below that level may
be veiled or hidden by particles moving nearly horizontal to the ground.
low drifting snow (DRSN). Snow that is raised by the wind to less than 6 feet above the
ground, visibility is not reduced below 7 statute miles at eye level although objects below that
level may be veiled or hidden by particles moving nearly horizontal to the ground.
mist (BR). An aggregate of microscopic water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the
atmosphere that reduces visibility to less than 6 statue miles but greater than 5/8 statute mile.
overcast (OVC). A layer of clouds whose summation amount of sky cover is 8/8ths.
partial (PR). A descriptor, PR, used only to report fog that covers part of the airport.
partial fog (PRFG). Fog covering part of the station and which extends to at least 6 feet above
the ground and apparent visibility in the fog is less than 5/8SM. Visibility over parts of the
station are less than or equal to 5/8SM.
partial obscuration (FEW000, SCT000, BKN000). The portion of the sky cover (including
higher clouds, the moon, or stars) hidden by weather phenomena in contact with the surface.
patches (BC). A descriptor, BC, used only to report fog that occurs in patches at the airport.
Spoken as "patchy".
10
Glossary
patchy fog (BCFG). Fog covering part of the station and which extends to at least 6 feet above
the ground and the apparent visibility in the fog patch or bank is less than 5/8SM. Visibility in
parts of the observing area is greater than or equal to 5/8SM. When the fog is close to the point
of observation, the minimum visibility reported will be less than 5/8SM.
peak wind speed (PK WND). The maximum instantaneous wind speed since the last METAR
that exceeded 25 knots.
pressure falling rapidly (PRESFR). A decrease in station pressure at a rate of 0.06 inch of
mercury or more per hour which totals 0.02 inch or more.
pressure rising rapidly (PRESRR). An increase in station pressure at a rate of 0.06 inch of
mercury or more per hour which totals 0.02 inch or more.
prevailing visibility. The visibility that is considered representative of conditions at the station;
the greatest distance that can be seen throughout at least half the horizon circle, not necessarily
continuous.
rotor cloud. A turbulent cloud formation found in the lee of some large mountain barriers. The
air in the cloud rotates around an axis parallel to the mountain range.
Runway Visual Range (RVR). An instrumentally-derived value, based on standard

calibrations, that represents the horizontal distance a pilot may see down the runway from the
approach end.
sand (SA). Loose particles of granular material.
sandstorm (SS). Particles of sand that are carried aloft by a strong wind. The sand particles are
mostly confined to the lowest ten feet, and rarely rise more than fifty feet above the ground.
scattered (SCT). A layer whose summation amount of sky cover is 3/8ths through 4/8ths.
sea-level pressure (SLP). The pressure value obtained by the theoretical reduction or increase
of barometric pressure to sea-level.
sector visibility. The visibility in a specified direction that represents at least a 45 degree arc of
the horizon circle.
shallow (MI). A descriptor, MI, used only to describe fog when the visibility at 6 feet above the
ground is 5/8ths statute mile or more and the apparent visibility in the fog layer is less than
5/8ths statute mile.
11
Glossary
shallow fog (MIFG). Fog in which the visibility at 6 feet above ground level is 5/8ths statute mile or more and the
apparent visibility in the fog layer is less than 5/8ths statute mile.
shower(s) (SH). A descriptor, SH, used to qualify precipitation characterized by the suddenness
with which it starts and stops, by the rapid changes of intensity, and usually by rapid changes in
the appearance of the sky.
small hail (GS). (Also defined as snow pellets.) Precipitation of white, opaque grains of ice.
The grains are round or sometimes conical.
smoke (FU). A suspension in the air of small particles produced by combustion.
snow (SN). Precipitation of snow crystals, mostly branched in the form of six-pointed stars; for
automated stations, any form of frozen precipitation other than hail.
snow grains (SG). Precipitation of very small, white, opaque grains of ice; the solid equivalent
of drizzle.
snow pellets (GS). Precipitation of white, opaque grains of ice. The grains are round or
sometimes conical.
spray (PY). An ensemble of water droplets torn by the wind from an extensive body of water,
generally from the crests of waves, and carried up into the air in such quantities that it reduces
horizontal visibility.
squall (SQ). A strong wind characterized by a sudden onset in which wind speeds increase to at
least 16 knots and are sustained at 22 knots or more for at least one minute.
standing lenticular cloud (SCSL, ACSL, CCSL). A, more or less, isolated cloud with sharp
outlines that is generally in the form of a smooth lens or almond. These clouds often form on the
lee side of and generally parallel to mountain ranges, and are indicative of turbulence aloft.
Depending on their height above the surface, they may be reported as stratocumulus standing
lenticular cloud (SCSL); altocumulus standing lenticular cloud (ACSL); or cirrocumulus
standing lenticular cloud (CCSL).
summation amount. The sky cover for a given layer of clouds that is the sum of the sky cover
of all lower cloud layers plus the layer evaluated, all added together.
thunderstorm (TS). A descriptor, TS, used to qualify precipitation produced by cumulonimbus

cloud that is accompanied by lightning and thunder, or for automated systems, a storm detected
by lightning detection systems.
12
Glossary
tornado (+FC). A violent, rotating column of air touching the ground; funnel cloud that
touches the ground (see funnel cloud and water spout).
unknown precipitation (UP). Precipitation type that is reported if the automated station detects
the occurrence of light precipitation but the precipitation discriminator cannot recognize the type.
variable ceiling. A ceiling of less than 3,000 feet which rapidly increases or decreases in height
by established criteria during the period of observation.
variable prevailing visibility. A condition when the prevailing visibility is less than 3 statute
miles and rapidly increases and decreases by 1/2 statute mile during the period of the
observation.
variable wind direction. A condition when (1) the wind direction fluctuates by 60 degrees or
more during the 2-minute evaluation period and the wind speed is greater than 6 knots; or (2) the
direction is variable and the wind speed is 6 knots or less.
vertical visibility (VV). A subjective or instrumental evaluation of the vertical distance into a
surface based obscuration that an observer would be able to see.
vicinity (VC). A proximity qualifier, VC, used to indicate weather phenomena observed
between 5 and 10 statute miles of the usual point of observation but not at the station.
virga. Visible wisps or strands of precipitation falling from clouds that evaporate before
reaching the surface.
waterspout (+FC). A violent, rotating column of air that forms over a body of water, and
touches the water surface; tornado or funnel cloud that touches a body of water (see funnel
cloud and tornado).
widespread dust. Fine particles of earth or other matter raised or suspended in the air by the
wind that may have occurred at or far away from the station.
wind direction. The true direction from which the wind is moving at a given location.
wind shift (WSHFT). A change in the wind direction of 45 degrees or more in less than 15
minutes with sustained wind speeds of 10 knots or more throughout the wind shift.
13
METAR Format
The international aviation routine reporting code called METAR contains the below elements in
the order listed:
1. Type of Report
2. ICAO Station Identifier
3. Date and Time of Report
4. Modifier (as required)
5. Wind
6. Visibility
7. Runway Visual Range (RVR)
8. Weather Phenomena
9. Sky Conditions
10. Temperature/Dew Point Group
11. Altimeter
12. Remarks (RMK)
The above elements are separated with a space with the exception of temperature and dew point
which are separated by a solidus ( / ).
When an element does not occur or cannot be observed, the preceding space and that element are
omitted from the METAR.
Below is an example of a METAR with explanations:
METAR KMIA 051350Z 32012KT 3SM MIFG SKC 16/14 A3015 RMK SLP994
T01500119
METAR Aviation Routine Weather Report (Type of Report)

KMIA Miami, FL (ICAO Station Identifier)
051350Z Date 05, time 1350 UTC (Date and Time of Report)
32012KT wind three two zero at one two (Wind)
3SM visibility three (Visibility)
MIFG shallow fog (Weather Phenomena)
SKC clear (Sky Conditions)
16/14 temperature 16, dew point 14 (Temp/Dew Point Group)
A3015 altimeter 3015 (Altimeter)
RMK remarks (Remarks follow)
SLP994 sea level pressure 999.4 hectopascals (remark)
T01500119 temperature 15.0 degrees C, dew point 11.9 degrees C (remark)
14
METAR Format
And here is another example of a routine METAR with explanations:
METAR KSEA 141545 33018KT 290V360 1/2SM R31/2600FT +SN BLSN FG VV008
00/M03 A2991 RMK RAESNB42 SLPNO T0011032
METAR aviation routine weather report

KSEA Seattle,WA
141545 date 14, time 1545 UTC
33018KT wind 330 at 18 knots
290V360 wind direction variable between 290 and 360 degrees
1/2SM visibility one-half
R31/2600FT runway 31, RVR 2600
+SN heavy snow
BLSN FG blowing snow and fog
VV008 indefinite ceiling 800
00/M03 temperature zero, dew point minus 3
A2991 altimeter 2991
RMK remarks (follow)
RAESNB42 rain ended at four two, snow began at four two
SLPNO sea-level pressure not available
T0011032 temperature 0.1 degree C, dew point -3.2 degrees C
And finally, an example of an international aviation non-routine reporting code called a SPECI
(special weather report) is shown below with accompanying explanations:
SPECI KPIT 282134Z 28024G36KT 3/4SM +TSRA SQ BKN008 OVC020CB 28/23 A3000
RMK TSB24RAB24
SPECI non-routine (special) weather report

