Advanced Diploma of Plant Engineering: Reading Material For Module 7

Advanced Diploma of
Plant Engineering
(DPE05)
Reading Material for Module 7 :

Fluid Power Systems and Components
Topic 7.1
V1
ITH MODEL ANSWERS

DPE – Module 7 Readings P-2
Version 1
1
Introduction to Fluid Power
In this chapter, we summarize how the term “hydraulics” was derived, the history of hydraulics
along with the scientists/mathematicians, who have contributed to its the.
A brief comparison of advantages of hydraulics over electrical devices and pneumatics is explained
to show the inherent characteristics and the energy transfer in the field of hydraulics.
A brief summary of ensuing chapters shows the basic principles involved, various hydraulic
component functions and applications, mathematical calculations for sizing the components, tables,
illustrative pictures, hydraulic circuits and symbols, practical examples and many more.
1.1 Introduction
The term fluid power generally refers to the power generated by fluid substances like liquids and
gases. The power generated is controlled at times from the generator itself and also at various stages
with the help of valves. Finally, the power generated is applied to the end user to obtain force or
motion in the form of an operating mechanism.
In our explanation in ensuing chapters, we emphasize on power from liquids mainly hydraulic oil
that will invariably become the operating media in power generation. The power from gases,
meaning the generation of compressed air, from atmospheric air that will be put to work in operating
mechanisms.
Therefore to summarize, the use of hydraulic oil properties, mainly the incompressibility factor
built-in, energy transfer derived from it becomes “HYDRAULICS” and the use of atmospheric air
and mainly the compressibility characteristic involved becomes “PNEUMATICS.” Both these
categories are best known as “FLUID POWER SYSTEM.” Here after we will be dealing with
hydraulics only and all the chapters compiled, will exhibit the functionality of hydraulic systems and
controls.
1.2 History of hydraulics

The science behind modern hydraulics dates back 2000 years ago, when water was the only liquid
media available for experimenting with the characteristics. There were many scientists,
mathematicians whose inventions led to stage-by-stage development of hydraulics.
2 Practical Hydraulic Systems
Aristotle 384–322 BC Theory of motion of liquid

Archimedes 287–212 BC Theory of floating body and displacement
Leonardo da Vinci 1452–1519 Jet, waves, eddies and continuity, and velocity of flow
Simon Stevin 1548–1620 Hydrostatic paradox
Galelio 1564–1642 Gravitational acceleration
Castelli 1577–1644 Principles of continuity
Torricelli 1608–1647 Vacuum theory
Edme Mariotte 1620–1684 Wind and water pressure and elasticity of air
Robert Boyle 1627–1691 Gas laws
Blaise Pascal 1623–1662 Principles of hydrostatics
Isaac Newton 1642–1727 Inertia, principles of momentum
Johann Benoulli 1667–1748 Kinetic theory of liquid and gases
Hendri de pitot 1695–1771 Pitot tube and rotating arm
Osborne Reynolds 1842–1912 Theory of laminar and turbulent flow
Joseph Bramah 1748–1814 Hydraulic press
1.3 Advantages over electrical devices

• In hydraulics, the transmission is infinite variable whereas in electrical motor
applications the transmission is either fixed or in measured steps from medium to large.
• Hydraulic actuators perform high force transmission at low speeds, whereas electrical
motors or devices transmit low force or torque at low speeds.
Even though high torque electrical motors are available, it may require high current, but
the speed comes down drastically.
• In hydraulic system, a single source of power from the pump can be utilized to power a
number of actuators or multiple axis devices whereas in electric, only one actuator or one
axis can be controlled.
• In hydraulics, the power source can be located in a convenient location, whereas in
electric, the power source must be located directly at point of transmission or near.
• Hydraulic actuators can be located even in harsh environments, whereas electrical
devices which cause sparks at times can lead to fire accidents.
• The entire power system in hydraulics is designed to handle slightly more than the
average demand and with the use of an accumulator, varying load cycles can be
performed even without running the power system. As electrical devices are generally
stand-alone units, they have to be in operation during the entire duty cycle.
• Constant holding force or torque in hydraulics can be achieved easily and even the power
system need not be run, whereas, electrical motors draw large current to maintain the
torque even when stopped. Most of the electrical motors overheat and burnout easily.
• Hydraulic power transmission is practically noiseless, whereas electrical transmissions
are noisy.
1.4 Advantages over pneumatics

• Hydraulics are high pressure systems (may be up to 700bar), whereas pneumatics can
give only up to 7 to 10bar maximum pressure.
• A hydraulic system is practically noiseless and has a very smooth operation, whereas in
pneumatics, the system becomes noisy due to compressed air exhausted to the
atmosphere.
• Incompressibility characteristics of hydraulic fluid transmit high force at low speeds,
whereas air is compressible hence the force out of an actuator is limited.
• When precision control is required, hydraulics have better advantages over pneumatics.
1.5 The energy transfer in a hydraulics field

• Phase-1 Electrical energy is obtained from electrical motor or diesel engines (Rotary
motion).
Introduction to Fluid Power 3
• Phase-2 Mechanical energy is obtained by the drive that may be a coupling, v-pulleys or
gear drive (Rotary motion).
• Phase-3 Hydraulic energy from hydraulic pumps, valve systems (rotary, reciprocating
motion).
• Phase-4 Mechanical energy in actuators like hydraulic cylinders or hydraulic motors
(Reciprocating, rotary motion in the form of push, pull and twist).
Although, various fields like industrial, mobile, marine and aerospace utilize the hydraulic systems
and controls; consequently, emphasis is placed primarily on the theory, functions, characteristics,
applications, and maintenance aspects of the industrial hydraulics systems.
Many applications presented in this manual are representative in nature to explain the function and
operating characteristics of different hydraulic systems and components that commonly exist in this
field. It does not exhibit a particular model or brand to promote it.
A brief summary of contents is given below, illustrating the things to know and understand in
industrial hydraulic systems and other related details to go along with it.
1.6 Summary of chapters
Chapter 1 Introduction to Fluid Power
Chapter 2 Basics of hydraulics-general physical principles and hydraulic principles
Chapter 3 Hydraulic pumps of industrial application, theory, construction, functions,

characteristics, sizing, and application of commonly used pumps
Chapter 4 Hydraulic motors of industrial applications, theory, constructions, functions,

characteristics, and application of commonly used hydraulic motors
Chapter 5 Hydraulic cylinders of industrial applications, theory, construction, functions, energy

transfer characteristics, and sizing and applications
Chapter 6 Hydraulic directional control valves of industrial applications, theory, construction,

functions, characteristics, selection, and applications
Chapter 7 Hydraulic pressure control valves of industrial applications, theory, constructions,

functional principles, characteristics, selection, and applications
Chapter 8 Hydraulic flow control valves of industrial applications, theory, construction, functions,
characteristics, sizing, selection, and applications
Chapter 9 Hydraulic filters of industrial applications, theory, construction, functions,

characteristics, and applications
Chapter 10 Electro-hydraulic systems applied to industrial hydraulics, theory, construction,

