Methods of Research

METHODS OF RESEARCH
Chapter 1
THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND
Chapter 1 of a thesis should contain a discussion of each of the following topics:
Introduction
Statement of the Problem/ Objectives
Hypotheses
Significance or Importance of the Study
Definitions of Terms
Scope and Delimitation of the Study
Conceptual Framework
The Introduction
Guidelines in writing the introduction. The introduction of a thesis should contain a

discussion of any or all of the following:
1. Presentation of the Problem. The start of the introduction is the presentation of the
problem, that is, what the problem is all about.This will indicate what will be covered
by the study.
Example:
Suppose that the investigation is about the teaching of science in the high
schools of Province A. The discussion may start with this topic sentence: There is no
other period in world history when science has been making its greatest impact upon
humankind than it is today. (Prolong the discussion citing the multifarious and
wonderful benefits that science is giving to humanity today. Later, in connection wit
science, the topic for inquiry may be presented as the teaching of science in the high
schools of Province A during the school year 1989- 1990 as perceived by the science
teachers and students.)
2. The existence of an unsatisfactory condition, a felt problem that needs a solution.

Example:
The teaching of science in the high schools of Province A has been observed to be
weak as shown by the results of the survey tests given to the students recently. The
causes must be found so that remedial measures may be instituted. (The discussion
may be prolonged further)
3. Rationale of the study. The reason or reasons why it is necessary to conduct the
study must be discussed.
Example:
One of the Thrust of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports and of the
government for that matter is to strengthen the teaching of science. It is
necessary to conduct this inquiry to find out how to strengthen the instruction of science
in the province. (This may be prolonged)
4. Historical background of the problem. For a historical background of the research

problem of the teaching of science, the first satellite to orbited the earth,
educational systems all over the world including that the Philippines have been
trying hard to improve their science curricula and instruction, (This can be
explained further)
5. A desire to have deeper and cleared understanding of a situation, circumstance, or

phenomenon. If the teaching of science in the high schools of Province A is the topic,
the researcher must explain his earnest desire to have a deeper and clearer
understanding of the situation so that he will be in a better position to initiate
remedial measures.
6. A desire to find a better way of doing something or of improving a product. The

researcher must also explain his desire to find a better way in teaching science in the
high schools of Province A to improve the outcome of instruction.
7. A desire to discover something. In connection with the teaching of science in the

high schools of Province A, the researcher may have the desire to discover what is
wrong with the instruction and a desire to discover better ways of teaching the
subject. He may discuss his desire to discover such thing.
8. Geographical conditions of the study locale. This is necessary in anthropological and

economic studies. If the subject of investigation is rice production, then the terrain,
soil, climate, rainfall, etc. of the study locale have to be described.
9. A link between the introduction and the statement of the problem. A sentence or two
should how the link between the introduction and the conducting of the researcher.
Example:
The researcher got very much interested in determining the status of teaching
science in the high schools of Province A and so he conducted this research.
Statement of the Problem
There should be a general statement of the whole problem followed by the specific
questions or sub problems into which the general problem is broken up.
Example:
This study was conducted to investigate all aspects of the teaching of sciences in the
highschools of Province A duringthe school year xxxx to xxxx as perceived by the science
teachers and students. Specifically , the study attempted to answer the following questions:
a. How qualified are teachers handling science in the high schools of Proveince A?
b. How effective are the methods and strategies used by the teachers in teaching science?
c. How adequate are the instructional as well as the non-instructional facilities for the
teaching of science?
d. How adequate are the forms of supervisory assistance extended to the teachers relative
to the teaching of science?
e. Is there any significant difference between the perceptions of the teachers and those of
the students concerning the different aspects in the teaching of science?
f. What problems are being encountered by the teachers of science?
g. What suggestions are offered by the teachers and students to improved the teaching of
science?
Objective of the Study
is defined as “statement of purpose for which the investigation is to be conducted”( Ardales,

1992). The research objectives are stated specifically in simple language in order that the
researcher finds them easy to measure by using research instruments (i.e., questionaire,
test, interview, rating scale, etc.) in collecting data and these data are achieved when
correct statistical techniques are used to arrive at real results ( not manipulated or
manufactured),but for every activity to be done.
Exampe:
The main purpose of this study is to determine the problems met by Science and
Mathematics instructors and professors at the SUC in Region 2 in school year 1994-1995.
Specifically, it attempts to answer the following objectives:
1. To identify the problems met by Science and Mathematics instructors and professors
at the SUC in region 2 in school year 1994-1995 in relation to (a) administration and
supervision, (b) instructional materials , (c) teacher factor, and (d) student factor.
2. To find out the most pressing problem met by Science and Mathematics instructor
and professors at the SUC in Region 2 in school year 1994-1995 in relation to (a)
administration and supervision (b) instructional materials, (c) teacher factor, and
student factor.
3. To determine the significant difference in the mean rank levels of the problems met
by Science and Mathematics instructors and professors at the SUC in Region 2 in
school year 1994-1995 in relation to (a) administration and supervision, (b)
instructional materials, (c) teacher factor, and (d) student factor.
Note: It is inadbisable to use both problem and objective in a research paper

because each problem /objective stated in chapter I is answered in
Chapter 4 ( Results and Discussion ) of the study.
Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a tentative conclusion or answer to a specific question raised at the

beginning of the investigation. Only experimental studies need expressly written
hypotheses.
Guidelines in the formulation of Hypothesis.

1. In experimental investigations, hypothesis have to be explicit, they have to be expressed.
they have to expressed in a comparative or correlational studies.
2. Hypothesis is usually stated in the null form because testing a null hypothesis is easier
than a hypothesis in the alternative form. Testing hypothesis simply means gathering
data to answer it.
3. Hypothesis are formulated from the specific questions upon which they are based.
Example:
1. Question:
Is there any significant difference between the perceptions of the teachers and those
of the students concerning the different aspects in the teaching of science?
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the perceptions of the teachers
and those of the students concerning the different aspects in the
teaching of science.
Alternative Hypothesis: There is a significant different between the perception of the

teachers and those of the students concerning the different aspects in
the teaching of science.
2. Question: Is there any significant difference between the effectiveness of the inductive
method and that of the deductive methods in the teaching of science?
Null Hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the effectiveness of the inductive
method and that of the deductive method in the teaching of science.
Alternative Hypothesis: There is a significant difference between the effectivess of the
inductive method and that of the deductive method in the teaching of
science
Conceptual Framework
From the review of related literature and studies, the researcher may formulate a
theoretical scheme for his research problem. This scheme is a tentative explanation or
theoretical explanation of the phenomenon or problem and serves as the basis for the
formulation research hypotheses. Thus, the conceptual framework consists of the
investigator’s own position on a problem after his exposure to various theories that have
bearing on the problem. It is the researcher’s new model which has its roots on the previous
models which the researcher had studied. (Sanchez, pp. 14-15)
The conceptual framework becomes the central theme, the focus, the main thrust of the
study. It serves as a guide in conducting investigation. Briefly stated, the conceptual
framework for the teaching of science can be: The effectiveness of a science instructional
program depends upon the qualifications of the teachers, the effectiveness of their methods
and strategies of teaching, the adequacy of facilities, the adequacy of supervisory
assistance, and the elimination of the problems hampering the progress.
Currently, however, most theses do not have a discussion of their conceptual frameworks.
Very few thesis writers endeavor to include an explanation of their conceptual framework in
their theses.
Paradigm. A paradigm is a diagrammatic representation of a conceptual framework. It

depicts in a more vivid way what the conceptual framework wants to convey. Following are
examples of a paradigm for the conceptual framework for the teaching of science as
mentioned above. A paradigm may take different diagrammatic forms.
Example 1
Inputs Process Outputs
Qualified
teachers Science Superior
science
Effective knowledge
methods
Instructional and
Adequate
facilities skills
Adequate Program of
supervisory
assistance students
Figure 8. Paradigm for science teaching in high school.
Importance or Significance of the Study
Guidance in explaining the importance of the study. The rationale, timeliness, and/or
relevance of the study to existing conditions must contain explanations or discussions of any
or all of the following:
1. The rationale, timeliness and/or relevance of the study. The rationale, timeliness
and/or relevance of the study to existing conditions must be explained or discussed.
For instance, a survey test in science reveals that the performance of the students in
the high schools of Province A is poor. It must be pointed out that it is a strong
reason why an investigation of the teaching in science in the said high schools is
necessary. Also, the study is timely and relevant because today, it is science and
technology that are making some nations very highly industrialized and progressive.
So, if science is properly studied and taught and then applied, it can also make the
country highly industrialized and progressive.
2. Possible solutions to existing problems or improvement to unsatisfactory conditions.

The poor performance of the students in the high schools of Province A in a survey
test in science should be explained as a problem and an unsatisfactory condition. So
if the inquiry is made the possible causes of the poor performance of the students in
the science survey test may be discovered so that remedial measures may be
instituted to solve the problem or the unsatisfactory situation.
3. Who are to be benefited and how they are going to be benefited. It must be shown
who are the individuals, groups, or communities who may be placed in a more
advantageous position on account of the study. In the inquiry conducted about the
teaching of science, for instance, some weaknesses of the instructional program may
be discovered. This will benefit the administrators of the high schools in Province A
because they can make the findings of the study as a basis of formulating their
supervisory plans for the ensuing year. They may include in their plans some
measures to correct the weaknesses so as to strengthen the instruction. In turn, the
students will also benefit for learning more science. In the long run, the whole
country will enjoy the good results of the study.
4. Possible contribution to the fund of knowledge. If in the study it is found out that the
inductive method is very effective in the teaching of science, it should be pointed out
that this can be a contribution of the study to the fund of knowledge.
5. Possible implications. It should be discussed here that the implications include the
possible causes of the problems discovered, the possible effects of the problems, and
the remedial measures to solve the problems. Implications also include the good
points of a system which ought to be continued or to be improved if possible.
Scope and Delimitations of the Study
Guidelines in writing the scope and delimitations. The scope and delimitations should include
the following:
1. A brief statement of the general purpose of the study.
2. The subject matter and topics studied and discussed.
3. The locale of the study, where the data were gathered or the entity to which the data
belong.
4. The population or universe from which the respondents were selected. This must be
large enough to make generalizations significant.
5. The period of the study. This is the time, either months or years, during which the
data were gathered.
Example: This investigation was conducted to determine the status of the teaching of
science in the high schools of Province A as perceived by the teachers and students
in science classes during the school year 1989-1990. the aspects looked into were
the qualifications of teachers, their methods and strategies, facilities forms of
supervisory assistance, problems and proposed solutions to problems.
General purpose: To determine the status of the teaching of science.