KPIT Pittsburgh, PA
282134Z date 28, time 2134 UTC
28024G36KT wind 280 at 24 gusts 36
3/4SM visibility three-quarters
+TSRA SQ thunderstorm with heavy rain, squalls
BKN008 OVC020CB ceiling 800 broken, 2,000 overcast, cumulonimbus
28/23 temperature 28 degrees C, dew point 23 degrees C
A3000 altimeter 3000
RMK remarks (follow)
TSB24RAB24 thunderstorm began at two four, rain began at two four
15
METAR Report Type
There are two types of new aviation weather reports:
1. METAR - An hourly aviation routine weather report.
A routine METAR hourly weather report is observed between 45 minutes after

the hour til the hour. It is encoded as a METAR report even if it meets SPECI
criteria.
2. SPECI - A non-routine (special) aviation weather report.
A SPECI is spoken as, “SPECIAL REPORT (last two digits of the time)
OBSERVATION”.
A SPECI is taken when any of the following criteria have been met:
Wind - A wind shift.
Visibility - Certain changes in visibility which cause the weather to change flight
categories (IFR, MVFR, or VFR).
RVR - Changes to above or below 2400 feet.
Tornado, Funnel Cloud, Waterspout - When observed or disappears from sight (end).
Thunderstorm - Begins or ends.
Precipitation - If certain types of precipitation begin, end, or change intensity.
Squalls - When they occur.
Ceiling - Certain changes in ceilings which cause the weather to change flight
categories (IFR, MVFR, VFR).
Sky Condition - A layer of clouds or obscuring phenomena aloft forms below 1000 feet.
Volcanic Eruption - When an eruption is first noted.
Aircraft Mishap - Upon notification of an aircraft mishap, unless there has been an
intervening observation. The SPECI is not transmitted.
Miscellaneous - Any other meteorological situation designated by the weather agency,

or which, in the opinion of the observer, is critical.
16
METAR Location Identifier
METAR weather reports use ICAO four letter station identifiers. Conterminous United States
stations are now preceded with a K.
Example: Former MIA (Miami, FL) has become KMIA
For the conterminous United States, the change of identifiers is really quite simple, just add a K
to the front of all the identifiers which you are already familiar with.
The station identifiers of weather reporting stations that included numerics have been converted
to all letters to accommodate this new designation method. For example, the identifier for Hilton
Head, SC was formerly 49J. It was changed to HXD prior to implementing METAR, and is now
KHXD.
Location identifiers outside of the conterminous United States are a little different:
Alaskan stations begin with PA.
Example: Former ANC (Anchorage, AK) has become PANC
Hawaiian stations begin with PH.
Example: Former HNL (Honolulu, HI) has become PHNL
For stations outside of the conterminous United States, the last two letters actually reflect the
reporting station identifier.
Notice that the former Anchorage, AK (ANC) identifier began with an A. In this case, only the
P of the PA prefix was added to ANC, resulting in PANC.
However, the former Nome, AK identifier was OME. Since station identifiers in Alaska begin
with PA you would think that Nome's identifier would be PAOME. However, station
identifiers are limited to four letters. To resolve this conflict, the last letter of the previously
assigned identifier was dropped and PA was added to the original OME, resulting in PAOM:
OME (Nome, AK) has become PAOM.
Here's an example of this rule in Hawaii:
Hawaiian stations begin with PH. The original Keahole, HI identifier was KOA. By adding PH
to the beginning of the old identifier, and dropping the last letter of the old identifier, KOA
becomes PHKO.
A complete worldwide listing of station identifiers is contained in ICAO Document 7910,

Location Identifiers.
17
METAR Date and Time
The Date/Time group in a METAR is the time of the weather observation.
Example: 221850Z - The observation was taken on the 22nd day of the
month at 1850 Zulu Time.
The Date/Time group in a METAR has six characters:
The first two characters are the date of the weather observation.
The middle two digits are the hour of the weather observation.
And the last two digits represent the minutes after the hour of the weather
observation.
Z is placed at the end of this Date/Time group to indicate Zulu Time

(Coordinated Universal Time).
METAR Modifier
The modifier element, if used, follows the Date/Time group.
AUTO identifies an automated weather report with no human intervention.
If AUTO is shown in the body of the report, the type of sensor equipment
used at the station will be encoded in the remarks section of the report.
AO1 - Is for automated weather reporting stations without a

precipitation type discriminator.
AO2 - Is for automated weather reporting stations with a

precipitation type discriminator.
The absence of AUTO indicates that the weather report was made manually or that the
automated report had human backup.
An automated weather report is introduced verbally with the phraseology, “(Location name)
AUTOMATED WEATHER OBSERVATION.”
COR identifies a corrected weather report that is sent out to replace an earlier weather report
with an error.
The time entered for the corrected report is the same time used in the report being corrected.
18
METAR Wind
Winds are reported in a five digit group (six digits if wind speed exceeds 99 knots).
The first three digits are the direction from which the wind is blowing in tens of degrees
referenced to True North.
Directions less than 100 degrees are preceded with a zero.
The remaining digits are the average speed, measured or estimated, in knots.
The abbreviation KT follows the wind direction and speed to indicate the use of knots for
reported wind speed but it is not spoken.
Wind speed, whether measured or estimated, is determined by averaging the speed over a two
minute period.
Estimated wind speed and direction are reported in the same manner as measured winds.
Example: 32009KT “Wind three two zero at niner”
There is no way to tell the difference between estimated or measured winds. They are
reported in the same manner.
If wind speed is less than one knot, it is reported as calm.
Example: 00000KT “Wind calm”
If the wind is gusty, G is reported after the speed followed by the highest gust reported.
Wind gusts are rapid fluctuations in speed with ten knots or more between peaks and
lulls within the past ten minutes.
Example: 28031G43KT “Wind two eight zero at three one gusts four three”
If wind direction is variable by 60 degrees or more and the speed is greater than 6
knots, a variable group consisting of the extremes of the wind directions separated
by a V will follow the wind group.
Example: 21014G25KT 270V360 “Wind two one zero at one four, gusts
two five, wind variable between two seven zero and three six zero”
19
METAR Wind (con’t)
The wind may also be considered variable if the wind speed is 6 knots or less and in the
weather observer's opinion the wind is varying in direction (the 60 degree rule does not apply).
This is indicated by the contraction VRB.
Example: VRB03KT “Wind variable at three”
Whenever the peak wind exceeds 25 knots, PK WND will be included in remarks in the next
report. The peak wind remark includes three digits for direction and two or three digits for speed
followed by the time in hours and minutes of occurrence. If the hour can be inferred from the
report time, only the minutes are reported.
Example: PK WND 27045/32 “peak wind two seven zero at four five
occurred at three two past the hour”
Example: PK WND 32050/1354 “peak wind three two zero at five zero
occurred at one three five four”
When a wind shift occurs, WSHFT will be included in remarks followed by the time the
wind shift began (with only minutes reported, if the hour can be inferred from the time
of the observation).
Example: WSHFT 35 “Wind shift at three five”
The contraction FROPA may be entered following the time if the wind shift is the result
of a frontal passage.
Example: WSHFT 24 FROPA “Wind shift at two four due to frontal passage”
If either the wind direction or speed is missing, the wind element is entirely omitted from the
METAR.
20
METAR Visibility
Visibility is reported as a separate element from its associated weather and obscurations.
It is reported in statute miles (SM). SM always follows the reported visibility but it is not
spoken.
Example: 10SM “Visibility one zero”
In the visibility element, whole numbers and fractions are separated by a space.
Example: 1 1/2SM “Visibility one and one half”
PREVAILING VISIBILITY
Prevailing visibility is the greatest distance that can be seen throughout at least half of the
horizon circle, not necessarily continuous.
VARIABLE VISIBILITY
When the prevailing visibility rapidly increases or decreases by 1/2 statute mile or more, during a
weather observation, and the average prevailing visibility is less than three statute miles, the
visibility is variable. Variable visibility is shown in remarks with the minimum and maximum
visibility values.
There is no indication in the body of the METAR that visibility is variable. However when the
criteria exists the minimum and maximum readings will still be placed in remarks preceded by
the contraction VIS.
Example: (in the body) 1 1/2SM (remarks) VIS 1V2

(remarks) spoken as “Visibility variable between one and two”
When visibilities are less than seven miles, the restriction to visibility will be shown in the
weather element. However, if volcanic ash, low drifting dust, sand, or snow are observed, they
are always reported even if visibility's are seven miles or greater.
TOWER OR SURFACE VISIBILITY