functions and applications in modern hydraulic system involving proportional and servo valves.
Chapter 11 Hydraulic accessories used commonly in industrial hydraulic systems like accumulators,
heat exchangers, oil coolers, hydraulic reservoirs, hydraulic tubes, hoses and fittings and other tank
mounted accessories—theory , functions, construction, sizing, and applications
Chapter 12 Hydraulic fluids used in industrial hydraulic systems, functional characteristics

requirements, cleanliness, filtration and contamination control, trouble-shooting oil related
problems, relevant brands available in the market
4 Practical Hydraulic Systems
Chapter 13 Basic hydraulic circuits—representative applications and theory behind the construction
of hydraulic circuits in various functional requirements
Chapter 14 Maintenance and troubleshooting of industrial hydraulic system, erection, cleaning

processes, commissioning procedures, maintenance procedures, troubleshooting methods, and
maintenance documentation requirements
Chapter 15 Seal design in hydraulic components—hydraulic cylinders piston, rod, gland and barrel
seals, materials used in seals and their compatibility with hydraulic oil, O-rings and their
applications—relevant brands available in the market.
Appendix A Important hydraulic knowledge

Appendix B Hydraulic circuit symbols—for industrial application components
Practical exercises
With the above introduction, we proceed further on chapters as tabulated above.

2
Basics of Hydraulics
In this chapter, we will be learning the basic physical principles that are relevant to the hydraulic
system. These are very much essential to understand and their applications are widespread in the
entire hydraulic system.
Basic hydraulic principles, such as properties of fluids, hydrostatic and hydrodynamic laws are
explained and all the components of hydraulic systems work based on these principles. In ensuing
chapters, we will understand the applications of these principles.
2.1 Physical principles

The common physical principles used in other engineering disciplines are also used in hydraulics
and are explained in the text below
2.2 Mass
Mass is a property of a physical object or a body, irrespective of its surroundings, position, or shape
which measures the amount of matter or energy contained in it. The mass of a body is constant and
measured in kilograms or pounds.
The mass of 1 l of water at 4°C is taken as 1kg.
Mass is classified into two categories, namely,

• Inertial mass
• Mass due to gravity
6 Practical Hydraulic Systems: Operation and Troubleshooting
Inertial mass is the property of a mass at rest on ground or at an elevated position and resistance to
change its position, unless acted upon by an external force. The related energy concepts are potential
energy and kinetic energy.
Mass due to gravity is the object’s property to interact with the gravitational force on the earth. An
object with a smaller mass at rest can be moved with a smaller force, whereas, a large mass requires
a large force to move it.
The measure of gravitational forces varies between planets. The mass remains same on the earth and
the moon, whereas the strength of gravitational forces that attract the mass is more on earth than on
the moon.
2.3 Weight
Weight is a measurement term used to refer to the mass of an object or the force due to earth’s
gravity acting on the object of a given mass.
The gravitational force acting on any body or object is directly proportional to the mass and is given
as
W = mg,
Where “g” is the acceleration due to gravity.
The value of “g” is taken as 9.8m/s2 in SI units and 32ft./s2 in imperial units.
Since “g” is on earth, 1kg of mass or object weighs 9.8N.
In everyday use, we always weigh a mass on a weighing scale, which gives the apparent weight of
an object. The weights of the object’s mass or the downward force due to gravity on different
planets are shown in Table 2.1 below.
Table 2.1
Acceleration due to Gravity on Different Planets
Earth 1.000
Moon 0.166
Mars 0.377
Mercury 0.378
Uranus 0.889
Venus 0.907
Saturn 1.064
Neptune 1.125
Jupiter 2.364
Weight of a mass on earth is taken as one.

Weight of a mass on other planets, multiplied by other factors is given for respective planets.
The unit of weight in SI units is “Newton” or simply referred as N.
The unit of mass in SI units is “Kilogram” or simply referred as kg (The imperial unit for mass =
pounds or lb).
Basics of Hydraulics 7
2.4 Volume
The volume of a solid object is measured as the space occupied by the three dimensional value of
the object and usually expressed as cubic meters (m3) in metric units and cubic feet (ft.3) in imperial
units.
The volume of a liquid substance is measured as how much space occupied or displaced in a
container at static condition or the capacity of a container to hold the liquid and is usually measured
in Liters (L) or as cubic meters (m3) in metric units and cubic feet (ft.3) in imperial units (see Figure
2.1).
Figure 2.1
Volume measurement
In describing the pump characteristics, the term “Capacity” illustrates the volume of a fluid over a
specific time in dynamic condition. The measurement for capacity is usually expressed as liters per
minute (lpm) or as cubic meters per minute (m3/min) in metric units and cubic feet per minute
(ft.3/min) in imperial units.
2.5 Density
The density of an object or a substance is a measure of mass per unit volume and is denoted by the
symbol “ρ” (rho).
m
ρ = -----------
V
In SI units
ρ = The density of an object measured in kg/m3
m = The total mass of an object measured in kg
V = The total volume of an object measured in m3
In Imperial units
ρ = The density of an object measured in lb/ft.3
m = The total mass of an object measured in lb
V = The total volume of an object measured in ft.3
It is to be noted that when an object’s density is more, it’s mass per volume is more. Comparing
substances like iron with water, it is seen that iron is denser than water and occupies less volume.
Density changes with the temperature. The maximum density of pure water at atmospheric pressure
and at a temperature of 4°C is 1kg/l. When water is cooled to 4°C, it contracts, i.e. it’s volume
decreases and results in increase in density.
The density of solid loose materials, such as powders, sand, etc. is termed as “bulk density” and it
varies according to packed conditions. Table 2.2 below shows the density of air at different
temperatures.
Table 2.2
Air Density at Different Temperatures
T°C ρ kg/m3
−10 1.341
−5 1.316
0 1.293
+5 1.269
+10 1.247
+15 1.225
+20 1.204
+25 1.184
+30 1.164
2.6 Relative density or Specific gravity

The term “relative density” is a measure to calculate the density of any material and is
dimensionless. It is the ratio of its density to the density of some standard material.
The relative density of solids and liquids (s)
Density of substance
= -------------------------------------
Density of water at 4°C
The relative density of gases (s)
Density of substance
= ---------------------------------------
Density of air (at particular temperatures)
The terms “relative density or specific gravity” are often ambiguous and have the same meaning.
Mostly, when calculating the volume of an irregular object, geologists use relative density, whereas
in the field of engineering and medicine, the term “specific gravity” is used.
2.7 Velocity
The term “velocity” is the specified speed of an object in a specific direction. It is a vector quantity
and is measured as the distance covered by an object from a starting point to the end point at a
particular time limit.
In SI units, the unit is meters per second (m/s)