Subject matter: The teaching of science.
Topics (aspects) studied: Qualifications of teachers. Their methods and strategies,
facilities, form of supervisory assistance, problems and proposed solutions to
the problems.
Population or universe: teachers and students
Locale of the study: High schools of province A.
Period of the study: School year 1989-1990.
Limitations of the Study
Limitations of the study include the weaknesses of the study beyond the control of the
researcher. This is especially true in descriptive research where the variables involved are
uncountable or continuous variables such as adequacy, effectiveness, efficiency, extent, etc.
The weaknesses spring out of the inaccuracies of the perceptions of the respondents. For
instance, library facilities may be rated as very adequate by 50 students, fairly adequate by
30 students, inadequate by 20 students, and very inadequate by 15 students. Certainly,
with these ratings, not all of them could be correct in their assessment. Some could have
inaccurate if not entirely wrong perceptions.
Definition of Key Terms
Guidelines in defining terms:
1. Only terms, words, or phrases which have special or unique meanings in the study
are defined. For instance, the term non-teaching facilities may be used in the study
of the teaching of science. Non-teaching facilities may be defined as facilities needed
by the students and teachers but are not used to explain the lesson or to make
instructions clearer. Examples are toilets or comfort rooms, electric fans, rest
rooms or lounges, and the like. They may also be called non- instructional
facilities.
2. Terms should be defined operationally, that is how they are used in the study. For
instance, a study is made about early marriage. What is meant by early marriage?
To make the meaning clear, early marriage may be defined as one in which the
contracting parties are both below eighteen years of age.
3. The researcher may develop his own definition from the characteristics of the term
defined. Thus, a house of light materials may be defined as one with bamboo or
small wooden posts, nipa, buri, or nipa walls; split bamboo floor and cogon or nipa
roof. This is also an operational definition.
4. Definitions may be taken from encyclopedias, books, magazines and newspaper

articles, dictionaries, and other publications but the researcher must acknowledge his
sources. Definitions taken from published materials are called conceptual or
theoretical definitions.
5. Definitions should a\be brief, clear, and unequivocal as possible.
6. Acronyms should always be spelled out fully especially if it is not commonly known or
if it is used for the first time.
Chapter 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Guidelines in Citing Related Literature and Studies
A. Characteristics of the Materials Cited
The following are the characteristics of related literature and studies that should be cited:
(Repeated for emphasis)
1. The materials must be as recent as possible. This is important because of the rapid
social, political, scientific, and technological changes. Discoveries in historical and
archeological research have also changed some historical facts. Researchers in
education and psychology are also making great strides. So, finding fifteen years ago
may have little value today unless the study is a comparative inquiry about the past
and the present. Mathematical and statistical procedures, however, are a little more
stable.
2. Materials must be as objective and unbiased as possible. Some materials are

extremely one sided, either politically or religiously biased. These should be avoided.
3. Materials must be relevant to the study. Only materials that have some military to or
bearing on the problem researched on should be cited.
4. Materials must not too few but not too many. They must be sufficient enough to give
the researcher insight into his problem or to indicate the nature of the present
investigation. The number may also depend upon the availability of related
materials. This is especially a problem with pioneering studies. Naturally, there are
few related materials or even none at all. Ordinarily, from fifteen to twenty-five may
do for a master’s thesis and from twenty and above for a doctoral dissertation,
depending upon their availability and depth and length of discussions. The numbers,
however, are only suggestive but not imperative. These are only the usual numbers
observed in theses and dissertations surveyed. For an undergraduate thesis about
ten may do.
B. Ways of Citing Related Literature and Studies
The following are the ways of citing related literature and studies:
1. By author or writer. In this method the ideas, facts, or principles, although they have
the same meaning, are explained or discussed separately and cited in the footnote
with their respective authors or writers.
Examples:
According to Enriquez, praise helps much in learning, etc., etc.1
Maglaque found out that praise is an important factor in Learning, etc., etc.2
Footnotes:
1
Pedro Enriquez. The Dynamics of Teaching and Learning. Manila: Canlaon Publishing
Company, Inc., 1981, p. 102.
2
Juan Maglaque, “Factors Affecting Children’s Learning in Pag-asa District,” (Unpublished
Master’s Thesis, San Gregorio College, San Gregorio City, 1984.)
2. By topic. In this case, if different authors or writers have the same opinion about the
same topic, the topic is discussed and cited under the names of the authors or
writers. This is a summary of their opinions. This is to avoid separate and long
discussions of the same topic.
Example: It has been found out that praise is an important aid in learning of children. 1
Footnote:
1
Pedro Enriquez, The Dynamics of Teaching and Learning, Manila: Canlaon Publishing
Company, Inc., 1981, p. 102 and Juan Maglaque, “Factors Affecting Children’s Learning in
Pagasa District.” (Unpublished Master’s Thesis,” San Gregorio College, San Gregorio City,
1984). (Note: These are fictitious names)
3. Chronological. Related materials may also be cited chronologically, that is, according
to the year they were written. Materials which were written earlier should be cited
first before those which were written later. This can be done especially when citation
is by author or writer. If citation is by topic, chronological citation can be done in the
footnote.
C.What to Cite
It should be emphasized that only the major findings, ideas, generalizations, principles, or
conclusions in related materials relevant to the problem under investigation should be
discussed in this chapter. Generally, such findings, ideas, generalizations, principles, or
conclusions are summarized, paraphrased, or synthesized.
D. Quoting a Material
A material may be quoted if the idea conveyed is so perfectly stated or it is controversial

and it is not too long. It is written single spaced with wider margins at the left and right
sides of the paper but without any quotation marks.
Example:
Suppose the following is a quotation: Said Enriquez, Praise is an important factor in
children’s learning. It encourages them to study their lessons harder. Praise, however,
should be given appropriately.2
Footnote: Ibid.
Justification of the Study ( Synthesis )
It should be made clear that there is no duplication of other studies. The present inquiry
may only be a replication of another study. It should be stressed also that in spite of similar
studies, the present study is still necessary to find out if the findings of studies in other
places are also true in the locale of the present study. There may also be a need to continue
with the present investigation to affirm or negate the findings of other inquiries about the
same research problem or topic so that generalization or principles may be formulated.
These generalizations and principles would be the contributions of the present investigation
together with other studies to the fund of knowledge. This is one of the more important
purposes of research: the contribution that it can give to the fund of knowledge.
Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY
Research Design used
Method of Collecting Data and Development of the Research Instrument
Sampling Design
Statistical Treatment
Methods of Research
The research design used whether historical, descriptive or experimental should be

explained briefly. The procedural part of the method, its appropriateness to the study, and
some of its advantages should be given attention and should be well discussed.
Example:
Suppose the descriptive method of research was used in the study of the teaching of
science in the high schools of Province A. Briefly the discussion follows:
The descriptive method of research was used in this study. Descriptive method of research
is a fact-finding study with adequate and accurate interpretation of the findings. It describes
what is. It describes with emphasis what actually exist such as current conditions, practices,
situations, or any phenomena. Since the present study or investigation was concerned with
the present status of the teaching of science in the high schools of Province A, the
descriptive method of research was the most appropriate method to use. (This can be
elaborated further)
Method of Collecting Data and Development of the Research Instrument
The method of collecting data and the development of the instrument for gathering data
must also be explained.
Example: the method of collecting data used was the normative survey. This is concerned
with looking into the commonality of some elements. Since the present research is a status
study, the normative survey was the most appropriate method to use in gathering data.
The instrument used to collect data was the questionnaire. This was used because it gathers
data faster than any other method. Besides, the respondents were teachers and students
and so they are very literate. They could read and answer the questionnaire with ease.
Development of the instrument.

After reading and studying samples of questionnaire from related studies, the
researcher prepared his own questionnaire. He also consulted some knowledgeable people
about how to prepare one. The researcher saw to it that there were enough items to collect
data to cover all aspects of the problem and to answer all the specific questions under the
statement of the problem. Then he submitted the questionnaire to his adviser for correction
after which it was finalized.
For validation purposes, the questionnaire was given to ten high school science
teachers for them to fill up. These teachers did not participate in the study. After they have
filled up the copies they were interviewed by the researcher to find out their assessment of
the questionnaire. They were asked if all the items were clear and unequivocal to them; if
the number of items were adequate enough to collect data about all aspects of teaching of
science; if the questions were interesting and not boring; if all the items were objective and
not biased except for a few unavoidable essay questions; if all the items were relevant to
the research problem; and if the questionnaire were not too long. All of them said the items
were clear and unequivocal except a few, relevant, interesting and objective questions, and
the length was alright. The few questioned items were revised for more clarity and
definiteness.
The copies of the questionnaire were then distributed personally by the researcher to the
respondents. After a few days, all the copies distributed were retrieved also personally by
the researcher. (The discussion may be extended)
The Sampling Design
Before the collection of data starts in any research project, the proportion of the population
to be used must have been determined already and the computation of the sample must
have been finished. So, what the researcher has to do here is to write about the complete
procedure he used in determining his sample. Among the things that he should explain are:
a. The size of the population;

b. The study population;
c. The margin of error and the proportion of the study population used;
d. The type or technique of sampling used whether pure random sampling, cluster
sampling or a combination of two or more techniques;
e. The actual computation of the sample; and
f. The sample
The researcher must explain very clearly how he selected his sample. He must be able to
show that his sample is representative of the population by showing that he used the
appropriate technique of sampling. This is very important because if it appears that his
sample is not representative, his findings and conclusions will be faulty and hence, not valid
and reliable.
Statistical Treatment of Data
The last part of this chapter usually describes the statistical treatment of data. The kind of
statistical treatment depends upon the nature of the problem, especially the specific
problems and the nature of the data gathered. The explicit hypotheses particularly
determine the kind of statistics to be used.
The role of statistics in research.

With the advent of the computer age, statistics is now playing a vital role in
research. This is true especially in science and technological research. What functions do
statistics perform in research? Some are the following:
1. Statistical methods help the researcher in making his research design, particularly in
experimental research. Statistical methods are always involved in planning a
research project because in some way statistics directs the researcher how to gather
his data.
2. Statistical techniques help the researcher in determining the validity and reliability of
his research instruments. Data gathered with instruments that are not valid and
reliable are almost useless and so the researcher must have to be sure that his
instruments are valid and reliable. Statistics helps him in doing this.
3. Statistical manipulations organize raw data systematically to make the latter

appropriate for study. Unorganized data cannot be studied. No inferences or
deductions can be made from unorganized data. Statistics organized systematically
by ordered arrangement, ranking, score distribution, class frequency distribution or
cumulative frequencies. These make the data appropriate for study.
4. Statistics are used to test the hypotheses. Statistics help the researcher to determine
whether these hypotheses are to be accepted or to be rejected.
5. Statistical treatments give meaning and interpretation to data. For Instance, if the
standard deviation of the class frequency of a group is small, we know that the group
is more or less homogeneous but if it is large, the group is more or less
heterogeneous.
6. Statistical procedures are indispensable in determining the levels of significance of

vital statistical measures. These statistical measures are the bases for making
inferences, interpretations, conclusions or generalizations.
Some guidelines in the selection and application of statistical procedures.