If tower or surface visibility is less than four statute miles, the lesser of the two will be
reported in the body of the report; the greater will be reported in remarks.
Example:
In the body In Remarks Remarks spoken as
1 1/2SM (Surface Visibility) TWR VIS 2 “Tower visibility two”
2SM (Tower Visibility) SFC VIS 3 “Surface visibility three”
21
METAR Visibility (con’t)
AUTOMATED VISIBILITY
Automated reporting stations show visibility less than 1/4 statute mile as M1/4SM and visibility
ten, or greater than ten statute miles as 10SM
Example: M1/4SM “Visibility less than one-quarter”
Example: 10SM “Visibility one zero”
SECOND SITE SENSORS

For automated reporting stations having more than one visibility sensor, site specific visibility
which is lower than the visibility shown in the body will be shown in remarks.
Example: VIS 1 RY22 “Visibility one, at Runway two two”
SECTOR VISIBILITY
Sector visibility is shown in remarks when it differs from the prevailing and either the prevailing
or sector visibility is less than three miles.
Example: VIS S 1 “Visibility South one”
SPECI CRITERIA
The below visibility condition requires the issuance of a SPECI report:
- visibility in the body of the report decreases to less than, or if below, increases
to equal or exceed:
-3 statute miles
-2 statute miles
-1 statute mile
-The lowest standard instrument approach minimum as published
- If no approach is published, 1/2 statute mile is used.
22
METAR RVR
(Runway Visual Range)
RVR is reported whenever the prevailing visibility is one statute mile or less, and/or the RVR
for the designated instrument runway is 6,000 feet or less.
Manual weather reporting stations report only one RVR, but automated stations can report up to
four different locations for the same airport.
In encoding RVR:
The runway and the visual range reading are separated by a solidus ( / ).
The RVR value is reported in hundreds of feet with trailing zeros included.
"FT" is added to the end of the RVR element to indicate that the visibility
is in feet. "Feet" is not spoken.
Example: R12L/1200FT
“Runway one two left visual range one thousand two
hundred”
-or-
“Runway one two left R-V-R one thousand two hundred”
If the RVR value is less than its lowest reportable value, the lowest reportable value encoded is
preceded by an “M” (minus), spoken as “less than”.
Example: R12R/M1000FT
“Runway one two right visual range less than one thousand”
-or-
“Runway one two right R-V-R less than one thousand”
If the RVR value is more than its greatest reportable value, the greatest reportable value encoded
is preceded by a “P” (plus), spoken as “more than”.
Example: R12/P6000FT
“Runway one two visual range more than six thousand”
-or-
“Runway one two R-V-R more than six thousand”
If RVR should be reported, but is missing, RVRNO will be in remarks.
23
METAR RVR (con’t)
(Runway Visual Range)
When the RVR varies by more than one reportable value, the lowest and highest values are
shown with a V between them.
Example: R18/1000V2000FT
“Runway one eight visual range variable between one
thousand and two thousand”
-or-
“Runway one eight R-V-R variable between one thousand
and two thousand”
Additional examples of variable RVR readings:
Example: R17L/M0600V3000FT
“Runway one seven left visual range variable from less than
six hundred to three thousand”
-or-
“Runway one seven left R-V-R variable from less than six
hundred to three thousand”
Example: R07/4000VP6000FT
“Runway seven visual range variable from four thousand
to more than six thousand”
-or-
“Runway seven R-V-R variable from four thousand to more
than six thousand”
SPECI CRITERIA:
The below RVR condition requires the issuance of a SPECI report:
-the highest value from the designated RVR runway decreases to less than,
or if below, increases to equal or exceed 2,400 feet during the preceding
ten minutes.
24
METAR Weather and Obscurations
Weather phenomena include the following:
Precipitation:
DZ - Drizzle
RA - Rain
SN - Snow This Weather Coding is also used in all TAF Reports!
SG - Snow Grains
IC - Ice Crystals
PL - Ice Pellets
GR - Hail
GS - Small Hail or Snow Pellets
UP - Unknown Precipitation (reported by automated stations only)
Obscurations:
BR - Mist
FG - Fog
FU - Smoke
DU - Dust
SA - Sand
HZ - Haze
PY - Spray
VA - Volcanic Ash
Other types of Weather Phenomena:

PO - Dust or Sand Swirls
SQ - Squalls
SS - Sandstorm
DS - Dust storm
FC - Funnel Cloud
+FC - Tornado or Waterspout
Descriptor Qualifiers of Weather Phenomena Include the following:

MI - Shallow
BC - Patches
DR - Low Drifting
BL - Blowing
SH - Showers
TS - Thunderstorm
FZ - Freezing
PR – Partial
Intensity Qualifiers include: Light, denoted by - ; Moderate, denoted by the lack of a

symbol; and Heavy, denoted by + ; and the Proximity Qualifier “In the Vicinity” is denoted
by VC.
25
METAR Weather and Obscurations
The preceding weather groups are constructed in the following sequence:
Intensity or proximity are entered first.

Then a descriptor is entered, if needed.
Then follows precipitation type or obscuration in order of predominance.
(exception) FC (funnel cloud) will always be first, when reported.
Example: +SHRA “Heavy rainshowers”
Intensity refers to precipitation or certain obscuration types, not the descriptor.
When more than one type of precipitation is present, the intensity refers to the first precipitation
type (most predominant).
VC (in the vicinity) indicates the weather phenomena is not occurring at the station, but rather
within five to ten miles of the station.
Example: VCSH “Showers in the vicinity”
UP (unknown precipitation) is used only by automated weather reporting systems to indicate that
the system cannot identify the precipitation with any degree of precision.
SQ (squall) is a sudden increase in wind speed of at least 16 knots, the speed rising to 22 knots
or more and lasting at least one minute.
Example: 32045KT 7SM SQ

“Wind three two zero at four five, visibility seven, squalls”
When a + (heavy) is placed on front of TS (thunderstorm), it is not an indication of a severe

thunderstorm. The intensity symbol + relates to the precipitation type RA (rain),
Example: +TSRA “Thunderstorm, heavy rain”
There is not a METAR criteria for severe thunderstorms.
The criteria for severe thunderstorms is 50 knot winds and/or 3/4 inch hail.
This information is available in a METAR, and this will indicate that a severe
thunderstorm is occurring.
26
METAR Weather and Obscurations (con’t)
Intensity of Rain (RA) or Freezing Rain (FZRA) estimates:
Light ( - ) - From scattered drops that, regardless of duration, do not completely wet an exposed
surface up to a condition where individual drops are easily seen.
Moderate (no symbol) - Individual drops are not clearly identifiable; spray is observable just
above pavements and other hard surfaces.
Heavy ( + ) - Rain seemingly falls in sheets; individual drops are not identifiable; heavy spray
to a height of several inches is observed over hard surfaces.
Intensity of Snow (SN) or Drizzle (DZ) estimates:
Light ( - ) - Visibility more than 1/2 mile.
Moderate (no symbol) - Visibility more than 1/4 mile but less than or equal to 1/2 mile.
Heavy ( + ) - Visibility less than or equal to 1/4 mile.
Some examples of Weather Phenomena:
4SM –RASNDZ “Visibility four, light rain, snow, drizzle”

7SM VCBLSN “Visibility seven, blowing snow in the vicinity”
7SM VCSH “Visibility seven, showers in the vicinity”
4SM BLSN “Visibility four, blowing snow”
3SM –TSRA “Visibility three, thunderstorm, light rain”
10SM TS “Visibility one zero, thunderstorm”
1SM +TSRA “Visibility one, thunderstorm, heavy rain”
FZDZ “Freezing drizzle”
BR HZ “Mist, haze” (Visibility 5/8 mile or greater)
-RA FG “Light rain, fog” (Visibility less than 5/8 mile)
Obscuring phenomena, when present, along with precipitation, will be in a separate group from
precipitation and entered in order of predominance.
These obscuring phenomena are any phenomena in the atmosphere, other than precipitation,
that reduce horizontal visibility.
There is no identifier for ground fog, and no descriptor to create ground fog in a METAR.
Ground fog can best be described as MIFG (Shallow Fog).
27
METAR Partial Obscurations
Obscurations are reported when the sky is partially obscured by a ground based phenomenon
by indicating the amount of obscuration as FEW, SCT, or BKN followed by three zeros (000).
Example: FEW000 (greater than 0 to 2/8 of the sky is obscured)

“Few clouds less than five zero” (feet)
SCT000 (between 3/8 and 4/8 of the sky is obscured)

“Scattered clouds less than five zero” (feet)
BKN000 (between 5/8 and 7/8 of the sky is obscured)

“Broken clouds less than five zero” (feet)
METAR makes no distinction between a partial obscuration and a cloud layer in the body
of a report. It encodes the obscuration as a cloud layer whose base is below 50 feet.
Example: 1/8SM FG BKN000 (in remarks: FG BKN000)
“Visibility 0ne-eighth, fog, broken clouds less than five zero” (feet)
(in remarks) “Fog obscuring five to seven-eighths of the sky”
Example: SCT000 (in remarks: FU SCT000)
“Scattered clouds less than five zero” (feet)

(in remarks) “Smoke obscuring three to four eighths of the sky”
If a cloud layer aloft is less than fifty feet in height and not ground based, remarks will not be
shown. The layer is considered the first layer aloft.
28
METAR Sky Conditions
Sky cover is reported in EIGHTHS of coverage using the below contractions:
Reportable Summation
Contractions Meaning Amount
VV Indefinite Ceiling 8/8
(vertical visibility)
SKC or CLR Clear 0 or 0 below 12,000
FEW Few > 0 but < 2/8
SCT Scattered 3/8 to 4/8
BKN Broken 5/8 to 7/8
OVC Overcast 8/8
CB Cumulonimbus When present
TCU Towering Cumulus When present
Coverage of clouds precedes cloud height with no space in between. And cloud height is always
in three digits, reported in hundreds of feet.
Example: SCT045 “Four thousand five hundred scattered”
There is no ceiling designator, such as M (measured) or E (estimated) in a METAR.