In imperial units it is feet per second (ft./s)
Velocity is also defined as the “rate of change of displacement.”
The average velocity of a moving object
Distance (m)
v = ------------------------
Time (s)
Uniform velocity is when an object travels equal distance in equal interval of time and in a particular
direction.
Variable velocity is when an object travels unequal distance in a particular direction, in equal
interval of time or it travels equal distance in equal interval of time but with change in direction.
Terminal velocity is the measure of speed of an object falling toward the ground assisted by the
gravitational force, against the air resistance in the atmosphere.
Hyper velocity is used in space exploration and has a very high velocity of 2500m/s or more. Falling
meteorites from the space are another example having very high velocity.
2.8 Acceleration
Acceleration of an object is the rate of change of its velocity and is a vector quantity measured in
meters per second squared. An object is said to be moving with uniform acceleration, when the rate
of change of velocity at a particular time interval. This is necessarily, a change in speed or the speed
increases. Deceleration or retardation is an opposite term, wherein; the object’s speed is reduced
toward the end.
dv Change in linear velocity

Linear acceleration “a” =------------- = ---------------------------------------
dt Time
v−u
Average acceleration “aa” =---------------
t
where, v = final velocity,

u = initial velocity
t = time interval
When an object is rotating in a circular path, with changing acceleration about its center axis, the
object is said to be moving with angular acceleration, which is measured in radian per second
squared (rad/s2).
Change in
Δω angular velocity
Angular acceleration aw = ----------------------- = --------------------------------------------
Δt Time
When an object with a tangential velocity, changes its velocity, we get tangential acceleration.
When an object in a circular motion, moves toward the center at constant tangential velocity, it is
said to have “centripetal acceleration.”
Tangential velocity (TV)2

Centripetal acceleration “ac” = -----------------------------------------
R (radius of the circle)
When an object in a circular motion, moves away from the center at constant tangential velocity, it is
said to have “centrifugal acceleration.” This is to be noted as the reactive of the centripetal
acceleration of an object.
2.9 Acceleration due to gravity

An object falling freely from a particular height toward the earth’s surface or ground is said to have
“acceleration due to gravity.” It is a vector quantity, denoted by the letter “g.”
The acceleration due to gravity varies from place to place, i.e. minimum at a place near the equator
and maximum at a place near the poles.
If an object falls freely downwards, the acceleration due to gravity is said to be positive, whereas, if
an object is thrown vertically upwards, the acceleration due to gravity is said to be negative. The
average value of acceleration due to gravity is 9.8m/s2 (32ft./s2). Thus, for an object falling freely
under gravitational pull, its velocity increases at the rate of 9.8m/s, i.e. after 1s, the velocity will be
9.8m/s, after 2s, the velocity will be 2 × 9.8m/s and so on.
2.10 Newton’s Law of Motion

Sir Isaac Newton invented three “Laws of Motion,” which concerns the motion of physical objects.
• The first law states: (Law of Inertia) An object at motion will stay in motion, or an
object at rest, will stay at rest, unless acted upon by an external force to change its state.
• The second law states: The rate of change of momentum of an object is directly
proportional to the amount of force applied to the object and the direction of change of
momentum takes place in the direction of forces applied.
• The third law states: (Conservation of Momentum) For every action, there is always
an equal and opposite reaction.
2.11 Force
Force can be defined as a pull or a push acting on an object as a result of another object’s interaction
trying to create a push or pull or trying to change the present state of rest or motion. Force is a vector
quantity and has both magnitude and direction and can also be defined as the rate of change of
momentum of an object.
In everyday life, we come across different types of forces, either direct interaction or indirect
interaction between two objects.
Direct Interaction
Frictional forces exist between fixed and moving parts, air resistant forces like wind and a moving
vehicle or an airplane, applied forces like push open a door, pulling a luggage trolley, tensioning
forces existing on a string, like a rope or wire supporting a vertical load, hydraulic cylinder piston
rod pulling a load, the spring force applied on an object either in compression or tension mode, etc.
are some of the examples of force with direct interaction. The magnitude of the force is different in
each case and is dependent on the size and mass content of the object.
Indirect Interaction
The gravitational pull between an object and the earth, between planets like the earth and the moon,
electrical forces between protons and electrons, magnetic forces like two permanent magnets attract
each other when opposite poles come together, all constitute indirect interaction forces.
If a force (F) acts on an object of mass (m), the object accelerates in the direction of the force. The
acceleration is directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
F=m×a
This relationship is also referred to as “Newton’s second law of motion.”
The force of gravity is directly proportional to the mass of the object. The force due to gravity on a
mass of 1kg is called a 1-kg f, 9.8N.
2.12 Work
Work is defined as the force through a distance. Work is said to be done on an object, when an
object is displaced from an initial position to a final position at a distance apart. Force is applied to
move the object. When a force is applied on an object, energy is being transferred and work is being
done on the object (see Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2
Work
The amount of work done is calculated by multiplying the amount of force and displacement
Work done = F × d
The unit of work is Newton-meter in SI Units and 1 Newton-meter is equal to 1 joule in terms of
energy transfer (see Figure 2.3).
Figure 2.3
Work and work done
2.13 Energy
A body is said to possess energy, when it is capable of doing work. Therefore, energy can be broadly
defined as the ability to do work. In other words, energy is the capacity of a body for producing an
effect.
In hydraulics, the method by which energy is transferred is known as fluid power. The energy
transfer takes place in hydraulics, from the prime mover to the actuators in three different phases. In
the process of energy transfer within hydraulics, heat energy and electromagnetic energy are also
associated with it.
Since energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can be transferred from one form of energy to
another form, like electrical to mechanical, mechanical to hydraulics, and hydraulics to mechanical.
Energy can be classified into many different forms of energy, like physical energy, mechanical
energy, chemical energy, thermal energy, biological energy, meteorological energy, geological
energy, radiation energy, nuclear energy, etc. but all of them are finally reduced down to two
important categories (1) Potential energy (2) Kinetic energy.
2.14 Potential energy

Potential energy is the energy stored by an object by virtue of its position or height at which it is
stored. An object possesses gravitational potential energy, if it is lifted vertically against the gravity
(see Figure 2.4).
Examples of potential energy:

• A stretched coil spring
• A waterfall
• A load hanging on a crane above the ground
Figure 2.4
Potential energy
As seen earlier, work equals force times the distance and when lifting an object above the ground,
the force of lifting at constant velocity equals the weight of the object. The weight of the object is its
mass times the acceleration due to gravity. The displacement of the object by the workdone becomes
the height and finally the work becomes the stored energy at that height.
Therefore, the formula is derived as follows
W = F × d,
W= Fgravity × d,
W = m × g × d, and m × g × h replacing distance with height
Potential energy P.E = m × g × h
2.15 Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object by virtue of its motion. This energy remains
stored in an object moving with constant velocity as long as it is in motion. When the velocity of the
moving object becomes zero, the kinetic energy also becomes zero.
Therefore, the formula derived is as follows:
The average acceleration of an object during a particular interval of time
a = (v − v0)/Dt,
The distance traveled by an object during the particular interval of time
x = (v + v0)/2 × Dt
Work = force × distance and according to Newton’s second law,