The researcher must have at least a rudimentary knowledge of statistics so that he
will be able to select and apply the appropriate statistical methods for his data. Some
suggestions for the selection and application of statistical techniques follows:
1. First of all, the data should be organized using any or all of the following depending
upon what is desired to be known or what is to be computed: talligram (tabulation
table), ordered arrangement of scores, score distribution, class (grouped) frequency
distribution, or scattergram.
2. When certain proportions of the population based on certain variables such as age,
height, income, etc. are desired to be known, frequency counts with their frequency
percents may be used. For further analysis, cumulative frequencies (up and down)
with their respective cumulative frequency percents (up and down) may also be
utilized. For example, a specific question is “How the high school science teachers of
province A may be described in terms of sex?” The males were counted and the
females were also counted and their respective percent equivalents were computed.
3. When the typical, normal, or average is desired to be known, the measures of central
tendency such as the median, the mean or the mode may be computed and used.
4. When the variables being studied are abstract or continuous such that they cannot
be counted individually such as adequacy, efficiency, excellence, extent, seriousness
(of problems), and the like, the weighted mean may be computed and used if the
average is desired to known. The variable is divided into categories of descending
degree of quality and then each degree of quality is given a weight. For instance, the
question is “How adequate are the facilities of the school?”Adequacy may be divided
into five degrees of quality such as “very adequate” with a weight of 5, “adequate”
with a weight of 4, “Fairly adequate” with a weight of 3, “inadequate” with a weight
of 2, and “very inadequate” with a weight of 1. Then the weighted mean is
computed.
5. When the variability of the population is desired to be known, the measures of

variability such as the range, quartile deviation, average deviation or the standard
deviation may be computed and used. When the measure of the variability or
dispersion is small, the group is more or less homogenous but when the measure of
variability is large, the group is more or less heterogeneous.
6. When the relative placements of scores or positions are desired to be known,

ranking, quartile or percentile rank may be computed and used. These measures
indicate the relative positions o scores in an ordered arrangement of the scores.
7. When the significance of the trend of reaction or opinion of persons as a group

toward a certain issue, situation, value or thing is desired to be known but in which
there is a neutral position, the chi-square of equal probability, single group, is
computed and interpreted.
8. When the significance of the difference between the reactions, or opinions of two
distinct groups in which there is a neutral position is desired to be known, the chi-
square of equal probability, two-group, is computed and used.For instance, a group
of 50 persons, 25 males and 25 females, were asked to give their reactions may be
“Strongly agree”, “Agree”, “Undecided or No opinion”, “Disagree”, or “Strongly
disagree”. If the persons are considered as a group, the chi-square of equal
probability, single group is computed as in No. 7. However, if the significance of the
difference between the reactions of the males and those of the females is to be
studied, the chi-square of equal probability, two-group, is applied as in No. 8.
9. To determine how one variable varies with one another, the coefficient of correlation
is computed, as for instance, how the scores of a group of students in English test.
This is also used to determine the validity of a test by correlating it with a test of
known validity. When the coefficient of correlation between two tests is known and a
prediction is to be made as to what score a student gets in a second test after
knowing his score in the first, the so-called regression equation is to be utilized.
10. If the significance of the difference between the perceptions of two-groups about a
certain situation is to be studied, the computation of the difference between means is
to be made. Example: Is there a significant difference between the perceptions of
the teachers and those of the students about the facilities of the school? To answer
this question, the significance of the difference of two means is to used. The
statistical measure computed is called t.
The t is also used to determine the usefulness of a variable to which one group called
the experimental group is exposed and a second group called control group is not
exposed. For instance, the question is: Does guidance improve instructions?”
Create two matched groups and expose one group to guidance while the control
group is not exposed to guidance. At the end of the experimental period, give the
same test to the two groups. Then compute the t which will show if guidance is an
effective aid to instruction.
11. To determine the relative effectiveness of the different ways of doing things to which
different randomized groups are respectively exposed to and only a post test is given
to the different groups, analysis of variance is appropriate to use. For instance, a
teacher wants to find out the relative effectiveness of the following methods of
communication: pure lecture, lecture-demonstration, recitation-discussion, and
seminar type of instruction in science. Four groups of students are formed randomly
and each assigned to one method. The four groups study the same lessons and after
a certain period given the same test. By analysis of variance, the relative
effectiveness of the four methods will be revealed.
If the four groups are given pre-test and a post-test, the analysis of
covariance is utilized.
12. To determine the effects of some variables upon a single variable to which they are
related, partial and multiple correlations are suggested to be used. For example, the
question is: Which is most related to the passing of a licensing engineering
examination: college achievement grades, or percentile ranks in aptitude tests,
general mental ability test, vocational and professional interest inventory, or National
College Entrance Examination? The process of partial and multiple correlations will
reveal the pure and sole effect of each of the independent variables upon the
dependent variable, the passing of the licensing examination.
13. To determine the association between two independent variables, the chi-square of
independence or chi-square of multiplication may be used. The question answered by
this statistical process is: Is there an association between education and leadership?
Or, the level of education and the ability to acquire wealth? Or, between sociability
and economic status?
Indeed, there are lots of research situations in which different statistical procedures
may or can be used and if the researcher is not so sure that he is in the right path,
he better consult good statistical books, or acquire the services of a good statistician
plus the services of a computer especially if the statistical procedures are complex
ones.
Chapter 4 ANALYSES, PRESENTATION, AND INTERPRETATION OF

DATA
Analysis
Analysis is the process of breaking up the whole study into its constituent parts of
categories according to the specific questions under the statement of the problem. This is to
bring out into focus the essential features of the study. Analysis usually precedes
presentation.
Example:
In the study of the teaching of science in the high schools of Province A, the whole
study may be divided into its constituent parts as follows according to the specific
questions:
1. Educational qualifications of the science teachers

2. Methods and strategies used in the teaching of science
3. Facilities available for the teaching of science
4. Forms of supervisory assistance
5. Differences between the perception of the teachers and those of the
students concerning the teaching of science
6. Problems encountered in the teaching of science
7. Proposed solutions to the problems
8. Implications of the findings
Each constituent part may still be divided into its essential categories.
Example:
The educational qualifications of the teachers may further be subdivided into the
following:
1. Degrees earned in pre-service education

2. Majors or specializations
3. Units earned in science
4. Teacher’s examinations and other examinations passed
5. Seminars, conferences, and other special trainings attended for the
teaching of science
6. Books, journals, and other materials in science being read
7. Advanced studies
8. Number of years in science teaching
9. Etc.
Then under degrees earned are
1. Bachelor of Arts
2. Bachelor of Science in Education
3. Master of Arts
4. Etc.
The other constituent parts may also be similarly divided and subdivided. The data are then
grouped under the categories or parts to which they belong.
Classification of data.
Classification is grouping together data with similar characteristics. Classification is a
part of analysis. The bases of classification are the following:
a. Qualitative (kind). Those having the same quality or are of the same kind are
grouped together. The grouping element in the examples given under analysis is
qualitative. See examples under analysis.
b. Quantitative. Data are grouped according to their quantity. In age, for instance,
people may be grouped into ages of 10-14, 15-19, 20-24, 25-29, etc.
c. Geographical. Data may be classified according to their location for instance; the
schools in the secondary level in Province A may be grouped by district, as District 1,
District 2, District 3, etc.
d. Chronological. In this, data are classified according to the order of their occurrence.
Example:
The enrolments of the high schools of Province A may be classified according to
school years, as for, instance, enrolments during the school years 1985-’86, 1986-
’87, 1987-’88.
Cross-classification.
This is further classifying a group of data into subclasses. This is breaking up or
dividing a big class into smaller classes. For instance, a group of students may be classified
as high school students as distinguished from elementary and college students. Then they
are further subdivided into curricular years as first, second, third, and fourth years. Each
curricular year may still be subdivided into male and female.
Arrangement of data or classes of data. The bases of arrangement of data or groups of data
are the same as those of classification.
a. Qualitative. Data may be arranged alphabetically, or from the biggest class to the
smallest class as from the phylum to specie in classifying animals or vice versa, or
listing the biggest country to the smallest one or vice versa, or from the most
important to the least important, or vice versa, etc. Ranking of students according to
brightness is qualitative arrangement.
b. Quantitative. This is arranging data according to their numerical magnitudes, from

the greatest to the smallest number or vice versa. Schools may be arranged
according to their population, from the most populated to the least populated, and so
with countries, provinces, cities, towns, etc.
c. Geographical. Data may be arranged according to their geographical location or

according to direction. Data from the Ilocos region may be listed from north to south
by province as Ilocos Norte, Abra, Ilocos Sur and La Union.
d. Chronological. This is listing down data that occurred first and last those that
occurred last or vice versa according to the purpose of presentation. This is
especially true in historical research. For instance, data during the Spanish period
should be treated first before the data during the American Period.
Classification, cross-classification and arrangement of data are done for purposes of

organizing the thesis report and in presenting them in tabular form. In tables, data
are properly and logically classified, cross-classified, and arranged so that their
relationships are readily seen.
Group-derived Generalizations
One of the main purposes of analyzing research data is to form inferences, interpretations,
conclusions, and/or generalizations from the collected data. In so doing the researcher
should be guided by the following discussions about group-derived generalizations.
The use of the survey, usually called the normative survey, as a method of collecting data
for research implies the study of groups. From the findings are formulated conclusions in
the form of generalizations that pertain to the particular group studied. These conclusions
are called group-derived generalizations designed to represent characteristics of groups and
are to be applied to groups rather than to individual cases one at a time. These are
applicable to all kinds of research, be they social, science or natural science research. There
are several types of these but are discussed under four categories by Good and Scates.
(Good and Scates, pp. 290-298) The key sentences are of this author.
1. Generally, only proportional predictions can be made. One type of generalization is

that which is expressed in terms of proportion of the cases in a group, often in the
form of probability. When this type is used, we do not have enough information
about individual cases to make predictions for them, but we can nevertheless predict
for a group of future observations. As to individual event, however, we can say
nothing; probability is distinctly a group concept and applies only to groups.
Quality control in manufacturing is an example. Based on the recognition that

