Well Logging

[PEP 432]

Dr. Eng. Adel Salem

Asst. Prof. of PE
Department of Petroleum & Mining Engineering
Suez Canal University
Fall Semester 2010/2011

Outlines: Course Contents

1. Introduction
2. Spontaneous Potential (SP Logs)
3. Natural Gamma Ray Logs (NGR Logs)
4. Formation Water Resistivity Determination
5. Resistivity Logs
1. Conventional Electric Logs
2. Focusing Electrode Logs
3. Induction Logging
4. Micro-resistivity Devices
6. Porosity Logs
1. Sonic Logs
2. Density Logs
3. Neutron Logs
7. Determination of Saturation

December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 2
Outlines: Course Contents, …
8. Lithology and Porosity Determination

9. Conventional Interpretation Techniques

10. Reconnaissance Interpretation Techniques

11. Pattern-Recognition Interpretation Techniques (Crossplotting)

12. Interpretation in Complex Lithologies.

13. Log Interpretation of Shaly Formations.

14. Evaluation of Gas-Bearing Formations

15. LWD and MWD

16. CMR and MRIL

December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 3

Lecture 8

Porosity Logs:
1. Sonic Logs

2010 / 2011
December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 4
Agenda of Lecture 8
Introduction
1. Single-Receiver System
2. Dual · Receiver System
The Principle
Span between Receivers and Tool Resolution
Porosity Measurements from The BHC Sonic Tool
BHC Tool
Cyclic skipping
Depth of Investigation
Log Presentation
Porosity Determination:
Wyllie Time-Average Equation
Factors Affecting Sonic Interpretation
December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 5

Introduction
Total porosity may consist of primary and secondary
porosity. Effective porosity is the total porosity after the
shale correction is applied.

Rock porosity can be obtained from the sonic log, density

log or neutron log. For all these devices, the tool response
is affected by the formation porosity, fluid and matrix. If
the fluid and matrix effects are known or can be
determined, the tool response can be determined and
related to porosity. Therefore, these devices are usually
referred to as porosity logs.

All three logging techniques respond to the characteristics

of the rock immediately adjacent to the borehole. Their
depth of investigation is shallow—only a few centimeters or
less—and therefore generally within the flushed zone.
December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 6
Introduction, …
Sonic devices were first introduced for seismic velocity
determination.

These "continuous velocity logs" were widely used in

petroleum exploration and development once it was
discovered that a reliable formation porosity value could be
extracted from the log response.

Conventional sonic tools measure the reciprocal of the

velocity of the compressional wave. This parameter is
called interval travel time, Δt, or slowness, and is expressed
in microseconds per foot.

December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 7

1. Single-Receiver System
Early sonic tools were equipped
with a single receiver.

In this system, a pulse is initiated at

the transmitter situated at a
distance from the receiver, Ls (also
called the spacing). Spacing,
Ls

The time measured, tlog, is between

the initiation of the pulse and the
first arrival of acoustic energy at the
receiver.

December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 8
1. Single-Receiver System, …
The Figure shows the waveform at the receiver and the time
measured.

Schematic of the waveform at the receiver showing

time measured by the single-receiver system.
December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 9

2. Dual · Receiver System

The dual-receiver system was introduced to remove the mud-
path contribution from the response of sonic tools.

The Figure shows a schematic of one of the first tools that

incorporated the two-receiver system.

The tool consists of a transmitter and three receivers located 3,

4, and 6 ft from the transmitter.

The transmitter emits acoustic waves at 10 waves/sec. The first

arrival of acoustic energy at each receiver triggers its response
system. A two-receiver system can be viewed as a very accurate
stopwatch.

The stopwatch starts when the acoustic energy arrives at the

first receiver and stops when it arrives at the second receiver.
The time indicated by the watch is the time required for the
sound wave to traverse a length of the formation equal to the
spacing between the two receivers.
(T is free from mud-path contribution)
December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 10
The Principle

December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 11

Span Between Receivers and Tool Resolution

Several parameters are involved in
the design and performance of sonic
tools. The distance between the
receivers. or span, determines the
tool's vertical resolution-i.e. the
thinnest bed that can be detected by
the measurement.