Force = mass × acceleration
The work = mass × acceleration × distance “x”
W = mass × (v − v0)/Dt × (v + v0)/2 × Dt.
(v − v0) (v + v0)
= m × ---------- ×-------------------- × Dt
Dt 2
Simplifying the above equation
W = w = 1/2 × m × v2 − 1/2 × m × v02.
Since we consider the kinetic energy at maximum, the formula becomes,
K.E = ½ m v 2
The standard measurement of kinetic energy in metric units

m2
1J = 1kg × ------------------
s2
Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity and does not have any direction. Therefore the kinetic energy of
an object is described by magnitude alone.
The example of kinetic energy is a car with a definite mass moving at a velocity, the flow of liquid
from a higher elevation to a lower elevation, etc.
2.16 Internal energy

Internal energy is defined as the energy associated with the motion of molecules of liquids and
gases. For example, a glass of water on a table is said to possess, neither potential energy nor kinetic
energy. However, when examining by microscope, at room temperature, water contains molecules,
which are moving across with high velocity.
These molecules have a large amount of kinetic energy stored in them. Any change in the room
temperature results in a change in the molecular kinetic energy, since the molecular velocity is a
function of temperature.
In addition, the molecules in the solid state are attracted toward each other by forces, which are quite
large. These forces tend to vanish once the molecules attain a perfect gas state. In processes such as
melting of a solid or vaporization of a liquid, it is necessary to overcome these forces. The energy
required to bring about this change is stored in the molecules as potential energy.
The sum of these energies is called internal energy and is stored within the body. This energy is
sometimes called as thermal energy.
2.17 Power
Power is defined as the rate of doing work. The same also can be defined as the amount of energy
utilized to accomplish work.
Sometimes, the forces may not be acting in the direction of velocity. Therefore to calculate the
instantaneous power, the following formula is being used
Power “Paverage” = F cos θ × Vaverage
The SI unit of power is “J/s.” If the amount of work done is 1J in 1s, then the power is 1W.
Therefore, 1W = 1J/s, 1kW = 1000W, 1MW = 106W
The definition of power is being used in many applications, such as mechanical, electrical, and
thermal.
2.18 Horse power

The practical unit of power being used in engineering is “horse power.” Why is it called horse
power? The scientist “James Watt” invented this term to impress upon his customers to sell his
steam engines. He had determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel of radius 12ft., 2.4 times in a
minute, with a force of 180lb. This had led to the equation of power.
Work Force × Distance

Power = ------------- = ------------------------------- = Force × Velocity.
Time Time
Force (lbs) × 2.4 × (2×π×R) 180 × 2.4 (2 × 3.14 × 12)

Power = ------------------------------------ = -----------------------------
minute minute
= Approximately become 33,000ft.-lbf/min
The same value, when converted into metric units, a horse is said to walk a distance of 50m with a
weight force of 90kgf.
Therefore, the work done by the horse = 50 × 90 = 4500kgf-m, and

The horsepower becomes
4500kgf-m/1min or hp = 4500kgf-m/min.
Upon conversion with 1ft. = 0.3048m, 1lbf = 4.448kgf, 1min = 60s,
The horse power value of 33,000ft.-lbf/min becomes 746watts.

1N.m
Watt is defined as 1watt = --------------
s
Since the unit of power energy expressed in larger unit is,

1kW = 1000W
1kW-h = 1 unit = 1kW × 1h (3.6 × 106J)
2.19 Heat
As in the conservation of energy statement, energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but
transferred from one state to another. In physical terms, heat is a form of energy transfer, associated
with the motion of atoms and molecules within an object, irrespective of whether the object is hot or
cold. Heat can be transferred from one object to another by varied processes called “conduction,
convention, and radiation.”
Heat in hydraulics is a loss of input energy and created in the system by internal leakages
Pressure drops across various cross-sections of tubes, valves, etc.
Inadequate heat dissipation parts are designed in the hydraulic system
Location of equipment installed
How much heat is tolerated?
Normal operating temperature 40°C to 50°C and maximum upto 60°C
The unit for the measurement of temperature °C, or °F, or K
2.20 Torque
Torque is a rotational force or moment or couple, which we normally apply, when tightening a nut
by a spanner. The force applied to a lever multiplied by the distance of a fulcrum from the end of the
lever is also called torque (see Figure 2.5).
Figure 2.5
Torque by a spanner
Torque = Force × radius

The force applied at an angle, the formula becomes
Torque = r × F cos θ
The energy transferred through torque

E = Torque × angle of rotation
The unit of torque is N-m or lbf-ft.
2.21 Basic hydraulic principles

In fluid power systems, hydraulics uses the property of liquids, whereas the properties of gases are
being used in pneumatics.
In hydraulics, there are three important theories, which must be understood

• Properties of fluids (Liquid = Hydraulic oil)
• Hydrostatic laws (Pressure properties)
• Hydrodynamic laws (Pressure and flow properties)
Primary functions of hydraulic oils

• Transmission of power by high load carrying capacity
• Self-lubrication of all the moving parts
• Provide effective seal at the clearance between moving parts
• Heat carrying and dissipation capability
• Removal of impurities and abrasions
• More stable physically and chemically
• Protect the system from corrosion or rusting
There are still various other properties associated with the above primary functions. An absolute
knowledge of properties of hydraulic oils and their usage in selecting the correct hydraulic oil, will
supplement further understanding of the concepts of hydraulics.
2.22 Properties of fluids

The fluids used in industrial hydraulic systems are normally mineral-based oils with varying
viscosity grades. In modern hydraulic systems, fire-resistant fluids, and bio-degradable oils are also
used. A detailed explanation of these fluids is explained in the chapter on hydraulic fluids.
2.23 Viscosity
Viscosity can be defined as the fluid’s internal resistance to flow. It is also a measure of a series of
fluid layers superimposed on each other and the resistance caused by the molecular friction, when
the individual fluid layers tend to slide between each other. Oil flows with different velocities within
a tube, where the maximum velocity occurs at the center of the tube and zero velocity at the internal
wall surface of the tube.
Viscosity is considered to be an important physical property of a hydraulic fluid. The correct

viscosity grade being used in any hydraulic system will depend upon the ability of the oil to flow
freely, provide better lubricating properties of the internal moving parts and a good sealing between
the clearance gaps of the hydraulic components.
When hydraulic oil is with low viscosity, it will flow easily, but the side effects are:
• More internal leakages may result under high operating temperatures

• The thickness of an oil film between two moving parts may not be sufficient to prevent
excessive wear and possible seizure of moving parts—less lubricating properties are
applied to hydraulic parts
• Loss of mechanical, volumetric, and overall efficiencies in a hydraulic system
When hydraulic oil is with high viscosity, it will be more difficult to flow or the shear resistance will
be more, resulting in:
• Sluggish operation of hydraulic cylinders or any other form of actuators