products cannot be turned out as precisely as intended, but that so long as a given
proportion of the cases fall within assigned limits of variation, that is all that is
expected. In the biological field, certain proportions of offspring, inherit certain
degrees of characteristics of parents, but individual predictions cannot be made. In
the social field, in insurance especially, based on demographic and actuarial data, life
tables indicate life expectancies of groups but nothing whatsoever is known about
the life expectancy of any particular individual.
Here is another example. Suppose in a certain school offering civil engineering, it is a

known fact that all through the years, bout 70% of its graduates with an average of
2.0 or its equivalent or higher pass the licensing examination for civil engineers. On
this ba sis, we can predict that about 70% of the graduates of the school with an
average of 2.0 or higher will pass the next licensing examination for civil
engineers but we cannot predict with certainty the passing of a particular graduate
even if his average grade is 1.25.
2. The average can be made to represent the whole group. A second type of group-
derived generalization results from using the average as a representation of the
group of cases and offering it as a typical result. This is ignoring the individuals
comprising the group or the variation existing in the group but the average
represents the whole group. Generally, the mean and the median are used to denote
the averages of scale position but other statistical measures such as the common
measures of variation, correlation, regression lines, etc. are also structurally
considered as averages. These are group functions conveying no sure knowledge
about any individual case in the group.
3. Full frequency distribution reveals characteristics of a group. As a third type of

knowledge growing out of the study of the groups, we have the full-frequency
distribution – the most characteristics device, perhaps of all statistical work. Perhaps,
too the most inferential characteristics of frequency distribution are shape and
spread. Frequency distributions carry the implication of probability. One implication is
as follows. Suppose the heights of a Grade I pupils are taken and then grouped into
a class frequency distribution, using height as the trait or basis of distributions in
groups. Then the suppliers of chairs and tables for the pupils will be able to know the
number of chairs and tables to suit the heights of the pupils.
Here is another example which enables us to know certain characteristics of a group.

Suppose a test is given to a group of students. Then their scores are grouped into a
class frequency distribution. If the standard deviation, a measure of variability, is
computed and it is unusually large, then we know that the group is heterogeneous. If
the standard deviation is small, the group is more or less homogeneous. If the
distribution is graphed and the curve is bell-shaped, the distribution is normal, that
is, there is an equal number of bright and dull students with the average in the
middle. If the curve is skewed to the right, there are more dull students than bright
ones, and if the distribution is skewed to th left there are more bright students than
dull ones.
4. A group itself generates new qualities, characteristics, properties, or aspects not

present in individual cases. For instance, there are many chairs in a room. The chairs
can be arranged in a variety of ways. However, if there is only one chair, there can
be no arrangement in any order. Hence, order and arrangement are group properties
and they represent relationships within a group, properties which can arise only if
there are two or more cases.
Other group properties that exist only in groups are cooperation, opposition,
organization, specialization, leadership, teaching, morale, reciprocal sharing of
emotions, etc. which vanish in individual cases.
Two or more categories of generalization may be added at this point.
1. A generalization can also be made about an individual case. For instance, a high
school graduating student is declared valedictorian of his class. We can generalize
that, that student is the brightest in his class. This is a group-derived generalization
because it cannot be made if there is only one student. Here is another example. A
teacher declares that Juan is the best behaved pupil in her class. This is a group-
derived generalization because this statement cannot be made if there is only one
pupil. There are many instances of this kind.
2. In certain cases, predictions on individual cases can be made. It has been mentioned
earlier that, generally, only proportional predictions can be made. However, in
correlation and regression studies, one variable can be predicted from another. Take
the case of the civil engineering graduate taking the licensing examination by the
use of regression equations. The accuracy of prediction is high if (1) there is linearity
in the relationship of the two variables if graphed, (2) the distributions in the two
variables are normal or not badly skewed, and (3) the spread or scatter of the two
variables is the same for each column or row in the correlation table. The process
involves a complicated statistical book especially that of Garrett, pp. 122-146 for
linear correlation and pp. 151-165 for regression and prediction.
Preparing Data for Presentation
Before presenting data in accepted forms, especially in presenting them in the form of
statistical tables, they have to be tallied first in a tabulation diagram which may be called
talligram, a contraction of tally and diagram. The individual responses to a questionnaire or
interview schedule have to be tallied one by one.
How to construct a talligram. A talligram may be constructed as follows:

1. Determine the classes and their respective subclasses along with their respective
numbers. For instance, in the study about science teaching in the high schools of
Province A, anent the qualifications of the teachers, suppose there are four degrees
earned by the teachers such as AB (Bachelor of Arts), BSCE (Bachelor of Science in
Civil Engineering), BSE (Bachelor of Science in Education) and MA (Master of Arts
with undergraduate courses). The subclasses are the specializations or majors of the
teachers. There are also four such as English, History, Mathematics, and Science.
The classes and their subclasses are arranged alphabetically.
2. Make rows for the classes by drawing horizontal lines with appropriate spaces
between the lines and the number of the rows should be two more than the number
of classes. So in the example given in step no. 1, there should be six rows because
there are four classes. The uppermost row is for the labels of the subclasses, the
bottom row is for the totals, and the middle four rows are for the classes: AB, BSCE,
BSE, and MA.
3. Make columns for the subclasses by drawing vertical lines with appropriate spaces
between the lines and the number of columns should be two more than the number
of subclasses. So in the example in No. 1 step there should six columns. The
leftmost column is for the labels of the class rows, the rightmost column is for totals,
and the four middle columns are for the four subclasses.
See Figure 1 for an example of talligram.
Degrees and Specializations of Teachers
Degrees Specializations (Majors) Total

English History Mathematics Science
AB 1 (1) 1 (2)
BSCE 1 (5)
BSE 1 (4) 1 (3)
MA
Totals
Figure 1
How to tally data (responses) gathered through a questionnaire.
Tallying responses to a questionnaire in a talligram follows. Suppose a questionnaire
gives the following data:
a. Teacher A is an AB graduate with a science major. Enter a tally in the cell which is
the intersection of the AB row and the Science column. The tally is a short vertical
bar. See Entry (1) in Figure 1.
b. Teacher B is an AB graduate with a science major. Enter a tally in the cell which is
the intersection of the AB row and the Science column. See Entry (2) in Figure 1.
c. Teacher C is a BSE graduate with a science major. Enter a tally in the cell which is
the intersection of the BSE row and the Science column. See Entry (3) in Figure 1.
d. Teacher D is a BSE graduate with mathematics major. Enter a tally in the cell which
is the intersection of the BSCE row and the Mathematics column. See Entry (4) in
Figure 1.
e. Teacher E is a BSCE graduate with mathematics major. Enter a tally in the cell which
is the intersection of the BSCE row and the Mathematics column. See Entry (5) in
Figure 1.
f. Continue the process until all the data needed are entered.
When finished, the talligram will look exactly like Figure 2.
Degrees and Specializations of the Teachers
Degrees Specializations (Majors) Totals
English History Mathematics Science

AB 1 11 1111 1 1111 1111 11 21
BSCE 1111 4
BSE 11 11 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 111 31
MA 1 11 3
Totals 3 4 25 27 59
Figure 2
Figure 2 may now e\be converted into a statistical table for data presentation. Generally, all
quantified data are tallied first in talligram which are then converted into statistical tables
for data presentation using Hindu-Arabic numerals in the cells in place of tallies.
Presentation of Data
Presentation is the process of organizing data into logical, sequential, and meaningful
categories and classifications to make them amenable to study and interpretation. Analysis
and presentation put data into proper order and in categories reducing them into forms that
are intelligible and interpretable so that the relationships between the research specific
questions and their intended answers can be established. There are three ways of
presenting data; textual, tabular, and graphical.
Textual Presentation of Data
Textual presentation uses statements with numerals or numbers to describe data. The main
aims of textual presentation are to focus attention to some important data and to
supplement tabular presentation.
The disadvantage, especially if its too long, is that it is boring to read and the reader may
not even be able to grasp the quantitative relationships of the data presented. The reader
may even skip some statements.
Example: The following refers to the degrees earned by 59 science teachers in the
hypothetical study of the teaching of science in the high schools of Province A:
Of the 59 science teachers, 21 or 35.59 percent have earned a bachelor of Arts degree with
education units, four or 6.78 percent have earned a Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering
degrees with education units, 31 or 52.54 percent a Bachelor of Science in Education
degree, and three or 5.08 percent a Master of Arts degree.
According to government regulations, all the teachers are qualified to teach in the high
school. (This is already a finding, interpretation, or inference)
Tabular Presentation of Data
Statistical table defined. A statistical table or simply table is defined as a systematic

arrangement of related data in which classes of numerical facts or data are given each a
row and their subclasses are given ach column in order to present the relationships of the
sets or numerical facts or data in a definite, compact, and understandable form or forms.
Advantages of tabular over textual presentation of data. The advantages of the tabular over
the textual presentation of data are:
1. Statistical tables are concise, and because data are systematically grouped and
arranged, explanatory matter is minimal.
2. Data are more easily read, understood and compared because of their systematic
and logical arrangement into rows and columns. The reader can understand and
interpret a great bulk of data rapidly because he can see significant relationships of
data at once.
3. Tables give the whole information even without combining numerals with textual
matter. This is so because tables are so constructed that the ideas they convey can
be understood even without reading their textual presentation.
The major functional parts of a statistical table. The names of the functional parts of a
statistical table are shown in the following diagrams: (Bacani, et. Al, p. 55)
Table Number
Title
(Head note)
Stub Head Master Caption
Column Column Column Column

Caption Caption Caption Caption
Row Label Entry Entry Entry Entry
“ “ “ “ “ “
“ “ “ “ “ “
“ “ “ “ “ “
“ “ “ “ “ “
“ “ “ “ “ “
“ “ “ “ “ “
Total
Footnote:
Source Note:
The above illustration of a table is only a simple one. There are tables that are very
complicated. For instance, the column captions may further be subdivided into sub-column
captions which in turn may still be subdivided. This happens when the subject matter of the
table is classified, then the first classifications are further sub classified, and so on.
1. Table Number. Each table should have a number, preferably in Arabic, for reference
purposes. This is because only the table numbers are cited. The number is written
above the title of the table. Tables are numbered consecutively throughout the thesis
report. If there is only one table the number is unnecessary. See table 1 for
illustration.
2. Title. The title should tell about the following:
a. The subject matter that said table deals with;

b. where such subject matter is situated, or from whom the data about such subject
matter were gathered;
c. when data about such subject matter were gathered or the time period when such
data were existent; and
d. sometimes how the data about such subject matter are classified.
Usually, however, only the first two elements are mentioned in the title, and occasionally
only the subject matter. This is possible if the time period of the study as well as the locale
and respondents are well discussed in the scope and delimitation of the study. Only the
beginning letters of the important words in the title are capitalized. If the title contains more
than one line, it should be written like an inverted pyramid. See Table 1 below.
Table 1
Degrees and Specializations of the Teachers
Degrees Specializations (Majors) Totals

