Metabolit Primer: Nur Hidayat
Metabolit Primer: Nur Hidayat
Metabolit Primer: Nur Hidayat
Metabolit Primer
Nur Hidayat
Pendahuluan
• Metabolit primer adalah metabolit yang
dihasilkan dari proses metabolisme primer
• Primary metabolism involves an interrelated
series of enzyme - mediated catabolic,
amphibolic, and anabolic reactions which
provide biosynthetic intermediates and energy,
and convert biosynthetic precursors into
essential macromolecules such as DNA, RNA,
proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides
• Commercially, the most important primary
metabolites were amino acids, vitamins, fl avor
nucleotides, organic acids, and alcohols
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Amino Acids
• Production of amino acids amounted to 2.3
million tons in 2002.
• The most important acids made at least partly
by biological methods were glutamate (1.6
million tons per year), lysine - HCl (700 000
tons), threonine (70 000 tons), phenylalanine
(13 000 tons, including that by chemical
synthesis), aspartic acid (10 000 tons made
enzymatically), and tryptophan (3000 tons
including that made enzymatically
MSG
• Monosodium glutamate ( MSG ) is used as a
potent fl avor enhancer.
• The glutamic acid fermentation was discovered
in Japan in 1957 by Kinoshita, Udaka, and
Shimono of the Kyowa Hakko Kogyo Company.
• MSG was manufactured using various species
of the genera Corynebacterium and
Brevibacterium
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MSG
• Normally, glutamic acid overproduction would
not be expected to occur because of feedback
regulation.
• Glutamate feedback controls include repression
of PEP carboxylase, citrate synthase, and
NADP - glutamate dehydrogenase; the last –
named enzyme is also inhibited by glutamate
MSG - Biotin
• Glutamate excretion was intentionally effected
by various manipulations, such as limitation of
biotin in Corynebacterium glutamicum ; all
glutamate overproducers were natural biotin
auxotrophs
• Biotin is a cofactor of acetyl - CoA carboxylase
which is essential for biosynthesis of fatty acids
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MSG
• The commonality in the various manipulations that
were found to bring about high - level production of
L - glutamic acid, that is, (i) limitation of biotin, (ii)
addition of penicillin, or (iii) fatty acid surfactants
(e.g., tween 60) to exponentially growing cells, was
recognized and the permeability mechanism was
strongly supported
• By genetic removal of homoserine dehydrogenase,
a glutamate - producing wild - type
Corynebacterium was converted into a lysine -
overproducing mutant that could not grow unless
methionine and threonine were added to the
medium
MSG
• E. coli strains were constructed with plasmids
bearing amino acid biosynthetic operons.
Plasmid transformation was also accomplished
in Corynebacterium , Brevibacterium, and
Serratia so that rDNA technology could be used
to improve these commercial amino acid -
producing strains
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Vitamins
• Vitamins are made at a rate of 70 000 tons per
year by synthesis and fermentation.
• Of these, ribofl avin was produced by these two
methods at an annual rate of 4000 tons. Most
fungi produce enough ribofl avin (vitamin B 2 )
to satisfy their growth requirements, but a few
were natural overproducers of this vitamin.
• This tendency of uncontrolled synthesis of
riboflavin was found primarily in two species of
fungi, Eremothecium ashbyi and Ashbya
gossypii .
Vitamins
• E. ashbyi was replaced in industry by the more
stable A. gossypii which produced, after genetic
manipulation, over 20 g/l of the vitamin.
• An rDNA process was developed for ribofl avin
in Corynebacterium ammoniagenes by cloning
and overexpressing the organism ’ s own ribofl
avin biosynthesis genes and its own promoter
sequences. The resulting culture produced 15
g/l riboflavin in 3 days.
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Vitamins
• Genetic engineering of a Bacillus subtilis strain
already containing purine analog - resistance
mutations led to production of 15 g/l riboflavin
• Bacterial formation of vitamin B 12 by bacteria is a
very old phenomenon
• In the late 1940s, a Merck scientist discovered that
Streptomyces griseus and Pseudomonas denitrifi
cans could form vitamin B 12
• Other studies showed that the vitamin could also be
produced by Propionibacterium shermanii as well
as other bacteria. P. denitrifi cans and P. shermanii
became the industrial producing organisms.
Organic Acids
• Organic acids have been an important product
of biotechnology
• The most important commercial organic acids
are citric, acetic, and lactic acids.
• Fermentation processes are also available for
production of succinic, gluconic, oxogluconic,
pyruvic, itaconic, shikimic, malic, propionic,
butyric, oxalic, kojic, fumaric, erythorbic, trans -
epoxysuccinic, tartaric, itatartaric, and long -
chain α , ω - dicarboxylic acids.
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Citric Acid
• Citric acid production has historic significance
since it was the first industrial fermentation to be
developed. It had been exclusively produced via
isolation from lemons.
• In 1916, citric acid production by black aspergilli
was described by Charles Thom and J.N. Currie
• Mutants producing higher concentrations were
obtained by Miles Laboratories, James et al.
and Hannan et al.
Citric Acid
• About 1.5 million tons of citric acid are produced
by A. niger per year.
• The commercial process employs A. niger in
media defi cient in iron and manganese.
• Other factors contributing to high citric acid
production were the inhibition of isocitrate
dehydrogenase by citric acid, and the low pH
optimum (1.7 – 2.0)
• Alternative processes were developed for the
production of citric acid by Candida yeasts,
especially from hydrocarbons
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Acetic Acid
• The acetic acid bacteria are Gram - negative,
obligately aerobic bacteria composed of species of
Acetobacter, Gluconoacetobacter, and Frateuria.
• Acetobacter suboxydans was used to produce
vinegar as far back as 4000 BC
• Industrial production of acetic acid was carried out
solely by the conversion of sugar until the latter
part of the 1800s when the distillation of wood
became competitive with the fermentation process.
• Petroleum then became a major source of
synthetic acetic acid
Acetic Acid
• Today, acetic acid fermentation is a two - step
process in which the yeast Saccharomyces
cerevisiae converts glucose to ethanol and
Acetobacter aceti produces acetic acid from the
ethanol.
• Cloning of aldehyde dehydrogenase from
Acetobacter polyoxogenes on a plasmid vector
into A. aceti subsp. xylinum increased the rate
of acetic acid production by over 100% (1.8 g/l
per h to 4 g/l per h) and titer by 40% (68 – 97
g/l)
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Acetic Acid
• Another group of organisms considered for
acetic acid production has been the anaerobic,
thermophilic anaerobes of the genus
Clostridium .
• In 1940, Wieringa isolated Clostridium aceticum
which was subsequently lost.
• However in 1942, Fontaine et al. isolated
Clostridium thermoaceticum which converted
sugar quantitatively to acetic acid via the
Embden – Meyerhof pathway to pyruvate which
was then converted to acetate.
Lactic Acid
• lactic acid is used in the food industry as a
preservative and as flavor enhancer and in the
chemical and pharmaceutical industries
• In 1878, Joseph Lister isolated the first pure
culture of any bacterium which he called
Bacterium lactis , later to be renamed
Lactobacillus lactis ssp. lactis.
• the fungus Rhizopus is also a producer of the
acid.
• Rhizopus oryzae synthesizes solely the L - (+)
isomer of lactic acid, whereas most lactobacilli
produce mixed isomers of the acid.