The ceiling is the first BKN or OVC layer aloft
- or -
A vertical visibility (VV) into a surface based phenomena (“indefinite ceiling”).
Example: BKN060 “Ceiling six thousand broken”

- or -
Example: VV004 “Indefinite ceiling four hundred”
A new coverage designator “FEW” has been added to METAR, indicating cloud coverage
greater than zero and equal to or less than two-eighths.
Example: FEW030 “Few clouds at three thousand”
CB and TCU are reported along with the layer with which their base is associated.
Example: BKN020CB “Ceiling two thousand broken, cumulonimbus”

- or -
-
Example: SCT030TCU “Three thousand scattered, towering cumulus”
The direction from the station of the CB or TCU clouds will be noted in the Remarks section
of the METAR.
Example: TCU W “Towering cumulus West”
(more examples, next page)

29
METAR Sky Conditions
Here are a few more examples of CB and TCU reported with multiple cloud layers:
Example: SCT020TCU BKN040 BKN250 “Two thousand scattered

towering cumulus, ceiling four thousand broken,
two five thousand broken”
(remarks) TCU OHD “Towering cumulus overhead”
Example: SCT007 OVC014CB “Seven hundred scattered, ceiling one

thousand four hundred overcast cumulonimbus”
(remarks) CB W “Cumulonimbus West”
CB (cumulonimbus) and TCU (towering cumulus) are considered significant clouds, as are the
below listing of clouds, with the type of flight hazard they imply in parentheses:
CBMAM Cumulonimbus mammatus (thunderstorm/severe turbulence)

ACC Altocumulus castellanus (severe turbulence)
ACSL Standing lenticular altocumulus (severe turbulence)
CCSL Standing lenticular cirrocumulus (severe turbulence)
ROTOR CLOUD Rotor cloud (violent, rotating severe turbulence)
As with CB and TCU, these significant clouds are further described in remarks, giving:
Distance (if known)

Direction from station - or if overhead (OHD)
Direction of movement (if known)
DSNT (distant) - indicating the clouds are beyond 10 miles from the airport
Example: CB N MOV E “Cumulonimbus North moving East”
Example: CBMAM DSNT W “Cumulonimbus mammatus distant West”
Example: ACC NE - E “Altocumulus castellanus Northeast through East”
Example: APRNT ROTOR CLD W “Apparent rotor cloud West”
Example: ACSL OVR MT E “Standing lenticular altocumulus over the

mountain(s) east”
30
METAR Sky Conditions (con’t)
Whenever a ceiling below 3,000 feet is reported and it is variable, CIG will be shown in
remarks followed by the lowest and highest ceiling heights separated by a V.
Example: CIG 006V012 “Ceiling variable between six hundred and

one thousand two hundred”
When a layer of clouds varies in sky cover, the variability range is shown in remarks,
separated by a V.
Example: BKN V OVC “Broken layer variable to overcast”
If there is more than one cloud layer of the same coverage, the variable layer will be identified
in remarks by including the layer height.
Example: BKN015 V OVC “Broken layer at one thousand five

hundred variable to overcast”
When sky conditions include a layer aloft, other than clouds, such as smoke or haze, the type of
phenomena, sky cover, and height are shown in remarks.
Example: BKN010 “Ceiling one thousand broken”

(remarks) HZ BKN 010 “Broken layer of haze aloft, based at one
thousand”
The sky cover summation amount for a given layer of clouds is the sum of the sky cover of all
lower cloud layers plus the layer evaluated, all added together.
Automated weather reporting stations may report up to three cloud layers and cannot report
clouds above 12,000 feet.
Manual weather reporting stations report no more than six cloud layers.
At weather reporting stations located in the mountains, if a cloud layer is reported that is below
the station level height, the height will be shown as three solidus, ///.
SPECI weather reports will be issued if the ceiling forms or dissipates, decreases to less than, or
if below, increases to equal or exceed:
- 3,000 feet - 1,500 feet - 1,000 feet - 500 feet - or -
- the lowest standard instrument approach procedure minimum

as published. If none published, then 200 feet.
- or -
- a layer of clouds or obscurations aloft forms below 1,000 feet if no
layer was reported below 1,000 feet in the previous weather report.
31
METAR Temperature and Dew Point
Temperature/Dew Point is reported in two digits each in whole degrees CELSIUS, separated by
a solidus ( / ).
Example: 15/08 “Temperature one five, dew point eight”
Temperatures and dew points below zero are prefixed by an M.
Example: M03/M05 “Temperature minus three, dew point minus five”
If the temperature is available but the dew point is missing, the temperature is shown followed
by a solidus ( / ).
Example: 23/ “Temperature two three, dew point missing”
If the temperature is missing, the group is omitted from the METAR.
An air mass with a three degree or less temperature/dew point spread is considered to be
saturated.
To get a feel for Celsius temperatures, think of:
Heat wave conditions are about 40 degrees Celsius (104 degrees Fahrenheit).
Normal body temperature is 37 degrees Celsius (98.6 degrees Fahrenheit).
A hot summer day is 30 degrees Celsius and above.
A nice spring day is about 20 degrees Celsius.
Sweater weather is in the teens (about 15 degrees Celsius).
Jacket weather is in the single digits (about 5 degrees Celsius).
Coat weather is below zero (about minus 3 degrees Celsius).
Temperature Conversion formulas:
Celsius temperature X 9/5 + 32 = Fahrenheit temperature
Fahrenheit temperature - 32 X 5/9 = Celsius temperature
32
TEMPERATURES - Celsius to Fahrenheit
C F C F C F
41 - 105 22 - 71 03 - 37
40 - 104 21 - 70 02 - 36
39 - 103 21 - 69 02 - 35
39 - 102 20 - 68 01 - 34
38 - 101 19 - 67 01 - 33
38 - 100 19 - 66 00 - 32
37 - 99 18 - 65 M00 - 31
37 - 98 18 - 64 M01 - 30
36 - 97 17 - 63 M02 - 29
36 - 96 17 – 62 M02 - 28
35 - 95 16 - 61 M03 - 27
34 - 94 16 - 60 M03 - 26
34 - 93 15 - 59 M04 - 25
33 - 92 14 - 58 M04 – 24
33 - 91 14 – 57 M05 – 23
32 - 90 13 - 56 M05 - 22
32 - 89 13 - 55 M06 - 21
31 - 88 12 - 54 M06 - 20
31 - 87 12 - 53 M07 - 19
30 - 86 11 – 52 M08 - 18
29 - 85 11 - 51 M08 - 17
29 - 84 10 - 50 M09 - 16
28 - 83 09 - 49 M09 - 15
28 - 82 09 - 48 M10 - 14
28 - 81 08 – 47 M10 - 13
27 - 80 08 - 46 M11 - 12
26 - 79 07 - 45 M11 - 11
26 - 78 07 - 44 M12 - 10
25 - 77 06 - 43 M13 - 09
24 - 76 06 – 42 M13 - 08
24 - 75 05 - 41 M14 - 07
23 - 74 04 - 40 M14 - 06
23 - 73 04 - 39 M15 - 05
22 - 72 03 - 38 M16 – 04
33
METAR Altimeter
The altimeter setting is reported in four digits representing tens, units, tenths, and hundredths of
inches of mercury.
The decimal is not noted or stated.
It is prefixed with an A. An altimeter setting of 29.92 inches of mercury would be depicted as