As a rule, tool resolution equals

the span between the receivers.
Two sonic curves can be obtained
with the tool in the Figure; a curve
based on the travel time between
Receivers R1 and R2, which are 1 ft
apart, and a second curve based on
the travel time between Receivers R2
and R3, which are 3 ft apart. 3- and 1.ft.spaclng sonic logs
recorded in a west Texas well
December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 12
Porosity Measurements From The BHC
Sonic Tool
INTRODUCTION
In its simplest form, a sonic tool
consists of a transmitter that emits a
sound pulse and a receiver that picks
up and records the pulse as it passes
the receiver.

The sound emanated from the

transmitter impinges on the borehole
wall. This establishes compressional
and shear waves within the formation,
surface waves along the borehole wall
and guided waves within the fluid
column.
December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 13

Introduction, …
The sonic log is simply a recording versus depth of the
time, tcomp, required for a compressional sound wave to
traverse 1 m of formation. Known as the interval transit
time, transit time, Δt or slowness, tcomp is the reciprocal of
the velocity of the sound wave. (For the remainder of this
document, tcomp is known as Δt.) The interval transit time
for a given formation depends upon its lithology and
porosity.

This dependence upon porosity, when the lithology is

known, makes the sonic log useful as a porosity log.
Integrated sonic transit times are also helpful in
interpreting seismic records. The sonic log can be run
simultaneously with many other services.

December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 14
BHC Tool
The borehole-compensated (BHC) tool
transmitters are pulsed alternately, and
Δt values are read on alternate pairs of
receivers.

The Δt values from the two sets of

receivers are averaged automatically by a
computer at the surface for borehole
compensation.

The computer also integrates the transit

time readings to obtain total travel times
(see Figures).

December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 15

Cyclic skipping
Sometimes the first arrival, although
strong enough to trigger the receiver
nearer the transmitter, may be too weak
by the time it reaches the far receiver to
trigger it. Instead, the far receiver may be
triggered by a different, later arrival in
the sonic wave train, and the travel time
measured on this pulse cycle will then be
too large. When this occurs, the sonic
curve shows an abrupt, large excursion
towards a higher Δt value; this is known
as cycle skipping.

Such skipping is more likely to occur

when the signal is strongly attenuated by
unconsolidated formations, formation
fractures, gas saturation, aerated muds
or rugose or enlarged borehole sections.

December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 16
Cyclic Skipping
The acoustic wave attenuates as it propagates through the
formation and borehole environment. If the wave is attenuated
beyond the threshold of the receiver, the receiver misses the first
arrival and detects a later event. If we use the stopwatch analogy,
a severe attenuation makes the clock run longer than it should.

In this case, the log displays an abnormally longer travel time.

Numerically, the travel time indicated by the I-ft spacing system is
increased in multiples of 33 μsec/ft. For the 3-ft span, the increase
is in multiples of 11 μsec/ft.

The Figure shows an example

of this phenomenon, called
cycle skipping.

December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 17

Cyclic Skipping
Cycle skipping commonly occurs in”

1. Series of thin beds of different velocities,

2. Gas sands,
3. Gas-cut mud,
4. Poorly consolidated formations, and
5. Fractured formations.

Basically, cycle skipping yields an incorrect reading. It can

be useful, however, as an indicator for gas-bearing
formations and fractured formations.

December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 18
Depth of Investigation
Influenced by the rays' presentations of acoustic wave
propagation, one might assume that the wave path is restricted
to the "skin" of the formation.