• The pressure drop across fluid conductors, valves, etc. could increase
• The hydraulic pump may not suck the oil from the sump, resulting in pump cavitation
Viscosity decreases as the temperature of the oil increases or vice versa. Viscosity increases at
higher operating pressures.
There are two specific methods of measuring the viscosity of a fluid
• Measurement of shear value—the viscosity is determined by directly measuring the shear

stress and shear rate. It is expressed as “Centipoise” in absolute or dynamic viscosity
• Measurement of time required to flow—an oil sample is allowed to flow through a
standard orifice at standard temperature and the time taken is measured. It is expressed as
SUS (Saybolt Universal Seconds)
The viscosity can be further classified as:

• Absolute or dynamic viscosity
• Kinematic viscosity
2.24 Absolute or dynamic viscosity

It is a measure of tangential force per unit area, when the fluid layers tend to move in a horizontal
direction, with a unit velocity, separated by the unit distance between layers (see Figure 2.6).
Figure 2.6
Absolute or dynamic viscosity
The equation for calculating the dynamic or absolute viscosity
dc
Shear Stress τ = μ --------------
dy
where, μ = Dynamic viscosity

τ = Shear stress
In SI units, the dynamic viscosity is expressed as

1N s/m2 = 1Pa s =1kg/m s
In metric system, the dynamic viscosity is expressed as
1Poise = 1dyn s/cm2 = 1g/cm s = 1/10 of Pa s
1Poise = 100cP (Centipoise)
The Rotary Viscometer determines the absolute viscosity
2.25 Kinematic viscosity

In hydraulics, kinematics viscosity is being used, and is expressed as the ratio of dynamic viscosity
to the density of oil. It is also a measure of time required for a fixed amount of oil to flow through a
capillary tube under the force of gravity.
The equation is expressed as:

Absolute viscosity “μ”
Kinematic viscosity “ν” = ---------------------------------
Density “ρ”
In SI Units, the kinematic viscosity is expressed as

1St (stoke) = 10−4m2/s
Since stoke is a large unit, 1St = 100cSt which is normally used in calculations=1cSt = 10−6m2/s
Water at 20°C or 68°F, is said to have a dynamic viscosity of 1cP and a kinematic viscosity of 1cSt.
The kinematic viscosity is determined by the ASTM D 445 test.
Apart from the kinematic viscosity, there are other methods used to determine the viscosity. These
are:
• Saybolt universal viscosity
• Saybolt furol viscosity
• Engler viscosity
• Redwood viscosity
2.26 Viscosity index

The viscosity index (VI) is an empirical value, to indicate the lubricating quality of oil used in a
hydraulic system and is the rate of change of viscosity of oil within a given operating temperature. A
low VI indicates that the viscosity may change and become low, very rapidly during the operating
temperature range. A high V.I. indicates that under the operating temperature range, there are
relatively less changes in the viscosity.
The ASTM standard for calculating the VI
D2270-04—standard practice for calculating the VI from kinematic viscosity at 40°C to 100°C.
The VI is classified into four different ranges

VI = Below 35 = low
VI = 35 to 80 = medium
VI = 80 to 110 = high
VI = above 110 = very high
VI reflects the viscosity per temperature relationship from temperatures of 40°C to 100°C. While
ordering oil for a particular application, we must specify the operating temperature at which the
system operates. Certain varieties of chemical additives are added to improve the VI.
2.27 Bulk modulus:

The bulk modulus (see Figure 2.7) is the elastic property of a liquid to determine how much it can
compress under the influence of an external or internal pressure. Normally, oil and water are said to
be incompressible. The hydraulic oil does compress 0.4 percent to 0.5 percent for every 70bar
pressure in a closed space.
Figure 2.7
Bulk modulus
Higher the bulk modulus value of a particular oil, lesser it will compress or it will be more stiff to
resist the compression under pressure.
ΔP
The equation: β = -------------------
ΔV/V
Where V = Original volume

ΔV = Change in volume
ΔP = Change in pressure
For example,
BSTEEL = 160 × 109N/m2

BWATER = 2.2 × 109N/m2
BOIL = 1.49 × 109N/m2
2.28 Compressibility
The reciprocal of bulk modulus is called compressibility. It is also defined as the change of volume
in increasing pressure. For example, the volume of water will decrease 46ppm for each atmosphere
increase in pressure. In oil hydraulic system, 0.4 percent to 0.5 percent compressibility is considered
for every 70bar increase in pressure. This has an adverse effect in large volume hydraulic systems,
intensifier cylinders and in servo systems.
2.29 Hydrostatic principles

In hydraulics, there are two important characteristics of fluid (oil) being used.
• Hydrostatics
• Hydrodynamics
In hydrostatics, the transfer of energy when the fluid is stationary is called as “pressure” and it
depends on the height of the head of liquid inside a container. The pressure at the bottom of the
container is higher than the top of the container.
In hydrodynamics, the transfer of pressure for a hydraulic cylinder or a hydraulic motor to operate
the pump must generate a “flow.” The characteristics deals with the fluids in motions and is called
the hydrodynamics
2.30 Hydrostatic laws

Hydrostatics (Fluids at rest)
Pressure exerted by a fluid at rest at the bottom of an enclosed container, as a result of gravitational
force is equal irrespective of the shape of the container (see Figure 2.8).
Figure 2.8
Hydrostatic principles
The hydrostatic pressure will depend only on the height of the column of fluid standing on the
container.
2.31 Static fluid pressure
Figure 2.9
Static pressure head
Have a look at Figure 2.9. The pressure from the weight of a column of liquid of area A and height h
is
Weight mg ρ×V×h
Pressure = ---------------- = ---------- = ------------------- = ρ × g × h
Area A A
2.32 Fluid pressure measurement

Since static fluid pressure is determined by the fluid density and depth, the depth or height
difference of a given liquid is commonly used for pressure measurement:
U-Tube manometer is being used to measure the static pressure as shown below in Figure 2.10
Figure 2.10
U-Tube manometer
ΔP = P2 − P1 = ρ × g × h
2.33 Pascal’s Law

The effect of force acting on a stationary liquid spreads in all directions within the liquid. The
amount of pressure in the liquid is equal to the weight force, with respect to area being acted upon.
Pressure always acts at right angles to the limiting surfaces of the container (see Figure 2.11).
Figure 2.11
Pascal’s law
In addition, the pressure acts equally on all sides. Neglecting pressure due to gravity, pressure is
equal at all points.
2.34 Force transmission

A multiplication of force can be achieved by the application of fluid pressure according to Pascal’s
principle, which for the two pistons implies
P1 = P2
This allows the lifting of a heavy load with a small force, as in an auto hydraulic lift, but of course
there can be no multiplication of work, so in an ideal case with no frictional loss:
W-Input = W-Output
Automobile hydraulic lift (force transmission)
Force multiplied by hydraulic press, based on Pascal's principle (see Figure 2.12). The fluid in the
small cylinder must be moved much further than the distance the car is lifted.
Figure 2.12
Pascal’s principle
2.35 Pressure transmission

Two pistons of different areas are connected together by a rod. If area A1 is pressurized with
pressure p1, a force F1 is produced at piston 1. Force F1 is transferred via the rod to area A2 of
piston 2 and hence pressure p2 is obtained there (see Figure 2.13).
Figure 2.13
Pressure transmission
Ignoring the losses due to friction,

F1=F2
p1 × A1 = p2 × A2
2.36 Hydrodynamic laws

The hydrodynamic laws deal with fluids in motion or dynamic flow conditions exists within a
hydraulic system.
2.37 Flow and flow rate

Flow is the movement of a hydraulic fluid in a pipeline, caused by the difference in pressure
between two points. The hydraulic pump creates the flow continuously in a hydraulic system.
There are two terms most commonly used in hydraulic systems.
Displacement: The amount of liquid displaced by the configuration of the pump per revolution of the
pumping elements. The units are cubic centimeter per revolution (cc/rev) in metric and cubic inch
per revolution (in.3/rev) in imperial units.
Flow rate: Normally specified as “Q” in calculations, which means the amount of liquid delivered by
a hydraulic pump in a given time.
Q = Displacement × rpm of the prime mover.