below:
Example: A2992 “Altimeter two niner-niner two”
When the pressure is rising or falling at a rate of at least 0.06 inches per hour and the pressure
change totals 0.02 inches or more at the time of the observation, remarks will show PRESRR or
PRESFR respectively.
Example: PRESRR (remarks) “Pressure rising rapidly”
Example: PRESFR (remarks) “Pressure falling rapidly”
At some designated stations, the sea-level pressure is shown in remarks where SLP is followed
by the sea-level pressure in hectopascals (millibars).
Example: SLP982 (remarks) “Sea-level pressure niner-niner eight point two”
Do not confuse SLP with the altimeter setting.
If sea-level pressure is not available, it will be shown as SLPNO.
34
METAR Remarks
Remarks are broken into two major groups:
(1) Automated, Manual, and Plain Language followed by:
(2) Additive and Maintenance Data
Items within each group are listed in a specific sequence (see listing below).
AUTOMATED, MANUAL, and PLAIN LANGUAGE ORDER of REMARKS:
1. Volcanic Eruptions
2. Tornado (+FC) , Funnel Cloud (FC) or Waterspout (+FC)
3. Station Type (AO1 or AO2)
4. Peak Wind (PK WND)
5. Wind shift (WSHFT), Frontal passage (FROPA)
6. Tower visibility (TWR VIS) or Surface visibility (SFC VIS)
7. Variable visibility (VRB VIS)
8. Sector visibility (Sector VIS)
9. Visibility at second site (VIS @ 2nd Site)
10. Dispatch Visual Range
11. Lightning (frequency of lightning, type and location) (LTG)
12. Beginning & ending of precipitation or thunderstorms (TSTMS)
13. Thunderstorm (TSTM) location and movement (MVMT)
14. Hailstone (GR) size
15. Virga (precipitation that does not reach the ground)
16. Variable ceiling height (VRB CIG)
17. Obscuration
18. Variable (VRB) sky condition
19. Significant Cloud types (CB, CBMAM, TCU, ACC, ACSL, CCSL)
20. Sky cover at second site (Sky @ 2nd Site)
21. Pressure falling rapidly (PRESFR) or Pressure rising rapidly (PRESRR)
22. Sea-level pressure (SLP)
23. Aircraft Mishap (ACFT MSHP)
24. No Special weather report (NOSPECI)
25. Snow Increase (SNINCR)
26. Other Significant (SIG) information
ADDITIVE and AUTOMATED MAINTENANCE DATA:
27. Hourly precipitation

28. Precipitation amount
29. 24 hour precipitation
30. Snow depth on ground
31. Water equivalent of snow
32. Cloud type
35
METAR Remarks (con’t)
Automated Manual, and Plain Language Order of Remarks (continued):
33. Duration of sunshine

34. Hourly temperature/dew point (tenths)
35. Maximum temperature
36. Minimum temperature
37. 24 hour maximum/minimum temperature
38. Pressure tendency
39. Sensor status:
PWINO (precipitation identifier sensor not available)
FRZANO (freezing rain sensor not available)
TSNO (thunderstorm information not available) – don’t be misled!
RVRNO (RVR system values not available)
PNO (precipitation amount not available)
VISNO (visibility at second location not available)
CHINO (sky condition at secondary location not available)
40. Maintenance indicator $ (maintenance needed on ASOS system)
Remarks are included in most observations. The contraction RMK follows the altimeter in the
body of the METAR and precedes the remarks.
Weather phenomena occurring within 5 statute miles of the point of observation are reported
as at the station.
Weather phenomena occurring between 5 and 10 statute miles of the point of observation are
reported as in the vicinity (VC).
Weather phenomena occurring beyond 10 statute miles of the point of observation are
reported as distant (DSNT).
Direction of weather phenomena are indicated by the eight points of the compass.
Distance remarks are in statute miles - EXCEPT for automated lightning remarks which are
in nautical miles.
Movement of clouds or weather is indicated by the direction toward which the phenomenon is
moving.
The following examples of remarks are listed in the order they would appear in a METAR.
There are numerous duplications of these examples that were presented under the various
weather element discussions in earlier sections. You may wish to refer to the weather element
sections pertinent to the remark for further information so you can tie things together for a better
understanding of the topic at hand.
36
An example of the remark is given which is then followed by a quotation of how the remark is
spoken.
1. Volcanic Eruptions
Example: MT. HOOD VOLCANO 50 MILES W ERUPTED 161410 LARGE

ASH CLOUD EXTENDING TO APPROX 40000 FEET MOVING E
“Mt. Hood volcano five zero miles West, erupted at one four one zero. Large ash cloud
extending to approximately four zero thousand feet, moving East.”
2. Tornado, Funnel Cloud, Waterspout (manual stations only)
Example: TORNADO B15 DSNT SE
“Tornado began one five past the hour to the distant Southeast.”
3. Station Type (automated stations only)
Automated weather reporting stations will indicate one of two codes - AO1 or AO2
AO1 indicates a basic station with no weather discriminating equipment.
AO2 indicates a station with weather discriminating equipment.
If AO1 or AO2 is not present, the report was generated by a person or a person has augmented
the automated observation.
4. Peak Wind (PK WND) - Whenever the peak wind exceeds 25 knots, PK WND
will be included in remarks.
Example: PK WND 25035/1825
“Peak wind two five zero at three five occurred at one eight two five”
Example: PK WND 32040/26
“Peak wind three two zero at four zero occurred at two six past the hour”
5. Wind Shift (WSHFT) (FROPA)
When a wind shift occurs, WSHFT is included in remarks followed by the time the wind shift
began (with only the minutes reported). FROPA may be entered following the time if the wind
shift is the result of a frontal passage.
(continued, next page)

37
Example: WSHFT 35 “Wind shift at three five minutes after the hour”
Example: WSHFT 40 FROPA
“Windshift at four zero after the hour due to frontal passage”
6. Tower Visibility (TWR VIS) or Surface Visibility (SFC VIS)
If either tower or surface visibility is less than four statute miles, the lesser of the two will be
reported in the body of the METAR, the greater visibility is reported in remarks.
Example: (in the body) 3/4SM (in remarks) TWR VIS 1

(remarks) “Tower visibility one”
Example: (in the body) 2SM (in remarks) SFC VIS 2 1/2
(remarks) “Surface visibility two and one-half”
7. Variable Visibility (VRB VIS)
When the prevailing visibility rapidly increases or decreases by 1/2 statute mile or more,
during a weather observation, and the average prevailing visibility is less than three statute
miles, the visibility is variable. Variable visibility is shown in remarks with the minimum and
maximum visibility values.
Example: VIS 1 V 2 “Visibility variable between one and two”
8. Sector Visibility (Sector VIS)
Sector visibility is shown in remarks when it differs from the prevailing visibility by one or more
reportable values and either the prevailing or sector visibility is less than 3 miles.
Example: VIS N 2 “Visibility North two”
9. Visibility at second site (VIS @ 2nd Site)
For automated reporting stations having more than one visibility sensor, site specific visibility
which is lower than the visibility shown in the body will be shown in remarks.
Example: VIS 2 RY11 “Visibility two, at Runway one one”
11. Lightning (LTG)
When lightning is seen by the weather observer, it will be included in remarks. The frequency
of occurrence, type of lightning when observed, and the location will be
(continued next page)
38
indicated. The frequency and type of lightning contractions are listed below. The location is
determined in reference to the point of observation.
Frequency of Lightning
OCNL “Occasional” (less than 1 flash per minute)

FRQ “Frequent” (about 1 to 6 flashes per minute)
CONS “Continuous” (more than 6 flashes per minute)
Type of Lightning
CG “Cloud to ground”
IC “In cloud”
CC “Cloud to cloud”
CA “Cloud to air”
Examples:
OCNL LTGICCG SW “Occasional lightning in cloud and cloud to ground

Southwest”
FRQ LTG VC “Frequent lightning in the vicinity of the station”
CONS LTGCC NE “Continuous lightning cloud to cloud, Northeast”
LTG DSNT S “Lightning distant South”
When lightning is detected by an automated weather reporting system:
within 5 nautical miles of the Airport Location Point (ALP), it will be reported
as TS (thunderstorm) in the body of the report with no remarks.
between 5 and 10 nutical miles of the ALP, it will be reported as VCTS

(thunderstorms in the vicinity) in the body of the report with no remark.
beyond 10 but less than 30 nautical miles of the ALP, it will be reported in
remarks only as LGT DSNT (lightning distant) followed by the direction
from the ALP.
12. Beginning/Ending of Precipitation/Thunderstorms
Precipitation
When precipitation begins or ends, remarks will show the type of precipitation as well as the
beginning and/or ending time(s) of occurrence. Intensity qualifiers are not shown. Only the
minutes are required if the hour can be inferred from the report time. Types of precipitation may
be combined if beginning or ending times are the same.