Earned a English History Mathematics Science
Fb % F % F % F % F %
AB 1 1.69 2 3.39 6 10.17 12 20.34 21 35.59
BSCE 4 6.78 4 6.78
BSE 2 3.39 2 3.39 14 23.73 13 22.03 31 52.54
MA 1 1.69 2 3.39 3 5.08
Totals 3 5.08 4 6.78 25 42.37 27 45.76 59 99.99c
Footnotes:
a. All the teachers have enough education units as required by regulations.

b. The total number of teachers, 59, was the based used in computing all percents.
c. The percent total does not equal to 100.00 percent due to rounding off of partial
percents to two decimal places. However, the 99.99 percent can be increased to
100.00 percent by adding .01 to the largest partial percent. A principle supports this
process.
Sources: The Principals’ Offices.
In the example, Table 1, the subject matter is “degrees and specializations,” and the
entities from whom the data of from whom the data were gathered are the teachers. The
period of the inquiry was school year 1989-1990 but that was already mentioned in the
scope and delimitation of the study and it does not need to be included in all tables
anymore. “How the data are classified” need not be included in the title because the table is
only a simple one and the classifications of the data are clear enough. If the title is
“Distribution of Teachers According to Degrees and Specializations.” The way the teachers
are classified is already indicated.
3. Headnote or Prefatory Note. This is written below the title and it is usually enclosed
in parentheses. It explains some things in the table that are not clear. Suppose a table
entitled “Monetary Values or Properties of the High Schools in Province A” is to be
constructed and the entries in the table are in rounded millions of pesos. If the amount to
be entered is six million pesos, the entry is only 6, instead of entering 8,000,000 the entry
is only 8, etc. The Headnote that should be written below the title should be written below
the title should be “Millions of Pesos.” So, the entry of 6 is read six million pesos, the entry
of 8 should be read eight million pesos, etc.
4. Stub. The stub contains the stub head and the row labels. The stub head tells what
the stub contains, the row labels. Each row label describes the data contained in that row.
In the table given as example, Table 1, Degrees is the stub head and below it are the
degrees which are the row label: AB, BSCE, BSE, and MA. In the AB row all the teachers
listed there are AB graduates, in the BSCE row all BSCE graduates, in the BSE row, all BSE
graduates, and in the MA row, all MA graduates. Totals may be considered as part of the
stub.
5. Box Head. The box head contains the master caption, the column captions, and the
column sub captions. The master caption describes the column captions and the column
captions in turn describe the sub column captions. In Table 1, the master caption is
Specializations (Majors). The column captions are English, History, Mathematics, Science,
and Totals. The sub captions are F (frequency), and % (percent). The F indicates the
number of teachers under it and the symbol % indicates the proportion of the number under
F to the total, 59.
6. Main body, field or text. The main body, field or text of the table contains all the
quantitative and/or proportional information presented in the table in rows and in columns.
Each numerical datum is entered in the cell which is the intersection of the row and the
column of the datum. For instance, the 14 teachers who are BSE graduates and who
majored in mathematics are centered in the cell which is the intersection of the BSE row
and the mathematics column.
7. Footnote. The footnote which appears immediately below the bottom line of the table
explains, qualifies, or clarifies some items in the table which are not readily understandable
or are missing. Proper symbols are used o indicate the items that are clarified or explained.
In Table 1, a is used to indicate that all the teachers have enough education units, b is used
to indicate that all percents were computed with 59 as the base, and c is used to indicate
that the total percent does not equal 100.00 due to the rounding off of the partial percents
to two decimal places.
The footnote is not necessary everything in the table is clear and there is nothing to clarify
or explain.
8. Source note. The source note which is generally written below the footnote indicates
the origin or source of the data presented in the table. In Table 1, the sources of the data
are the Principals’ Offices. The purposes of placing the source note are:
a. To give credit or recognition to the author of the table or the

source or sources of the data;
b. To allow the user to secure additional data from the same

source;
c. To provide the user a basis for determining the accuracy and

reliability of the information provided by the table; and
d. To protect the maker of the table against any charge of

inaccuracy and unreliability.
The source note is not necessary if the sources of the data are the respondents to a
questionnaire or interview schedule.
Ruling and spacing in tables.

Ruling is done in a table to emphasize or make clear relationships. There are no fixed
standard rules to follow in ruling and spacing tables. Emphasis and clarity are the
determining factors. However, the following guidelines are generally followed in the
construction of tables for a thesis report:
1. The table number is not separated by line from the title. It is written
two spaces above the title.
2. The title is separated from the rest of the table by a double line placed
two spaces below the lowest line of the title.
3. The stub, master caption, captions, sub-captions, and totals are
separated from one another by vertical and horizontal lines.
4. The rows and columns are not separated by lines. Major groups,
however, are separated by single lines. For purposes of clarity, rows
are separated by a double space and the columns are separated by as
wide a space as possible.
5. Both ends of the table are unruled.
6. There is always a line, either ingle or double, at the bottom of the

table.
Unity in a table.
There should always be unity in a table. To achieve this, presenting too many ideas
in a single table should be avoided. One subject matter is enough, one that can be divided
into categories which in turn can be divided into common classifications. In Table 1, for
instance, the subject matter is degrees and majors. Degrees are divided into similar
categories such as AB, BSCE, BSE, and MA. The sub classes such as English, History,
Mathematics, and Science are common to the degree categories.
Textual presentation of tabular data.

Generally, there should be a textual presentation of table which precedes the table
or the table may be placed within the textual presentation. The table and its textual
presentation should be placed as near as possible to each other. Textual presentation is
mixing words with numbers in statements.
There are two ways of making a textual presentation of a table:
1. All the items in the table are textually presented. This manner enables the reader to
comprehend the totality of the data even without consulting the table. This is alright
if the data are not so many. However, if the data are so numerous, reading becomes
boring and the reader may even skip some of the items.
2. Only the highlights or important parts of the data are textually presented.
The basic principles that should be remembered in the textually presentations of a table
are:
1. The textual presentation of a table should be as complete as possible so that the

ideas conveyed in the table are understood even without referring to the table itself.
2. Textual Presentation is generally followed by interpretation, inference or implication.

This is done after the data from the table have been textually presented.
3. Findings in the present study should be compared with the findings of other studies
as presented in the related literature and studies. This enables the researcher to
make some generalizations if there are enough data to support such generalizations.
Following is the textual presentation of Table 1:
(Complete) Table 1 shows that there were 59 science teachers in the high schools of
Province A. of this number, 21 or 35.59 percent were AB graduates. Of the AB graduates,
one or 1.69 percent majored in English, two or 3.39 percent in History, six or 10.17 percent
in Mathematics, and 12 or 30.34 percent in Science.
There were only four or 6.78 percent who were BSCE graduates, all majoring in
Mathematics.
There were 31 or 52.54 percent who were BSE graduates and of this number, two or 3.39
percent majored in English, the same number in History, 14 or 23.73 percent in
Mathematics, and 13 or 22.03 percent in Science.
Summarizing the majors, three or 5.08 percent were majors in English, four or 6.78 percent
in History, 25 or 42.37 percent in Mathematics, and 27 or 45.76 percent in Science.
Summarizing the majors, three or 5.08 percent were majors in English, four or 6.78 percent
in History, 25 or 42.37 percent in mathematics, and 27 or 45.76 percent in Science.
(Only the highlights) Of the 59 teachers, the AB and BSE graduates constituted the most
number. Twenty-one or 35.39 percent were AB graduates and 31 or 52.54 percent had BSE
degrees or a total of 52 or 88.13 percent. Of the majors, 27 or 45.76 percent of the
teachers were majors in Science, 25 or 42.37 percent in Mathematics, and three or 5.08
percent in English and four or 6.78 percent in History.
Findings. Findings are the original data, quantitative or otherwise, derived taken from the
original sources and which are results of questionnaires, interviews, experiments, tests,
observations and other data gathering instruments. Data presented in tables and their
textual presentations are examples of findings. Findings do not directly answer the specific
questions asked at the beginning of the investigation or the explicit hypotheses but the
findings provide the bases for making the answers. Hence, the main functions of the
findings are to provide bases for making the conclusions.
Implication, inference, interpretation. These three terms are synonymous if not exactly the
same in meaning. They are used interchangeably. Each is a statements of the possible
meaning, probable causes and probable effects of a situation or condition as revealed by the
findings plus a veiled suggestion to continue the situation if it is good or to adopt some
remedial measures to eradicate or minimize its bad effects. Those who are to be benefited
and those who are going to suffer the bad effects should also be mentioned.
Implication, inference, or interpretation has at least four elements, namely, condition,

cause, effect, and continuance or remedial measure.
(1) Statement of the condition or situation. The condition or situation is

stated based upon the findings, whether satisfactory or unsatisfactory.
(2) Probable cause of the condition. Usually, also every condition has a
cause but, there must be also a logical and valid relationship between
the condition and its cause.
(3) Probable effects of the condition. Usually, also every condition has an
effect, either bad or good. However, there must also be a logical and
valid relationship between the condition and its effect and this must be
clearly given.
(4) A veiled suggestion for continuance or remedial measure, if the

possible effect is bad. If the effect of condition is good, then there
must be a hint for the continuance of the existence of the condition.
However, if the effect is deleterious there must be some suggestions
for the adoption of measures aimed at minimizing the harmful effects.
The interpretation of Table 1 and its textual presentation is as follows: All the science
teachers were qualified to teach in the high school as per regulation. Unfortunately, more
than half of them were not science majors and therefore cannot teach science. Taking all
other things equal, a teacher with a science major can teach better than one with a non-
science major. Consequently, it can be assumed that the teaching of science in the high
schools of Province A is weak. As a result, the students and the whole country will suffer
and the whole consequences will be far-reaching. There is a need to encourage the teachers
who are non-science majors to increase their science units by attending evening or summer
courses or by attending more science seminars.
Graphical Presentation of Data
A graph is a chart representing the quantitative variations or changes of a variable itself, or

quantitative changes of variable in comparison with those of another variable or variables in
pictorial or diagrammatic form.
The quantitative variations or changes in the data may refer to their qualitative,
geographical, or chronological attributes. For instance, if the number of teachers teaching
science in the high schools of Province A is graphed according to their degrees, the graphing
is qualitative; if their number is graphed according to their assignments in the towns where
the high schools are located, the graphing is geographical; and if their number is graphed
according to school year, the graphing is chronological.
Purpose of graphing. The purpose of graphing is to present the variations, changes, and
relationships of data in a most attractive, appealing, effective and convincing way.
Advantages of the graphic method. (Bacani, et al., pp. 54-55) According to Bacani, et al.
the following are the advantages of the graphical method:
1. It attracts attention more effectively than do tables, and, therefore, is