This, in turn, leads one to conclude that the log response is

influenced only by the fraction of the formation within a few
inches of the borehole wall. Although this assumption is not
completely unsound, the acoustic tools' depths of investigation
vary with the wavelength, λ, which is related to the formation
velocity, v, and signal frequency, f, by:

λ = v/f

Hence, for a 20-kHz wave, the depth of investigation varies

from 0.75 ft for soft formations to 3.75 ft for hard
formations.
December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 19

Log Presentation
The sonic log is run with Δt presented on a linear scale in
tracks 2 and 3 with a choice of two scales:

500–100 and 300–100 μsec/m.

A three-arm caliper curve representing the average borehole

diameter and a gamma ray (GR) curve are recorded
simultaneously in track 1 (See next Figure).

The gamma ray curve measures the natural radioactivity of

potassium, uranium and thorium in the formation and is
usually representative of the amount of shale present. This is
because radioactive elements tend to concentrate in clays and
shales. previously, we used the GR to compute volume of
shale (Vsh ).
December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 20
BHC
Borehole
Compensated
sonic Log

December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 21

Porosity Determination:
Wyllie Time-Average Equation
After numerous laboratory determinations, M.R.J. Wyllie
proposed, for clean and consolidated formations with uniformly
distributed small pores, a linear time-average or weighted-
average relationship between porosity and transit time:
(see Figure C4):

 

where
tlog is the reading on the sonic log in
μsec/m
tma is the transit time of the matrix
material
tf is the transit time of the saturating
fluid
December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 22
Typical Values:
Typical Values:
Sand: Δtmatrix = 182 μsec/m
Lime Δtmatrix = 156 μsec/m
Dolomite Δtmatrix = 143 μsec/m
Anydrite Δtmatrix = 164 μsec/m

When the formations are not sufficiently compacted, the

observed Δt values are greater than those that correspond to the
porosity according to the time-average formula, but the φ versus
t relationship is still approximately linear.

In these cases, an empirical correction factor, Cp, is applied to

give a corrected porosity, φSVcor :

Cp ≅ dividing sonic velocity

in nearby shale beds by 328.
December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 23

Typical Values, …

December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 24
Factors Affecting Sonic Interpretation

1. Lithology

7. Mudcake 2. Shale

3. Fluid Type
6. Borehole • Oil
Effect • Water
• Gas

5. Secondary
4. Compaction
Porosity
December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 25

Factors Affecting, …
1. Lithology
Lithology must be known to obtain the correct Vma . An incorrect
choice of Vma will produce erroneous calculations.

2. Shale
Shale content generally causes Δt to read too high for a porosity
calculation because of the bound water in the shale. The sonic
reads primary porosity, which may be affected by shale.

3. Fluid Type
The depth of investigation of the sonic is shallow; therefore,
most of the fluid seen by the sonic will be mud filtrate.

3.1. Oil
Oil usually has no effect.
December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 26
Factors Affecting, …
3.2. Water
There is usually no effect from water except where the drilling
fluid is salt saturated, and then a different Vf should be used,
usually 607 μsec/m.

3.3. Gas
Residual gas causes Δtlog to read too high when the formation is
uncompacted. The gas between the sand grains slows down the
compressional wave resulting in a long Δt. In compacted sands,
the wave will travel from one sand grain to another and the gas
effect will be reduced.

4. Compaction
The value of Δtlog will read too high in uncompacted sand
formations. Compaction corrections can be made if the
compaction factor (Bcp) is known.
December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 27

Factors Affecting, …….

5. Secondary Porosity
The sonic generally ignores secondary porosity. For example, in
vugular porosity, the travel time through the formation matrix is
faster than the time through fluid in the vugs, because Δtf is
about 3 to 4 times the value of Δtma .

6. Borehole Effect
The compensated sonic is unaffected by changing hole size
except in the case of extremely rough, large holes where the
formation signal is severely affected by the noise of the mud
signal and formation damage.

7. Mudcake
Mudcake has no effect on the BHC sonic because the travel time
through the mudcake is compensated.

December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 28
 Thanks A Lot for Your
Attention

December 13, 2010 Well Logging_Fall Semster 2010, Dr. Adel Salem Lecture 8: Page: 29