39
These remarks are not required in SPECI reports but will be shown in the next METAR.
Example: RAB05E30SNB20E55
“Rain began at zero five, ended at three zero, snow began at two zero,
ended at five five”
Example: RABSNB20E55
“Rain and snow began at two zero, ended at five five”
Example: RAB20SNB20
“Rain and snow began at two zero”
Thunderstorms
When thunderstorms begin or end, remarks will show the thunderstorm as well as the beginning
and/or ending time(s) of occurrence. Only minutes will be shown if the hour can be inferred
from the time of the weather report.
These remarks are required in SPECI's and will also be shown in the next METAR.
Example: TSB05E40 “Thunderstorm began at zero five, ended at four zero”
13. Thunderstorm (TSTM) Location and Movement (MVMT)
Thunderstorm(s) location and movement will be shown in remarks as TS followed by location

and movement.
Examples:
TS OHD MOV E “Thunderstorm overhead, moving East”

TS VC NE MOV E “Thunderstorm in the vicinity Northeast, moving East”
TS DSNT N MOV SE “Thunderstorm distant North, moving Southeast”
14. Hailstone Size (GR)
The size of the largest hailstones, in 1/4 inch increments, is shown in remarks preceded with the
contraction for hail, GR.
If small hail or snow pellets (GS) are encoded in the body of the report, no remark will be
shown in reference to size.
Example: GR 3/4 “Hailstones three quarter inch in diameter”
40
15. Virga
When precipitation is observed but is not reaching the ground, VIRGA is shown in remarks.
The direction from the station may also be reported.
Examples:
VIRGA “Virga at the station”
VIRGA W “Virga West”
VIRGA DSNT SE “Virga distant Southeast”
16. Variable Ceiling (VRB CIG)
Whenever the ceiling is below 3,000 feet and is variable, the remark CIG is shown followed
with the lowest and highest ceiling heights.
Example: CIG 005V010 “Ceiling variable between five hundred and one thousand”
17. Obscurations
When an obscuration (surface or aloft) is observed, the obscuring phenomenon followed by the
amount of the obscuration (FEW, SCT, BKN), followed by the layer height is shown in
remarks.
Examples:
FG FEW000 “Fog obscuring one to two-eighths of the sky”
HZ SCT000 “Haze obscuring three to four-eighths of the sky”
FU BKN020 “Broken layer of smoke aloft, based at two thousand”
18. Variable Sky Condition
When a layer that is 3,000 feet or less is varying in sky cover, remarks will show the variability
range.
Example: SCT V BKN “Scattered variable broken”
If there is more than one cloud layer, the variable layer will be identified by including the layer
height.
Example: BKN025 V OVC “Two thousand five hundred broken variable overcast”
41
19. Significant Cloud Types
Significant clouds will be shown in remarks indicating direction from station and direction of
movement (if known). If the cloud is beyond 10 miles from the airport, DSNT will indicate
“distant.” Examples of significant clouds with remarks are listed below:
Examples:
CB W MOV E “Cumulonimbus West moving East”

CBMAM DSNT N “Cumulonimbus mammatus distant North”
TCU OHD “Towering cumulus overhead”
TCU E “Towering cumulus East”
ACC E “Altocumulus castellanus East”
ACSL NW-N “Standing lenticular altocumulus Northwest to North”
20. Sky @ 2nd Site (Ceiling)
Some automated weather reporting stations may show site specific cloud heights at a secondary
location in remarks. The remark format is CIG (cloud height) (location).
Example: CIG 010 RY22 “Ceiling one thousand at runway two two”
21. Pressure Rising/Falling Rapidly (PRESRR / PRESFR)
At designated stations, when the pressure is rising or falling at a rate of at least 0.06 inch per
hour and the pressure change totals 0.02 or more at the time of observation, remarks will show
PRESRR or PRESFR respectively.
22. Sea-Level Pressure (SLP)
At designated stations that report sea-level pressure, this remark begins with SLP and is coded
using tens, units, and tenths of sea-level pressure in hectopascals (same as millibars). If no sea-
level pressure is available, it will be shown as SLPNO.
Example:
SLP132 “Sea-level pressure one zero one three point two hectopascals”
23. Aircraft Mishap (ACFT MSHP)
A weather report is taken after an aircraft incident or accident to document weather conditions.
This report is not transmitted over the weather circuits.
42
24. No SPECI Available
At manual weather observing stations that do not take special weather reports, NOSPECI is
shown in remarks of all METAR reports.
25. Snow Increasing Rapidly (SNINCR)
This is reported at designated stations whenever snow depth increases by 1 inch or more in the
past hour. The remark SNINCR is followed with the depth increase in the past hour, then a
solidus ( / ), and then the total snow depth on the ground at the time of the weather report.
Example: SNINCR 2/10 “Snow increase two inches during the past hour
total depth on the ground of ten inches”
26. Other significant information
Operationally significant information such as fog dispersal operations, runway conditions, or

first and last reports may be added to remarks here.
ADDITIVE and AUTOMATED MAINTENANCE DATA:
Additive data groups are only reported at designated weather reporting stations. The
maintenance data groups are only reported from automated weather reporting stations. Most
remarks in this category are not operationally significant for aviation purposes and are used by
meteorologists. Below are a few remarks that have significance to pilots by indicating the
unavailability of certain weather measuring sensors.
If the RVR element in the body of the weather report should be reported but is missing,
RVRNO will be shown in remarks.
Example: RVRNO “Runway visual range information not available”
If an automated weather reporting station is equipped with the following sensors and they are not
working, the following remarks will be shown:
PWINO “Present weather identifier not available”

PNO “Precipitation amount not available”
FZRANO “Freezing rain information not available”
TSNO “Thunderstorm information not available”
VISNO “Visibility sensor information not available”
CHINO “Cloud height indicator information not available”
43
Automated weather reporting stations with secondary site sensors may show in remarks:
VISNO (runway) “Visibility sensor information not available at

runway XX”
CHINO (runway) “Cloud height indicator information not available at

runway XX”
Maintenance Indicator ( $ )
A maintenance indicator sign, $ is appended to the end of an automated weather report when
the unit detects that maintenance is needed on the system.
44
TAF
(Routine Aviation Terminal Forecast)
Issued every 6 hours:
0000Z 0600Z 1200Z 1800Z
A first encounter with a TAF (Routine Aviation Terminal Forecast) can be a mind boggling
experience. However by carefully examining a TAF while seeking four key words ( FM,
TEMPO, BCMG, PROB30, PROB40 ) your ability to interpret a TAF will be much easier.
Think of FM as “after”, meaning a rapid change in weather occurring within 1 hour
See page 54 for a complete discussion of FM.
Think of BCMG as “a gradual change” of weather.
See page 54, 55 for a complete discussion of BCMG.
Think of TEMPO as “occasional”
See page 55 for a complete discussion of TEMPO.
Think of PROB30 as “a slight chance” of weather occuring with a 10-29% probability.
Think of PROB40 as “a chance” of weather occuring with a 30-50% probability.
See page 53 for a complete discussion of PROB30 and PROB40.
A Special Note About NSW:
Be very careful with the contraction NSW (No significant weather). This does not mean the
weather is excellent VFR or perhaps thought of as "Clear and unrestricted visibility".
- CAUTION -
When NSW appears in a TAF, it only indicates obstructions to visibility or precipitation

previously noted is expected to end. Pay special note to the sky condition (cloud bases), which
could be quite low. So low, as a matter of fact, that VFR flight is not possible.
See page 51 for more information on NSW.
45
Meters to Miles Conversion Chart
Military TAFs are a little different in format, which is not discussed here. However, a big
distinction is that visibilities are given in meters in military TAFs. The below chart is available
to convert meters to miles, if needed.
STATUTE
METERS MILES
0000 0
0100 1/16
0200 1/8
0300 3/16
0400 1/4
0500 5/16
0600 3/8
0800 1/2
1000 5/8
1200 3/4
1400 7/8
1600 1
1800 1-1/8
2000 1-1/4
2200 1-3/8
2400 1-1/2
2600 1-5/8
2800 1-3/4
3000 1-7/8
3200 2
3600 2-1/4
4000 2-1/2
4800 3
6000 4
8000 5
9000 6
9999 More than 6
46
TAF
A Routine Aviation Terminal Forecast (TAF) is a concise statement of the expected
meteorological conditions at an airport during a specified period (usually 24 hours). Each
country is allowed to make modifications or exceptions to the code for use in each particular
country. The TAF code, as described here, is the one used in the United States.
As of November, 2008, 32 of the larger air carrier “high-impact” U.S. airports issue 30 hour
TAFs. A listing of these airports follows page 49, on page 49-A. Valid date/time groups identify
forecast data since 30 hour TAFs can carry over into a second day. All other TAFs remain valid
for a 24 hour time period containing date/time groups, as well.
TAFs use the same weather code found in METAR weather reports. A detailed explanation of
weather coding is found in the METAR section of this book.
TAF REPORT ELEMENTS
TAF KOKC 051130Z 0512/0612 14008KT 5SM BR BKN030

TEMPO 0513/0516 1 1/2SM BR
FM051600 16010KT P6SM SKC
BECMG 0522/0524 20013G20KT 4SM SHRA OVC020
PROB40 0600/0606 2SM TSRA OVC008CB
BECMG 0606/0608 21015KT P6SM NSW SCT040
A TAF report contains the following sequence of elements in the following order:
1. Type of Report
2. ICAO Station Identifier Followed by Date and Time of Origin
3. Valid Period Date and Time
4. Forecast Meteorological Conditions
The international TAF also contains forecast temperature, icing and turbulence. These three
elements are not included in National Weather Service prepared TAFs.
The U.S. has no requirement to forecast temperatures in a forecast and the National Weather
Service will continue to forecast icing and turbulence in AIRMETS and SIGMETS.
The following paragraphs describe the elements in a TAF. A sample TAF will accompany each
paragraph with the subject element that is under discussion HIGHLIGHTED in this
manner.
47
TAF
TYPE OF REPORT