less likely to be overlooked. Readers may skip tables but pause to look
at charts.
2. The use of colors and pictorial diagrams makes a list of figures in

business reports more meaningful. (Also in thesis reports)
3. It gives a comprehensive view of quantitative data. The wandering of a

line exerts a more powerful effect in the reader’s mind than tabulated
data. It shows what is happening and what is likely to take place.
4. Graphs enable the busy executive of a business concern to grasp the

essential facts quickly and without much trouble. Any relation not seen
from the figures themselves is easily discovered from the graph.
Illustrations, including attractive charts and graphs, are now
considered by most businessmen as indispensable accompaniment to
good business reports.
5. Their general usefulness lies in the simplicity they add to the

presentation of numerical data.
Limitations of graphs. (Bacani, et al., pp. 55) If there are advantages there are also
disadvantages of the graph. Some of these are:
1. Graphs do not show as much information at a time as do tables.
2. Graphs do not show as much information at a time as do tables.
3. Charts require more skill, more time, and more expense to prepare
than tables.
4. Graphs cannot be quoted in the same way as tabulated data.
5. Graphs can be made only after the data have been tabulated.
Types of graphs or charts. Graphs may be classified into the following types:
1. Bar Graphs
a. Single vertical bar graph

b. Single horizontal bar graph
c. Grouped or multiple or composite bar graph
d. Duo-directional or bilateral bar graph
e. subdivided or component bar graph
f. Histogram
2. Linear Graphs
a. Time series or chronological line chart

b. Composite line chart
c. Frequency polygon
d. Ogive
e. band chart
3. Hundred per cent graphs or charts
a. Subdivided bar or rectangular bar graph

b. Circle or pie graph
4. Pictograms
5. Statistical maps
6. Ratio charts
Construction of individual graphs. Stated herein are the principles to be followed in the
construction of individual graphs.
1. The bar graph. The bar graph is often used for the graphic presentation of data. It is
generally used to make comparison of simple magnitudes very much more clearly
and more distinctly perceptible to the eye. Each bar is drawn to a height or length
equal to the magnitude it represents as indicated in the scale (Y-axis). The bars are
separated from each other by a space equal to one-half the width of a bar. However,
there are no fixed rules that govern the construction of graphs and the maker may
only be guided by aesthetic, proportional, and symmetrical considerations and for
convenience.
Comparison in bar graphs is linear. It is the length of each bar that determines the
size of a magnitude it represents and the relative position of that magnitude in a
series of like and related magnitudes.
a. The single vertical graph. In the single vertical graph, the bars are constructed
vertically and they portray the magnitudes of the categories into which data have
been classified. See figure 3 as an example of bar graph. Vertical bars are usually
used to depict time series data.
b. Single horizontal bar graph. In this graph, the bars are constructed horizontally and
are used to compare magnitudes of the different categories into which the data are
classified. The horizontal bar graph is usually used to compare magnitudes of
categories.
Construction of graphs. In constructing graphs, two straight lines are drawn perpendicular
to each other, intersecting at a point called the point of origin and marked 0 (zero).
The horizontal line is called baseline, coordinate, or X-axis. It represents the variables
involved or the classes’ categories of the variable involved.
The vertical line is called ordinate or Y-axis. It represents the quantities of the variables
involved or the classes or categories of a variable involved. The Y-axis is divided into unit
distances with each unit distance represents 4,2 unit distances represent 8,3 unit distances
represents 12, etc. This is called the scale.
The distance measured to any point parallel to the X-axis from the Y-axis is called the
abscissa of the point and the distance of that point parallel to the Y-axis from the X-axis is
the ordinate of the point. The abscissa and the ordinate of a point are called the coordinates
of the point.
Plotting the graph means locating the meeting point of the abscissa and the ordinate.
Essentials of a graph. The essential parts of a graph are the following:
1. Number. Charts or graphs are also numbered for reference purposes. The general is
to write the number as Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3, etc. at the bottom of the graph.
2. Title. The same price principles hold in graphs as in tables. The title is usually written
above the graph.
3. Scale. The scale indicates the length or height unit that represents a certain amount
of the variable which is the subject of the graph. The scale enables the reader to
interpret the significance of a number of length or height units. Thus, if a length or
height unit is equal to 2, two lengths or height units’ equal 4, 3 length or height units
equal to 6, etc. The Y-axis represents the scale.
4. Classification and arrangement. The principles of classification and arrangement are

the same in graphs as in tables.
5. Classes, categories, or time series are indicated at the X-axis and the scale units are
indicated at the Y-axis.
6. Symmetry of the graph. The whole chart or graph should be about square; otherwise
the length should be a little greater than the height. the chart should be placed on
the page in such a way that the margins at the left and at the right should be about
the same, or the margin at the left is a little wider.
7. Footnote. The footnote, if there is any, should be placed immediately below the
graph aligned with the left side of the graph.
8. Source. The source of data, if there is any, should be written just Below the footnote,
if there is any, but it should be above the graph number.
An example of a vertical bar graph is figure 3, the data of which are taken from the
following table, Table 2.
Table 2
Enrollment of Pagasa High School
1985-1986 to 1989-1990
(By Curricular Year)
School Years
Curricular 1985-1986 1986-1987 1987-1988 1988-1989 1989-1990 Total
Years F % F % F % F % F % F %
I 85 36 144 46 173 41 192 38 221 34 815 38
II 57 24 77 24 132 32 148 29 179 28 593 28
III 53 23 49 16 69 16 114 22 138 22 423 20
IV 40 17 45 14 46 11 56 11 102 16 289 14
Total 235 100 315 100 420 100 510 100 640 100 2120 100
Source: Principal’s Office
Enrollment of Pagasa High School

1985-1986 to 1989-1990
Number of Students
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
1985-1986 1986-1987 1987-1988 1988-1989 1989-1990
Figure 3
Example of a horizontal bar graph is Figure 4.

Enrolment of Pagasa High School
1989-1990
Curricular
Year
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225
IV
III
II

Figure 4
c. Grouped (Multiple or Composite) Bar graph. The grouped bar graph is used in
comparing two or more categories of a variable during a specified period or over successive
periods of time when the subgroups of the categories have common attributes. Figure 5
shows the comparison of the enrolments over five successive years of the curricular years of
the students of Pagasa High School, Table 2.
d. Duo-directional or bilateral bar graph. This graph is used to present data in
the form of assets, profits, and positive numbers, liabilities, losses and
negative numbers. If the baseline is vertical, the bars at the left of the
baseline represents liabilities, losses or negative numbers and
those at the right side represent assets, profits, or positive numbers. If the
baseline is horizontal, the bars above it represent assets, profits, or
positive number and those below represents liabilities, losses, or negative
numbers. An example of a bilateral graph is Figure 6 which is derived from Table
3 just below.
Table 3
Financial Operations of Pagasa High School
1985-1986 to 1988-1989
(In Thousands of Pesos)
Results of School Years

Operations 1985-1986 1986-1987 1987-1988 1988-1989 Total
Earnings 310 450 470 600 1830
Expenses 250 390 510 510 1660
Profits 60 60 90 210
Loss 40 40
Source: Treasurer’s Report

Profits and Loss of Pagasa High School
1985-1986 to 1988-1989
Thousands
Of Pesos
90
60
30 1985-
1986 1986-
1987 1987-
1988 1988-
0
1989
Source:
-30
-60
-90
Treasurer’s Report
Figure 6
e. Subdivided (or Component) bar graph. Subdivided bar graphs are used to show the
variations or changes of the component parts of a whole and the whole itself. Cross-
comparison of the proportionate distribution of the different parts can be made easily.
Figure 7 is an example of a subdivided bar graph showing the earnings, expenses, and
profits and loss of the Pagasa High School for a number of years.
Financial Operations of Pagasa High School

1985-1986 to 1988-1989
Thousands
Of Pesos
Figure 7
f. Histogram. A histogram is composed of bars placed side by side whose

heights indicate the magnitudes of their respective classes or categories. It is
used with grouped or class frequency distributions. Figure 8 is an
example. The heights of the bar indicate the number of students in
certain age groups. Data are taken from Table 4.
Table 4
Age Distribution of Pagasa High School Students
School Year 1989-1990
Cumulative Cumulative
Age Groups Frequency Frequency Frequency
Upward Downward
20-21 53 640 53
18-19 162 587 215
16-17 211 425 426
14-15 150 214 576
12-13 64 64 640
________
N = 640

School Year 1989-1990
Number of
Students
250
200
150
100
50
0
12-13 14-15 16-17 18-19 20-21
Age in Years
Figure 8
2. Linear graphs. Linear graphs are good devices to show variations of values over
successive periods of time. Changes in the data are indicated by the linear curves.
Advantages of linear graphs or charts. The advantages of the linear graph or chart
are the following: (Bacani, et al., p. 67)
a. The curve shows data as continuous line; hence, it is continuous in its effect.
b. The wandering line of the curve tells the whole story. At a glance one can
see just what the situation is and what is likely to happen.
c. Its preparation requires less time and skill.
Construction. Linear graphs are constructed in much the same way as many other graphs
are. A slight difference lies in the process of locating the intersections of the abscissa
representing a class or category of a variable and the ordinate representing the magnitudes
of the classes or categories of the variable. The intersections of the abscissa and the
ordinate are marked by bold dots and then joined successively by either straight lines or
curved lines to show the variations of a variable or the variable in relation to that of
another.
a. Time series linear charts. (single line) Time series linear single line charts depict the
variations of a variable over a period of time. Generally, the abscissa represents the periods
of time and the Y-axis represents quantitative values of the variable. The intersections of
the X-axis representing time and the Y-axis representing magnitude are located and marked
and then joined successively by straight or curved lines. The resulting line, a broken straight
line or a curved line, shows the variations of the variable. An example of this chart is Figure
9 which shows the enrolment of Pagasa High School for five school years. See table 2 for
exact data.

1985-1986 to 1989-1990
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1985-1986 1986-1987 1987-1988 1988-1989 1989-1990
Figure 9
b. Time series composite or multilinear charts. These charts are used when
comparisons are made between or among categories of the same variables or variations of
two or more variables over periods of time. Figure 10 is an example comparing the
enrolments of the curricular years over a period of five years in the Pagasa High School.
Exact data are found in Table 2.