= Liters per minute (lpm) or gallons per minute (gpm)
The flow rate (see Figure 2.14) can also be represented in another way:
If liquid flows through a pipe of varying diameters, at any particular time the same volume flows at
all points. This means, that the velocity of liquid flow must increase at a narrow point.
Flow “Q” is given by the volume of fluid V divided by the time “t”
Q = V/t
V = Area “A” × distance “s”
Figure 2.14
Flow rate
v =velocity = s/t
Therefore Q = A × v
The same flow Q occurs at any point in the pipe
Hence, Continuity equation—A1 × v1 = A2 × v2
2.38 Bernoulli’s Equation

The 18th century Swiss scientist named Daniel Bernoulli, developed a theory to identify the
relationship between the fluid velocity, pressure, and the elevation at which the fluid flows in a
streamline of pipe. He has based his theory according to the law of conservation of energy, which
states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, although one form of energy can be
converted into another form (see Figure 2.15).
Bernoulli implied that the energy level of flowing fluid in a hydraulic system is always constant and
exists in two different forms, such as potential energy (energy stored in a hydraulic system in the
form of pressure) and kinetic energy (energy in motion of fluid, in the form of mass and velocity of
the fluid).
.
Figure 2.15
Bernoulli’s theorem
Bernoulli also derived his equation for both hydraulics (incompressible fluid) and pneumatics
(compressible fluid-air)
Incompressible fluid
The principle states that, when a streamline flow passes through a different cross-section of a flow
region, an increase in velocity or speed occurs simultaneously with the decrease in pressure.
The venture tube can better explain this principle (see Figure 2.16). When the fluid passes through a
narrow space, more energy is spent in accelerating the fluid’s molecules less energy is spent in
exerting pressure and thus the pressure decreases.
Figure 2.16
Venture meter
The Bernoulli’s equation for incompressible fluid states that:
V2 P
--- + h + ------------ = Constant
2g ρ
Where, V = Fluid velocity along the streamline

g = Acceleration due to gravity
h = Height from a datum toward gravity
P = Pressure along the streamline
ρ = Fluid density
Here, h = Potential head

P/ρ = Pressure head
V2/2g = Velocity head.
When calculating the pressure energy in hydraulics, the following formula evolved
Ptotal = Pstatic + ρ × g × h + ½ρ × V2
Where Pstatic = Static Pressure (atmospheric pressure)

ρ × g × h = Pressure due to head height of a liquid or hydrostatic pressure
½ρ × V2 = Velocity pressure or fluid dynamic pressure
As stated in the conservation of energy, in a continuously flowing fluid, the total energy within a
flow stream does not change, i.e. the sum total of static pressure and velocity energy heads remain
constant throughout the flow path.
Compressible Fluid
½ V2 + Φ + ε + P/ρ = Constant
Where, V = The fluid velocity along the streamline

Φ = Gravitational potential energy per unit mass
ε = Fluid’s thermodynamic energy per unit mass
p = Pressure along the flow path
ρ = Fluid density
Hydraulic energy cannot be transferred through the pipes without losses. Friction occurs at the pipe
surface and within the liquid, which generates heat. Hence hydraulic energy is transformed to heat.
The loss created in this way in hydraulic energy actually means that a pressure loss occurs within the
hydraulic circuit.
The linear drop in fluid pressure is according to Poiseuille’s law, but the restriction produces and
extra drop in pressure according to Bernoulli’s principle.
Pressure loss in laminar flow

Based on the oil flow rate and pressure at a particular point in a hydraulic circuit, the pressure drop
can be calculated using the following formula:
V2 × f × L × ρ
Δp = -----------------------------
2×D
Where, Δp = Pressure drop in Pascal (Pa/1,00,000 = bar)

V = Velocity in m/s
f = Friction factor
ρ = Density of oil (870 to 890kg/m3)
D = Inside diameter of pipe or hose in m
L = Length of pipe or hose in m
Pressure loss in turbulent flow

The pressure loss in a pipe, tube, or duct can be expressed with the D'Arcy-Weisbach equation
(Turbulent flow)
Δp = λ (l/dh) (ρ v2/2) (1)
Where Δp = pressure loss (Pa, N/m2, lbf/ft.2)

λ = D'Arcy-Weisbach friction coefficient
l = length of duct or pipe (m, ft.)
dh = hydraulic diameter(m, ft.)
ρ = density (kg/m3, lb/ft.3)
2.39 Friction
The friction is the resistance to flow of liquids in a pipeline. In hydraulics, the friction produces heat
and since the liquids are in motion, some of the kinetic energy is lost, which will appear as heat
energy.
The friction creators are

• Rough internal surface of the pipe or tube, in which the liquid flows
• Extremely long pipelines, in which, the frictional factor on each length of pipelines
added up together.
• Laying long pipelines between the hydraulic reservoir to the actuators, which are situated
far away, as per machinery design, needs a lot of pipes, bends, elbows, at different
locations, and elevations, all of the above create friction in the layout.
• Line sizes not properly designed. Sometimes, a high velocity flow in an undersized
pipeline.
• Although, the friction can never be avoided, but can be controlled at design stage of any
hydraulic system.
Figure 2.17
Pressure loss due to friction
The Figure 2.17 shown above illustrates the drop in pressure head due to friction. Figures 1 through
9 shows the difference in head because of pressure drop due to friction. Point B shows no flow
resistance (free-flow condition); the pressure at point B is zero. The pressure at point C is at its
maximum because of the head at point A. As the liquid flows from point C to point B, friction
causes a pressure drop from maximum pressure to zero pressure. This is reflected in succeeding
decreased heads at points D, E, and F.
Frictional coefficient for laminar flow

In order to calculate the friction factor, with consideration upon the magnitude of Reynolds number,
use the following formula.
64
If Re = <2300, the friction factor f = ----------
Re
If Re = >2300 and < 100,000, the friction factor
f = 0.3164 × Re − 0.25
Frictional coefficient for turbulent flow