TEMPO 0513/0516 1 1/2SM BR
The report header will always appear as the first element in the TAF. There are two types of
TAFs: A routine forecast, TAF; and an amended forecast, TAF AMD. An amended TAF is
issued when the current TAF no longer adequately describes the ongoing weather or the
forecaster feels the TAF is not representative of the current or expected weather.
Corrected (COR) or delayed (RTD) TAFs are identified only in the communications header of a
transmitted TAF. This header precedes the forecast text. The communications header will not
be displayed when the TAF is viewed.
Example:
TAF - terminal forecast

TAF AMD - amended terminal forecast
ICAO STATION IDENTIFIER

TEMPO 0513/0516 1 1/2SM BR
The TAF code uses ICAO four-letter location identifiers as described in the METAR section.
The above location identifier (KOKC) is Oklahoma City, OK, Will Rogers World Airport.
48
TAF
DATE and TIME of ORIGIN

TEMPO 0513/0516 1 1/2SM BR
This element is the UTC date and time the forecast is actually prepared. The format is a two-
digit date and four-digit time followed, without a space, by the letter Z. Routine TAFs are
prepared and filed approximately one-half hour before scheduled issuance times. TAFs are
scheduled for issuance four times daily at 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z, and 1800Z.
Example:
091050Z - Forecast prepared on the ninth day of the month at 1050Z
VALID PERIOD DATE and TIME

TEMPO 0513/0516 1 1/2SM BR
The UTC valid period of the forecast is a two-digit date followed by the two-digit begin-ning
hour, a slanted line, then a two-digit date followed by the two digit ending hour. Routine TAF's
are valid for 24 hours. Valid periods beginning at 0000Z are indicated as 00. Valid periods
ending at 0000Z are indicated as 24. The 24 indication applies to all time group ending times
ending at 0000Z. 32 air carrier airports listed on the following page issue 30 hour TAFs.
In the case of an amended forecast, or a forecast which is corrected or delayed, the valid period
may be less than 24 hours. Where an airport or terminal operates on a part-time basis (less than
24 hours/day), the TAF's issued for those locations will have the abbrev-
iated statement “NIL AMD SKED (closing time) Z,” added to the end of the forecast. For the
TAF's issued while these locations are closed, the word NIL will appear in place of the forecast
text. A delayed (RTD) forecast will then be issued for these locations
after two complete observations are received.
Examples:
0912/1012 - Forecast valid from the ninth at 1200Z until the tenth at 1200Z.
1100/1124 - Forecast valid from the eleventh at 0000Z until the twelfth at 0000Z.
0105/0124 - Amended forecast valid from the first at 0500Z until the second at 0000Z.
49
TAF
Effective 1800 UTC on November 5, 2008, the TAFs for 32 air carrier high-impact U.S. airports
cover a 30 hour time period. Valid date/time groups identify forecast data since 30 hour TAFs
can carry over into a second day. All other TAFs remain valid for a 24 hour time period
containing date/time groups, as well.
Example 30 hour TAF for the Philadelphia International Airport:
TAF KPHL 051130Z 0512/0618 14008KT 5SM BR BKN030

TEMPO 0513/0516 1 1/2SM BR
The airports with the 30 hour TAFs include:
ATL - Hartsfield / Jackson Atlanta International

BDL - Bradley International
BOS - General Edward Lawrence Logan International
BWI - Baltimore-Washington Thurgood Marshall International
CLE - Cleveland/Hopkins International
CVG - Cincinnati-Northern Kentucky International
DEN - Denver International
DFW - Dallas/Fort Worth International
DTW - Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County
EWR - Newark Liberty International
IAD - Washington Dulles International
IAH - George Bush International
IND - Indianapolis International
JFK - John F. Kennedy International
LAX - Los Angeles International
MKE - General Mitchell International
MSP - Minneapolis-St. Paul International/Wold-Chamberlain
OAK - Metropolitan Oakland International
ORD - Chicago O’Hare International
PHL - Philadelphia International
PIT - Pittsburgh International
SAN - San Diego International
SDF - Louisville International/Standiford Field
SEA - Seattle-Tacoma International
SFO - San Francisco International
SLC - Salt Lake City International
STL - Lambert-St. Louis International
SWF - Stewart International
PANC - Ted Stevens Anchorage International
PHNL - Honolulu International
PAFA - Fairbanks International
49-A
TAF
FORECAST METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS

TEMPO 0513/0516 1 1/2SM BR
The highlighted text above is the body of the TAF. The basic format is:
Wind - Visibility - Weather - Sky Condition - Optional Data (Wind Shear)
The wind, visibility, and sky condition elements are always included in the initial time group of
the forecast. Weather is included in the initial time group only if significant to aviation. If a
significant, lasting change in any of the elements is expected during the valid period, a new time
period (FM, BECMG, TEMPO) with the changes is included.
An important distinction in a TAF to understand is that with the exception of the FM group, the
new time period (BECMG, TEMPO) will include only those elements which are expected to
change. For example, if a lowering of the visibility is expected but the wind is expected to
remain the same, the new time period reflecting the lower visibility would not include a forecast
wind. The forecast wind would remain the same as in the previous time period, even
though it is not mentioned in the new time period. You must refer back to what precedes the
BECMG, TEMPO time periods for forecast elements not mentioned after the BECMG, TEMPO
time periods to obtain the complete forecast for that time period.
However, any temporary (TEMPO) conditions expected during a specific time period are
included for that time period only.
The following describes the elements in the above TAF example.
Wind
The wind group includes forecast surface winds. The surface wind forecast is the expected
wind direction (first three digits) and speed (last two digits, or three, if 100 knots or greater).
The contraction KT, follows to denote the units of wind speed in knots. Wind gusts are noted
by the letter G appended to the wind speed followed by the highest expected gust (two digits, or
three, if 100 knots or greater).
Variable winds are encoded when it is impossible to forecast a wind direction due to winds
associated with convective activity or low wind speeds. A variable wind direction is noted by
VRB where the three-digit direction usually appears.
(continued, next page)
50
TAF
Examples:
18010KT “Wind one eight zero at one zero”
35012G20KT “Wind three five zero at one two gust two zero”
00000KT “Wind calm” (wind 3 knots or less)
VRB16G28KT “Wind variable at one six gust two eight”
Visibility
The expected prevailing visibility is forecast in statute miles and fractions of statute miles
followed by SM to note the units of measure. Statute miles followed by fractions of statute miles
are separated with a space.
Forecast visibility greater than 6 statute miles is indicated by coding P6SM. Directional or
variable visibility is not forecast. And the visibility group is omitted, if missing.
Examples:
1/2SM “Visibility one half”
2 1/4SM “Visibility two and one quarter”
5SM “Visibility five”
P6SM “Visibility more than six”
Weather
The expected weather phenomenon or phenomena is coded in TAFs using the same format,
qualifiers, and phenomena contractions as METAR reports (except UP). Simply refer to the
METAR sections of this book to decode the “weather” element.
Obscurations to vision will be forecast whenever the prevailing visibility is forecast to be 6

statute miles or less.
If no significant weather is expected to occur during a specific time period in the forecast, the
weather group is omitted for that time period. If, after a time period in which significant
weather has been forecast, a change to a forecast of no significant weather occurs, the
contraction NSW (No Significant Weather) will appear as the weather group in the new time
period. However, NSW is only included in BECMG or TEMPO groups.
This is a repeat, but definitely warrants mentioning again. Be very careful with the contraction
NSW (No significant weather). This does not mean the weather is excellent VFR or perhaps
thought of as “Clear and unrestricted visibility.”
- CAUTION -
When NSW appears in a TAF, it only indicates obstructions to visibility or precipitation
previously noted is expected to end. Pay special note to the sky condition (cloud bases), which
could be quite low. So low, as a matter of fact, that VFR flight is not possible.
51
TAF
Sky Condition
TAF sky condition forecasts use the METAR format described in the METAR section.
Cumulonimbus clouds (CB) are the only cloud type forecast in TAF's.
Ceiling layers are not designated in the TAF code. For aviation purposes, the ceiling is the
lowest broken or overcast layer - or vertical visibility into a complete obscuration.
When the sky is obscured due to a surface based phenomenon, vertical visibility (VV) into the
obscuration is forecast. The format for vertical visibility is “ VV ” followed by a three digit
height in hundreds of feet.
Examples:
VV008 “Indefinite ceiling eight hundred”

SKC “Sky clear”
SCT005 BKN025CB “Five hundred scattered, ceiling two thousand five
hundred broken cumulonimbus clouds”
Optional Data (Windshear)
Windshear is the forecast of non-convective low level winds (up to 2,000 feet) and is entered
after the sky conditions when wind shear is expected. The forecast includes the height of the
wind shear followed by the wind direction and wind speed at the indicated height. Height is
given in hundreds of feet AGL up to and including 2,000 feet. Wind shear is encoded with the
contraction, WS, followed by a three-digit height, slant character “ / ”, and winds at the height
indicated in the same format as surface winds. The wind shear element is omitted if not
expected to occur.
Example:
WS010/18040KT - “Low level wind shear at one thousand, wind one

eight zero at four zero”
Other items not included in domestic TAFs that may appear in international or some military
TAFs as optional data following wind shear are:
Icing forecast - a coded group beginning with a 6 followed by five digits.
Turbulence forecast - a coded group beginning with a 5 followed by five digits.
Temperature forecast - a coded group beginning with a T followed by the temperature

and time.
52
TAF
PROBABILITY FORECAST
The probability forecast indicates the probability or chance of thunderstorms or other

precipitation events occurring, along with associated weather conditions (wind, visibility, and
sky conditions).
PROB40 = “Chance”