1985-1986 to 1989-1990
Number of
Students
250 First Year Second Year Third Year Fourth

Year
200
150
100
50
0
1985-1986 1986-1987 1987-1988 1988-1989 1989-1990
Figure 10
c. Frequency polygon. The frequency polygon is used to graph class or grouped

frequency distributions. The X-axis represents the classes and the Y-axis represents the
frequencies of the classes. In plotting the interactions of the abscissas and ordinates, the
midpoints of the classes are used as abscissas. The linear curve starts from the midpoint of
the empty class just before the class with a frequency and ends at the midpoint of the
empty class just after the highest class with a frequency. Figure 11 is an example
presenting the age distributions of Pagasa High School students, school year 1989-1990.
The graph is based on data from Table 4.

During the School Year 1989-1990
Number of
Students
250
200
150
100
50
0
12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Ages in Years
Figure 11
d. The ogive. The ogive is used to graph cumulative frequencies (partial sums of
frequencies), either cumulative frequencies upward (from lower classes to
upper classes) or cumulative Frequencies downward (from upper
classes to lower classes). The items graphed may be absolute frequencies
or derived frequencies (percents). Figure 12 gives examples of ogives
showing the cumulative frequencies of students classified according to age.
Data are taken from Table 4.
Cumulative Frequencies of the Students of Pagasa High School

(Distribution by Age)
Number of
Students
700
600
Ogive
Upward
500
400
300
200
100
Ogive
Downward
0
12 14 16 18 20 22
Ages in Years
Figure 12
e. Band Chart. A band chart is form of line graph of the time series variety. It
shows the proportional variations of the component parts of a whole over a
period of time. The percent equivalents of the components are the
ones plotted but absolute values may be used through rarely. The bands
representing the proportional changes may be colored or cross-
hatched differently to increase the clarity of the variations. Figure 13 is
an example which is based on data in Table 2. It shows the proportional or
percent changes of the students in the four curricular years.
In constructing the band chart, the largest component at the beginning of the period is
placed at the bottom, followed by the second largest component, etc. If percents are used
the band chart is a rectangle. If actual values are used, the upper line boundary of the chart
will be irregular.
3. One hundred percent graphs or charts. One hundred percent graphs or charts show
the comparison of the proportional sizes of the component parts that make up the whole,
the whole being made equivalent to 100%. It is the percent equivalent of the component
parts that are portrayed in the graph. The percent equivalent of each component part is
found by dividing it by the total of the component parts and multiplying the result by 100%.
There are two types or kinds of 100% charts: a.) the 100% bar or rectangular chart and b.)
The pie chart or circle graph. These are to graph budgets, enrolments, sales, etc.
a. The 100% bar graph or rectangular chart. Usually, the bar graph is erected
vertically and the whole height is equivalent to 100%. The bar is subdivided
into segments whose number is equal to the number of component
parts. The size of each segment is proportional to the percent of the component
part it represents. The segments are arranged according to size with the
largest segment at the bottom. Each segment is labeled by the value
and percent it represents, the percent inside and the value outside.
See example below, Figure 14.
Suppose the following are the expenditures of the Pagasa High School during the school
year 1987-1988: (see Table 3)
Administration (Salaries) P 60,000.00 11.76%

Instruction (Salaries) P 310,000.00 60.79%
Facilities (Including building) P 100,000.00 19.61%
Miscellaneous P 40,000.00 7.84%
Total P 510,000.00 100.00%
Expenditures of Pagasa High School

Miscellaneous
P40,000.00
7.84%
Administration (Salaries)
11.76% P60,000.00
Facilities (Including Building)

P100,000.00
19.61%
Instruction (Salaries)
P310,000.00
60.79%
Figure 14
b. The Pie Chart or circle Graph.
11.76% circle graphs has the same principles and functions
The
as the rectangular chart. It is also equated to 100% and because the circle has 360 0, 1% is
equated to 3.6 so that 60% must be equal to 2160 (3.6 x 60). Graphing again the expenses
0
of Pagasa High School in 1987-1988 using the circle graph, it is done as in Figure 15 below.
19.60%
Expenditures of Pagasa High School
60.79%
7.84%

Figure 15
4. Pictograms. The pictogram or pictograph is used to portray data by means of
pictures or symbols. Since the pictogram cannot portray data accurately, its
only purpose is to make the comparison of magnitudes more vivid and
clear. Besides, it is very attractive and never fails to catch attention.
Construction. First, make a scale, that is, each picture or symbol must represent a definite
number of units. So, to find the number of pictures or symbols to represent a magnitude,
divide the magnitude by the number of units’ represented by each picture or symbol. The
pictures and symbols must be of the same size and arranged in a row of rows. The symbols
should suggest the nature of the subject matter of the data being presented. For instance,
an army may be presented by pictures of soldiers; population by pictures of persons; Car
registration by pictures of automobiles; money in circulation by pictures of money bills or
peso coins; etc. Figure 16 is an example showing the enrolment of Pagasa High School from
1985-1986 to 1989-1990. The graph is based on Table 2.
Legend: = 50
Enrolment of
Pagasa high
School
1985-1986 to
1989-1990
1985-1986
1986-1987
1987-1988
1988-1989
1989-1990
Source: Principal’s Office, Table 2
Figure 16
Implications of the Findings
It is the general practice of thesis writers to discuss the summary of the implications of their
findings at the end of Chapter 4 or elsewhere in the thesis. From observations, it appears
that as far as research reporting is concerned, an implication consists of at least five
elements, namely:
1. The existence of a condition. This condition is a finding discovered in the

research. The condition may be favorable or unfavorable. If it is favorable, it
is strength of the subject studied. If it is unfavorable, it is a weakness of the
subject. For instance, in the study of the teaching of science in the high
schools of Province A, it is discovered that the majority of the science
teachers are not qualified to teach science. This finding is an unfavorable one
it is a weakness in the teaching of science.
2. The probable cause of the condition. If there is a condition there must be a

cause and there must be a logical relationship between the condition and the
cause, otherwise the cause may not be a valid one. In the example above,
the logical cause of the lack of enough qualified teachers to handle science
subjects is that either the people responsible for recruiting teachers were not
careful enough in the selection of teachers or there are not enough qualified
applicants for the positions of science teachers, or both.
3. The probable effect of the condition. Most likely, there is also a probable effect
of the condition and there must be a logical relationship between the condition and
its probable effect. The logical effect of the lack of enough qualified teachers to
teach science is that, taking all other things equal, the science teachers in the high
schools of Province A are not as effective as when all the science teachers are
fully qualified. It is understandable that a fully qualified science teacher has more
science knowledge and skills to impart to his students than a non-qualified science
teacher. Hence, the students would suffer adversely.
4. The measure to remedy the unsatisfactory condition or to continue to strengthen

the favorable one. It is a natural reaction to institute a measure to remedy an
unfavorable situation. However, if a condition is found to be favorable one it is
also a natural reaction to continue it in operation and to even further strengthen it.
The logical step to take to remedy the unfavorable situation is, if it is
impractical to ease out the unqualified science teachers, to enjoin or require
them to improve their qualification by taking evening or summer studies in science,
by attending more science seminars, or by increasing their readings in science
especially those being published in science journals, magazines, and other
publications.
5. The entity or area involved or affected. In the example cited above, it is the
teaching of science in the high schools of Province A that is affected. Hence,
the topic for discussion must be entitled “Implications of the Findings to the
Teaching of Science.” Some researchers use the title “Implications to
Education” which is too broad and vague. The area directly affected by the
unfavorable or favorable conditions discovered in the study should be cited
more specifically.
Chapter 5 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This is the last chapter of the thesis and the most important part because it is here where
the findings, and the whole thesis for that matter, are summarized; generalizations in the
form of conclusions are made; and the recommendations for the solution of problems
discovered in the study are addressed to those concerned.
Summary of Findings
Guidelines in writing the summary of findings. The following should be the characteristics of
the summary of findings:
1. There should be e brief statement about the main purpose of the study, the
population or respondents, the period of the study, method of research used, the
research instrument, and the sampling design. There should be no explanations
made.
Example. (Using the hypothetical study of teaching science in the high schools of
Province A). This study was conducted for the purpose of determining the status of
teaching science in the high schools of Province A. The descriptive method of
research was utilized and the normative survey technique was used for gathering
data. The questionnaire served as the instrument for collecting data. All the teachers
handling science and a 20percent representative sample of the students were the
respondents. The inquiry was conducted during the school year 1989-’90.
2. The findings may be lumped up all together but clarity demands that each specific
question under the statement of the problem must be written first to followed by the
findings that would answer it. The specific questions should follow the order they are
given under the statement of the problem.
Example. How qualified are the teachers handling science in the high schools of
province A?
Of the 59 teachers, 31 or 53.54 percent were BSE graduates and three or 5.08
percent were MA degree holders. The rest, 25 or 42.37 percent, were non-BSE
baccalaureate degree holders with at least 18 education units. Less than half of all
the teachers, only 27 or 45.76 percent were science majors and the majority, 32 or
54.24 percent were non-science majors.
3. The findings should be textual generalizations, that is, a summary of the important
data consisting of text and numbers. Every statement of fact should consist of words,
numbers, or statistical measures woven into a meaningful statement. No deductions,
nor inference, nor interpretation should be made otherwise it will only be duplicated
in the conclusion. See the example in No. 2 just above.
4. Only the important findings, the highlights of the data, should be included in the
summary, especially those upon which the conclusions should be based.
5. Findings are not explained nor elaborated upon anymore. They should be stated as
concisely as possible.
6. No new data should be introduced in the summary of findings.
Conclusions
Guidelines in writing the conclusions. The following should be the characteristics of the
conclusions.
1. Conclusions are inferences, deductions, abstractions, implications, interpretations,

general statements, and/or generalizations based upon the findings. Conclusions are
the logical and valid outgrowths upon the findings. They should not contain any
numeral because numerals generally limit the forceful effect or impact and scope of a
generalization. No conclusions should be made that are not based upon the findings.
Example: The conclusion that can be drawn from the findings in No. 2 under the
summary of findings is this: All the teachers were qualified to teach in the high
school but the majority of them were not qualified to teach science.
2. Conclusions should appropriately answer the specific questions raised at the

beginning of the investigation in the order they are given under the statement of the
problem. The study becomes almost meaningless if the questions raised are not
properly answered by the conclusions.
Example. If the question raised at the beginning of the research is: “How adequate
are the facilities for the teaching of science?” and the findings show that the facilities
are less than the needs of the students, the answer and the conclusion should be:
“The facilities for the teaching of science are inadequate”.
3. Conclusions should point out what were factually learned from the inquiry. However,
no conclusions should be drawn from the implied or indirect effects of the findings.
Example: From the findings that the majority of the teachers were non-science
majors and the facilities were less than the needs of the students, what have been
factually learned are that the majority of the teachers were not qualified to teach
science and the science facilities were inadequate.
It cannot be concluded that science teaching in the high schools of Province A was
weak because there are no data telling that the science instruction was weak. The
weakness of science teaching is an indirect or implied effect of the non-qualification
of the teachers and the inadequacy of the facilities. This is better placed under the
summary of implications.
If there is a specific question which runs this way “How strong science instruction in
the high schools of Province A as is perceived by the teachers and students?”, then a
conclusion to answer this question should be drawn. However, the respondents
should have been asked how they perceived the degree of strength of the science
instruction whether it is very strong, strong, fairly strong, weak or very weak. The
conclusion should be based upon the responses to the question.
4. Conclusions should be formulated concisely, that is, brief and short, ye they convey
all the necessary information resulting from the study as required by the specific
questions.
5. Without any strong evidence to the contrary, conclusions should be stated