The friction coefficients used to calculate pressure loss (or major loss) in ducts, tubes, and pipes
could be calculated with the Colebrook’s equation (Turbulent flow)
1/λ1/2 = −2 log (2.51/(Re λ1/2)) + ((k/dh)/3.72) (1)
where λ = D'Arcy-Weisbach friction coefficient

Re = Reynolds number
k = roughness of duct, pipe or tube surface (m, ft.)
dh = hydraulic diameter (m, ft.)
The Colebrook’s equation is only valid at turbulent flow conditions
2.40 Types of flow in hydraulic circuits

The type of flow is also an important factor when considering energy loss within a hydraulic circuit.
There are three different types of flows:
• Laminar flow
• Turbulent flow
• Transitional flow
Laminar flow
In low flow velocity, the liquid moves along pipes in layers (laminar). The innermost liquid layer
travels at the highest speed. The outermost layer at the pipe’s inner surface does not move (see
Figure 2.18).
Figure 2.18
Laminar flow
The common application of laminar flow would be in the smooth flow of a viscous liquid through a
tube or a pipe. Dividing the flow into thin cylindrical elements and applying the viscous force to
them can calculate the flow profile of laminar flow in a tube. Shear stress due to laminar flow
depends on viscosity and is independent of density.
Turbulent flow
In turbulent flow (see Figure 2.19), the liquid moves along the pipes with vortices, eddies at high
velocities, particularly in large diameter pipes. In high velocities, the flow pattern of layers will not
be uniform and at the critical velocity the type of flow changes and becomes turbulent. Hence the
flow resistance inside the pipes also increases resulting in hydraulic losses.
Figure 2.19
Turbulent flow
When designing piping systems, turbulent flow requires a higher input of energy from a pump than
laminar flow. However, for applications such as heat exchangers and reaction vessels, turbulent flow
is essential for good heat transfer and mixing.
Transitional flow
In transitional flow, the liquid flow will neither be laminar nor turbulent. The layers at the center of
the pipes will be turbulent, whereas near the inside wall of the pipes will be laminar.
Reynolds number
The Reynolds number is a dimensionless factor which determines whether the flow is laminar or
turbulent.
To calculate the Reynolds number, the following formula is being used:
1000 × V × D
Re = -----------------------
υ
Where, V = Velocity in m/s

D = Inside diameter of pipe or hose in mm
υ = Kinematic viscosity of oil at operating temperatures in cSt
The flow is considered to be laminar, when the Reynolds number is <2300

The flow is considered to be transient, when the Reynolds number is between 2300 and 4000
The flow is considered at be turbulent, when the Reynolds number is >4000
2.41 Fluid velocity in hydraulic system

The velocity of a hydraulic oil through a pipe, tube or hoses is dependent on flow rate and the cross-
sectional area.
The recommended oil velocities through pipes, tubes, or hoses at various points in a hydraulic circuit
are given below in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3
Recommended Fluid Velocity
Hydraulic Circuit Velocity (ft/s) Velocity (m/s)
Suction(Intake) 2–4 0.6–1.2
Return 4–13 1.5–4.0
Pressure Line 7–18 2.0–5.5
The oil velocity can be calculated in pipelines by using the following formulae:
Q × 21.22
V = -----------------in metric units
D2
Where V = Velocity in m/s
Q = Flow rate in l/min
D = Inside diameter of the pipe or tube in mm
Q × 0.408
V = ----------------- in imperial units
D2
Where V = Velocity in ft./s
Q = Flow rate in US gpm or
D = Inside diameter of the pipe or tube in in.
2.42 Pressure
Pressure is defined as the force per unit surface area and acting perpendicular to that surface.
The mathematical expression for pressure:
F
P = ---------------
A
For example, the pressure exerted by a hammer hitting the wall, would just make an impression on
the wall, whereas hitting on a nail penetrates the wall. The force applied is the same.
The term “pressure” in engineering can be further classified as

• Atmospheric pressure
• Absolute pressure
• Gauge pressure
• Vacuum pressure
• Vapor pressure (see Table 2.4)
Table 2.4
Pressure Conversion
Pascal Bar Atmosphere Pounds per Torr

(Pa) (bar) (atm) sq.inch (mmHg)
(psi)
1Pa 1N/m2 10−5 9.8692 × 145.04 × 7.5006 ×
10−6 10-6 10−3
1bar 1,00,000 106 0.98692 14.504 750.06
dyn/cm2
1atm 101325 1.01325 101325Pa 14.696 760
1psi 6894.76 68.948 × 68.046 × 1lb/in.2 51.715

10-3 10−3
1Torr 133.322 1.3332× 1.3158 × 19.337 × 1 mmHg
10−3 10−3 10−3
Atmospheric pressure
The pressure exerted by the weight of air molecules around our body is standard atmospheric
pressure (see Figure 2.20). It is the force per unit area exerted against a surface by the weight of air
above the surface.
Figure 2.20
Atmospheric pressure
An instrument called “Mercury Barometer” measures the atmospheric pressure and hence the
atmospheric pressure is sometimes called “barometric pressure.” The atmospheric pressure acting
around the tube in a mercury barometer can lift mercury to a height of 760mm (30′′) and it can lift
water to approximately 34ft. These are the values normally used in our day-to-day applications.
The value of the standard atmospheric pressure is 101,325Pa equivalent to 1.01325bar.
Consider that the unit area shown in Figure 2.20 is 1in.2 and at mean sea level, the weight of air
above that unit area would weigh 14.7lb, and then the pressure applied by air on the unit area would
be 14.7psi. As the altitude increases above the mean sea level, there is less and less air present and
the atmospheric pressure starts to decrease. This is illustrated in Table 2.5.
Table 2.5
Atmospheric Pressure
The Value of Atmospheric Altitude (m)

Pressure (atm)
At Mean Sea Level, 1 0
½ 5500
1/10 16,000
1/100 30,000
In weather phenomena, there are low-pressure systems and high-pressure systems, which decide the
storms, cyclones, or rain pattern.
The units for measuring pressures at various users are:

Inches of mercury (Hg), atmospheres (atm), kilopascals (kPa), and millibars (mb), bar, etc.
Absolute pressure
In fluid mechanics, the term “absolute pressure” is the total pressure exerted on a system equal to
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure.
This is the pressure measured above a perfect vacuum. Quite often we come across the abbreviation
such as “psia” or “psig,” to differentiate the absolute pressure or the gauge pressure.
In an automobile tire application, we inflate the tube to 35psi, which actually means gauge pressure
and when added the atmospheric pressure of 14.7psi, the absolute pressure within the tube becomes
49.7 psia.
Gauge pressure
The pressure gauge measures the pressure. This measurement is above atmospheric pressure
Gauge pressure = Absolute pressure − Atmospheric pressure.
Vacuum pressure
Figure 2.21
Pressure scale
The vacuum pressure is the pressure measurement below that of an atmospheric pressure (see Figure
2.21). The range of vacuum starts from zero absolute pressure until it reaches the value of the
atmospheric pressure of 14 psia. Sometimes it is also called as negative pressure.
Vacuum is defined as an empty space, in which no matter exists. The vacuum can be classified
further into the following, in order to measure its value.
Taking atmospheric pressure value 760mmHg or 760Torr, the values are defined below in this
datum,
• Low vacuum 760 to 25mmHg or Torr