TEMPO 0513/0516 1 1/2SM BR
The PROB40 group is used when the occurrence of thunderstorms or precipitation is in the 30%
to less than 50% range, thus the probability value 40 is appended to the PROB contraction.
This is followed by two four digit groups, separated by a slant, giving the date & beginning
hour and the date & ending hour of the time period during which the thunderstorms or
precipitation is expected.
Note: PROB40 will not be shown during the first six hours of a forecast.
Examples:
PROB40 1421/1502 1/2SM +TSRA
“Chance between 2100Z on the fourteenth day of the month and
0200Z on the fifteenth day of the month of visibility one-half
thunderstorm, heavy rain”
PROB30 = “Slight Chance”
The PROB30 group is used when the occurrence of thunderstorms or precipitation is in the 10%
to 29% range. The probability value 30 is appended to the PROB contraction. This is followed
by two four digit groups, separated by a slant, giving the date & beginning hour and the date &
ending hour of the time period during which the thunderstorms or precipitation is expected.
Note: PROB30 will not be shown during the first six hours of a forecast.
Example:
PROB30 0620/0622 2SM RA

“Slight chance between 2000Z and 2200Z on the sixth day of the
month of visibility two, rain”
53
TAF
FORECAST CHANGE INDICATORS
The following change indicators are used when either a rapid, gradual, or temporary change is
expected in some or all of the forecast meteorological conditions. Each change indicator marks a
time group within a TAF.
FROM Group = “After” (A rapid change)

TEMPO 0513/0516 1 1/2SM BR
The FM group is used when a rapid change, usually occurring in less than one hour, in
prevailing conditions is expected.
Typically, a rapid change of prevailing conditions to a completely new set of prevailing

conditions is associated with a synoptic feature passing through the terminal area (such as cold or
warm frontal passage).
Appended to the FM indicator is the six-digit date, hour, and minute the change is expected to
begin and continues until the next change group or until the end of the current forecast.
A FM group will mark the beginning of a new line in a TAF. Each FM group contains all the
required elements - wind, visibility, weather, and sky condition. Weather will be omitted in FM
groups when it is not significant to aviation. FM groups will not include the contraction NSW.
Examples:
FM230100 SKC “After 0100Z on the twenty-third day of the month, sky clear”
FM051430 OVC020 “After 1430Z on the fifth day of the month,
ceiling two thousand overcast”
BECOMING Group = “A gradual change”

TEMPO 0513/0516 1 1/2SM BR
54
TAF
BECOMING Group (Con't)
The BECMG group is used when a gradual change in conditions is expected over a longer time
period, usually two hours. The time period when the change is expected is two four-digit
groups, separated by a slant, with the beginning date & hour and the ending date & hour of
the change period, which follow the BECMG indicator. The gradual change will occur at an
unspecified time within this time period.
Only the changing forecast meteorological conditions are included in BECMG groups. The
omitted conditions are carried over from the previous time group.
See page 50 for a detailed explanation.
Example:
OVC012 BECMG 0314/0316 BKN020
“Ceiling one thousand two hundred overcast. Then a gradual change to
ceiling two thousand broken between 1400Z and 1600Z on the
third day of the month”
TEMPORARY Group = “Occasional” (Less than one hour)

TEMPO 0513/0516 1 1/2SM BR
The TEMPO group is used for any conditions in wind, visibility, weather, or sky condition
which are expected to last for generally less than an hour at a time (occasional), and are
expected to occur during less than half the time period.
The TEMPO indicator is followed by two four-digit groups, separated by a slant, giving the
beginning date & hour and the ending date & hour of the time period during which the
temporary conditions are expected.
Only the changing forecast meteorological conditions are included in TEMPO groups. The
omitted conditions are carried over from the previous time group.
See page 50 for a detailed explanation.
Example:
SCT030 TEMPO 0419/0423 BKN030
“Three thousand scattered with occasional ceilings three thousand
broken between 1900Z and 2300Z on the fourth day of the month”
55
THE 24 HOUR CLOCK
0100 = 1 a.m.
0200 = 2 a.m.
0300 = 3 a.m.
0400 = 4 a.m.
0500 = 5 a.m.
0600 = 6 a.m.
0700 = 7 a.m.
0800 = 8 a.m.
0900 = 9 a.m.
1000 = 10 a.m.
1100 = 11 a.m.
1200 = 12 p.m.
1300 = 1 p.m.
1400 = 2 p.m.
1500 = 3 p.m.
1600 = 4 p.m.
1700 = 5 p.m.
1800 = 6 p.m.
1900 = 7 p.m.
2000 = 8 p.m.
2100 = 9 p.m.
2200 = 10 p.m.
2300 = 11 p.m.
2400 = 12 a.m.
For the current accurate time, call the U.S. Naval

Observatory Master Clock at 202-762-1401. The only
cost is for standard telephone toll rates.
56
COMPUTING "ZULU" TIME
Coordinated Universal Time – UTC
For Standard Time:
Eastern Standard Time add 5 hours

Central Standard Time add 6 hours
Mountain Standard Time add 7 hours
Pacific Standard Time add 8 hours
B.C. Standard Time add 8 hours
Yukon Standard Time add 8 hours
Alaska Standard Time add 9 hours
Bering Standard Time add 10 hours
Hawaii Standard Time add 10 hours
For Daylight Savings Time:
Eastern Daylight Savings add 4 hours

Central Daylight Savings add 5 hours
Mountain Daylight Savings add 6 hours
Pacific Daylight Savings add 7 hours
B.C. Daylight Savings add 7 hours
Yukon Daylight Savings add 7 hours
Alaska Daylight Savings add 8 hours
Bering Daylight Savings add 9 hours
Hawaii Daylight Savings add 9 hours
57

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THE METAR & TAF

QUICK REFERENCE MANUAL

eBook Series Version 1.3

Copyright 2012 Find-it Fast Books

“The writer does the most

Explanatory note of the list of METAR abbreviations on the following pages:

automated report. A meteorological report prepared by an automated surface weather

clear sky (SKC). The state of the sky when it is cloudless.

ice fog. See freezing fog.

Runway Visual Range (RVR). An instrumentally-derived value, based on standard

sand (SA). Loose particles of granular material.

smoke (FU). A suspension in the air of small particles produced by combustion.

thunderstorm (TS). A descriptor, TS, used to qualify precipitation produced by cumulonimbus

Below is an example of a METAR with explanations:

METAR Aviation Routine Weather Report (Type of Report)

METAR aviation routine weather report

SPECI non-routine (special) weather report

1. METAR - An hourly aviation routine weather report.

A routine METAR hourly weather report is observed between 45 minutes after

2. SPECI - A non-routine (special) aviation weather report.

Wind - A wind shift.

RVR - Changes to above or below 2400 feet.

Thunderstorm - Begins or ends.

Precipitation - If certain types of precipitation begin, end, or change intensity.

Squalls - When they occur.

Volcanic Eruption - When an eruption is first noted.

Miscellaneous - Any other meteorological situation designated by the weather agency,

Example: Former MIA (Miami, FL) has become KMIA

Alaskan stations begin with PA.

Example: Former ANC (Anchorage, AK) has become PANC

Hawaiian stations begin with PH.

Example: Former HNL (Honolulu, HI) has become PHNL

Here's an example of this rule in Hawaii:

A complete worldwide listing of station identifiers is contained in ICAO Document 7910,

The Date/Time group in a METAR has six characters:

Z is placed at the end of this Date/Time group to indicate Zulu Time

AUTO identifies an automated weather report with no human intervention.

AO1 - Is for automated weather reporting stations without a

AO2 - Is for automated weather reporting stations with a

Directions less than 100 degrees are preceded with a zero.

Example: 32009KT “Wind three two zero at niner”

If wind speed is less than one knot, it is reported as calm.

Example: 00000KT “Wind calm”

Example: VRB03KT “Wind variable at three”

Example: WSHFT 35 “Wind shift at three five”

Example: 10SM “Visibility one zero”

Example: 1 1/2SM “Visibility one and one half”

Example: (in the body) 1 1/2SM (remarks) VIS 1V2

TOWER OR SURFACE VISIBILITY

Example: M1/4SM “Visibility less than one-quarter”

Example: 10SM “Visibility one zero”

SECOND SITE SENSORS

Example: VIS 1 RY22 “Visibility one, at Runway two two”

Example: VIS S 1 “Visibility South one”

If RVR should be reported, but is missing, RVRNO will be in remarks.

Additional examples of variable RVR readings:

The below RVR condition requires the issuance of a SPECI report:

Other types of Weather Phenomena:

Descriptor Qualifiers of Weather Phenomena Include the following:

Intensity Qualifiers include: Light, denoted by - ; Moderate, denoted by the lack of a