categorically. They should be worded as if they are 100 percent true and correct.
They should not give any hint that the researcher has some doubts about their
validity and reliability. The use of qualifiers such as probably, perhaps, may be, and
the like should be avoided as much as possible.
6. Conclusions should refer only to the population, area, or subject of the study. Take
for instance, the hypothetical teaching of science in the high schools of Province A,
all conclusions about the faculty, facilities, methods, problems, etc. refer only to the
teaching of science in the high schools of Province A.
7. Conclusions should not be repetitions of any statements anywhere in the thesis. They
may be recapitulations if necessary but they should be worded differently and they
should convey the same information as the statements recapitulated.
Some Dangers to Avoid in Drawing up Conclusions Based on Quantitative Data
There are some pitfalls to avoid in the use of quantitative data. (Bacani, et al., pp. 48-52)
researchers should not accept nor utilize quantitative data without questions or analysis
even if they are presented in authoritative-looking forms. This is so because in some
instances quantitative data are either inaccurate or misleading either unwittingly or by
design. The data should be analyzed very critically to avoid misleading interpretations and
conclusions. Among the factors that a researcher should guard against are the following:
1. Bias. Business establishments, agencies, or organizations usually present or

manipulate figures to their favor. For instance, an advertisement may quote statistics
to show that a given product is superior to any other leading brand. We should be
wary of the use of statistics in this case because of the obvious profit motive behind.
An individual may also do the same. A respondent to a questionnaire or in an
interview may commit the same bias o protect his own interests. Like the case of the
science teachers in the high schools of Province A, they may respond that the
science facilities in their respective schools are adequate although they are not just
to protect the good names of their own schools. A respondent, if asked how many
science books he has read, may say that he has read many although he has read
only a few to protect his name. Hence, if there is a way of checking the veracity of
presented data by investigation, observation, or otherwise, this should be done to
insure the accuracy of the conclusion based upon the data under consideration.
2. Incorrect generalization. An incorrect generalization is made when there is a limited

body of information or when the sample is not representative of the population. Take
this case. The Alumni Association of a big university would like to conduct a survey
to determine the average income of the alumni during their first ten years after
graduation. Though the total number of returns may meet the sample size
requirement, the population may not be properly represented by the actual
composition of the sample. This is likely to happen because chances are that a great
majority of the alumni in the high income bracket will respond readily but the great
majority of those who are not doing well may ignore the survey by reason of pride.
In such a case, the high income group is over represented and low income group is
under represented in the sample resulting in the overestimate of the average income
of the entire alumni group. This is the result of a built-in sampling bias.
3. Incorrect deduction. This happens when a general rule is applied to a specific case.
Suppose there is a finding that the science facilities in the high schools of Province A
are inadequate. We cannot conclude at once that any particular tool or equipment is
definitely inadequate. Suppose there is an over-supply of test tubes. Hence, to make
the conclusions that all science equipment and tools in the high schools of Province A
are inadequate is an incorrect deduction in this case.
4. Incorrect comparison. A basic error in statistical work is to compare two things that
are not really comparable. Again, let us go to high schools of Province A. Suppose in
the survey, School C has been found to have 20 microscopes and School D has only
eight. We may conclude that School C is better equipped with microscopes than
School D. However, upon further inquiry, School C has 1,500 students while School
D has only 500 students. Hence, the ratio in School C is 75 students is to one
microscope while in School D the ratio is 63 students is to one microscope. Hence,
School D is better equipped with microscopes than School C. to conclude that School
C is better equipped with microscopes than School D based on the number of
microscopes owned by each school is incorrect comparison.
5. Abuse of correlation data. A correlation study may show a high degree of

association between two variables. They may move in the same rate but it is not
right to conclude at once that one is the cause of the other unless confirmed so by
other studies. In no case does correlation show causal relationship. When the
government increases the price of gasoline, the prices of commodities also starts
to rise. We cannot conclude immediately that the increase in price of gasoline is the
sole cause of the increase in the prices of commodities. There are other causes to
consider such as shortage or undersupply of the commodities, increased cost of
production, panic buying, etc. To be able to make a conclusive statement as to
what is or what are the real causes of the increases in prices of commodities, an
intensive investigation is needed.
6. Limited information furnished by any one ratio. A ratio shows only a partial picture in
most analytical work. Suppose the only information that we have about a certain
establishment is that the ratio does not show the kinds of employees leaving and
why they are leaving. We do not know whether the losses of employees are
caused by death, retirement, resignations, or dismissals. We can only surmise
but we cannot conclude with definiteness that the causes of the 20% employee
turnover are death, retirement, poor working conditions, poor salary, etc. Avoid as
much as possible making conclusions not sufficiently and adequately supported by
facts.
7. Misleading impression concerning magnitude of base variable. Ratios can give

erroneous impressions when they are used to express relationships between two
variables of small magnitudes. Take the following examples. A college announced
that 75% of its graduates passed he CPA examination at a certain time. Another
college also advertised that 100% of its graduates who took that same
examination passed. From these announcements we may form the impression
that the standard of instruction in the two colleges is high. Actually only four
graduates from the first college took the CPA licensing examination and three
happened to pass.
For recommending similar researches to be conducted, the recommendation should

be: It is recommended that similar researches should be conducted in other places. Other
provinces should also make inquiries into the status of the teaching of science in their own
high schools so that if similar problems and deficiencies are found, concerted efforts may be
exerted to improve science teaching in all high schools in the country.
( REFERENCES)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aquino, Gaudencio V. Essentials of Research and Thesis Writing. Quezon City: Alemars-
Phoenix Publishing House, Inc., 1974
Babbie, Earl. The Practice of Social Research. Fourth Edition. Belmont, California:
Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1986
Bacani, Alberto C., Alfonso R. Cruz, and Sancho M. Cuasay. Introduction to business and
Economics Statistics. Manila: University of the East. GIC Enterprises & Co., Inc., 1968.
Berelson, Bernard. Content Analysis in Communication Research. Gencoe, Illinois: Free

Press, 1952.
Best, John W. Research in Education. Second Edition. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1970
Biddle, Bruce J. and William Ellena. Editors. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,
1964.
Borg, Walter R. Educational Research: An Introduction. New York: David McKay Company,
Inc., 1963.
Bradfield, James M and Stewart Moredock. Measurement and Evaluation in Education. New
York: The Mac Millan Company, Inc., 1957.
Campbell, William Giles. Form and Style in Thesis Writing. Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Company, Inc., 1969. (Recopied by National Book Store)
Campbell, William Giles., Stephen Vaughan Ballou and Carol Slade . Form and Style:
Theses, Reports, Term Papers. Sixth Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, Inc., 1982.
(Reprinted by National Book Store)
Crawford, Walter B. Research Activity and Writing. Belmont, California: Dickenson

Publishing Company, Inc., 1967.
Cronbach, Lee J. Essentials of Psychological Testing. Second Edition. New York: Harper and
Brothers, Publishers, 1960.
Dawe, Jessamon. Writing Business and Economic Papers, Theses, and Dissertations.
Totowa, New Jersey: Littlefield, Adams and Company, Inc., 1970. Reprinted 1975.

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METHODS OF RESEARCH

Chapter 1 of a thesis should contain a discussion of each of the following topics:

Guidelines in writing the introduction. The introduction of a thesis should contain a

2. The existence of an unsatisfactory condition, a felt problem that needs a solution.

4. Historical background of the problem. For a historical background of the research

5. A desire to have deeper and cleared understanding of a situation, circumstance, or

6. A desire to find a better way of doing something or of improving a product. The

7. A desire to discover something. In connection with the teaching of science in the

8. Geographical conditions of the study locale. This is necessary in anthropological and

Statement of the Problem

Objective of the Study

is defined as “statement of purpose for which the investigation is to be conducted”( Ardales,

Note: It is inadbisable to use both problem and objective in a research paper

A hypothesis is a tentative conclusion or answer to a specific question raised at the

Guidelines in the formulation of Hypothesis.

Alternative Hypothesis: There is a significant different between the perception of the

Paradigm. A paradigm is a diagrammatic representation of a conceptual framework. It

Figure 8. Paradigm for science teaching in high school.

Importance or Significance of the Study

2. Possible solutions to existing problems or improvement to unsatisfactory conditions.

Scope and Delimitations of the Study

1. A brief statement of the general purpose of the study.

2. The subject matter and topics studied and discussed.

General purpose: To determine the status of the teaching of science.

Limitations of the Study

Definition of Key Terms

Guidelines in defining terms:

4. Definitions may be taken from encyclopedias, books, magazines and newspaper

5. Definitions should a\be brief, clear, and unequivocal as possible.

Guidelines in Citing Related Literature and Studies

A. Characteristics of the Materials Cited

2. Materials must be as objective and unbiased as possible. Some materials are

B. Ways of Citing Related Literature and Studies

According to Enriquez, praise helps much in learning, etc., etc.1

A material may be quoted if the idea conveyed is so perfectly stated or it is controversial

Justification of the Study ( Synthesis )

The research design used whether historical, descriptive or experimental should be

Method of Collecting Data and Development of the Research Instrument

Development of the instrument.

The Sampling Design

a. The size of the population;

Statistical Treatment of Data

The role of statistics in research.

3. Statistical manipulations organize raw data systematically to make the latter

6. Statistical procedures are indispensable in determining the levels of significance of

Some guidelines in the selection and application of statistical procedures.

5. When the variability of the population is desired to be known, the measures of

6. When the relative placements of scores or positions are desired to be known,

7. When the significance of the trend of reaction or opinion of persons as a group

Chapter 4 ANALYSES, PRESENTATION, AND INTERPRETATION OF

1. Educational qualifications of the science teachers

1. Degrees earned in pre-service education

Then under degrees earned are

b. Quantitative. This is arranging data according to their numerical magnitudes, from

c. Geographical. Data may be arranged according to their geographical location or

Classification, cross-classification and arrangement of data are done for purposes of

1. Generally, only proportional predictions can be made. One type of generalization is

Quality control in manufacturing is an example. Based on the recognition that

Here is another example. Suppose in a certain school offering civil engineering, it is a