• Medium vacuum 25 to 1 × 10−3mmHg
• High vacuum 1 × 10−3 to 1 × 10−9mmHg
• Ultra high vacuum 1 × 10−9 to 1 × 10−12mmHg
• Extremely high vacuum <1 × 10−12mmHg
The vacuum is used in different applications. For example, in making bulbs, hydraulic pump
suctions, water hand pump, and in heating applications.
Vapor pressure
The vapor pressure is used to describe the liquid’s tendency to evaporate and is defined as the
pressure of a vapor in equilibrium (see Figures 2.22 and 2.23).
Vapor pressure is measured in unit called as Torr (1mmHg)
The vapor pressure increases with increased temperature
The vapor pressure of water at 50°C is approximately 0.12bar, whereas for hydraulic oil, it is 1 ×
10−8bar.
Figure 2.22
Vapor pressure principle-I
In hydraulic applications, the pump’s positive suction head must be more than the liquid’s vapor
pressure head, in order to avoid cavitation at the pump inlet. The formation of air bubbles at vapor
pressure, imploding within the hydraulic pump and other components are detrimental to the system.
The hydraulic liquid selected for the application must have low vapor pressure or high boiling point
characteristics. The vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the increase in pressure after the pressure
stops changing. Because the amount of liquid and vapor pressure have stopped changing, the liquid
and the vapor are in equilibrium at this point.
The surface area of the solid or liquid in contact with the gas has no effect on the vapor pressure.
Whether the surface area is narrow or wide, the vapor pressure remains the same.
At a higher temperature, more molecules have enough energy to escape from the liquid or solid. At a
lower temperature, fewer molecules have sufficient energy to escape from the liquid or solid.
The mercury level on both sides of the tube is equal in height, because the pressure on both sides is
equal. The beaker is sealed carefully so that the mercury level on both sides remains equal.
An evaporating liquid is injected into the beaker by a syringe or any other sealed connection. The
pressure inside the sealed beaker starts increasing, because the liquid injected starts to evaporate
forming initial vapor pressure.
Figure 2.23
Vapor pressure principle-II
2.43 Lubrication and lubricity

(see Figure 2.24)
Figure 2.24
Lubrication and lubricity
Hydraulic oils used in any hydraulic system should have good lubricating properties and
characteristic requirements like protection against friction, wear, rust, oxidation, corrosion, and
demulsibility. Mostly these properties are in-built in commercially manufactured hydraulic oil.
In hydraulics, there are many moving parts in hydraulic pumps, valves, cylinders, and motors, which
are protected against rubbing between a fixed and a sliding part by maintaining a thin oil film
between them. Failure to do so will result in wear and friction and added contaminations in
hydraulic oils.
There are two ways of lubricating functions:

• Hydrostatic lubrication
• Hydrodynamic lubrications
In components such as bearings of various types used in hydraulics, they are protected against wear
and friction by maintaining a fluid film between a fixed and a rolling part. Though the viscosity of
oil also plays an important part in lubricating, but the shear strength and the pressure of oil in the
clearances is more vital in reducing friction.
1
Fundamentals
This chapter deals with the fundamentals related to the working of fluid power systems. Various
fundamental concepts such as mass, weight, force, work, power, energy and fluid properties
including density, specific gravity and specific weight are explained in adequate detail, so that the
essential principles surrounding the operation of pneumatic systems are properly understood.
Learning objectives
• Understand how important fluid properties like velocity, acceleration, force, and
energy are related to each other.
• Appreciate the importance of these various properties in relation to fluid power
systems.
1.1 Force
Consider the following:
• The pushing of a door to open it
• The pulling of a luggage trolley
• The stretching of a spring by a load suspended on it
In the above examples, we have a force exerting a push, pull or stretch. The magnitude of the force
is different in each case and is dependent on the size and content of the object. Force is that action
that changes or tends to change the state of motion of the body upon which it acts and can be
represented either mathematically or graphically.
2 Practical Fundamentals of Pneumatics - Operation and Troubleshooting for Engineers and Technicians
Forces are basically of two types

• Contact forces
• Forces resulting from action at a distance
Contact forces result from physical contact between two interacting objects. Examples of this are
frictional forces, tension forces etc. Here, force is applied by direct contact with the body. The
force is either changing the position/displacement of the object or its dimensions. The magnitude of
the force due to gravity on an object depends upon the mass of the object.
Action-at-a-distance forces are formed when two interacting objects not in contact with each other
exert a pull or a push. Examples of this are gravitational forces and electrical forces.
At any given place, the force of gravity is directly proportional to the mass of the body. The force
due to gravity on a mass of 1 kilogram is called a 1-kilogram force (1 kgf) or if expressed in terms
of Newton, 9.8 Newton.
It can be derived experimentally that, if a force (F) acts on an object of mass (m) the object
accelerates in the direction of the force. The acceleration (a) is proportional to the force and
inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
F=ma
This relationship is also referred to as Newton’s second law of motion. As discussed above, in the
SI system, the unit of force is ‘Newton’, which is abbreviated as N. One Newton is defined as that
force which while acting on a body of mass 1 kg, produces an acceleration of 1 m/sec2.
1.2 Work
Work is defined as force through distance. In other words, when a body moves under the influence
of a force, work is done. On the contrary, if there is no motion produced on the body, the work
done is zero. Thus, work is done only when force is applied to a body to make it move (i.e. there is
displacement of the body). If you try to push a heavy boulder but you are unable to get it to move,
then the work done will be zero (see figure 1.1).
Fundamentals 3
Figure 1.1
Principle of work
Referring to the figure, work is accomplished if we move 100 kgs, a distance of 2 meters. The
amount of work here is measured in kg. meter.
The work done is large, if the force required to displace the body is large or if the displacement of
the body due to the applied force is large. The mathematical formula to calculate the work done is:
Work (W) = Force (F) × distance moved or displacement(s)
W = Fs
The SI unit of work is Newton-meters, which is also referred to as joules (J). One joule is the work
done by a force of 1 N when it displaces a body by 1 meter in the direction of the force.
1.3 Power
The rate of doing work is called Power. It is measured as the amount of work done in one second.
If the total work done in time‘t’ is ‘W’ then
Power (P) = Work done (W) / Time (t)
This can be written as:
Power = Force × average velocity

P = F × v; since work done = force × distance and velocity = distance/time (see figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2
Principle of power
From the figure, if we lift 100 kgs. 2 meters in 2 seconds, we have accomplished 100 units of
power or in other words, 100 times 2 divided by 2 seconds. This is usually converted into kilowatt
or Horsepower in order to obtain a relative meaning for measuring power.
The SI unit of power is joule/sec or Watts. If the amount of work done is one joule in 1 second,
than the power will be 1 watt.
∴ 1 watt = 1 joule/sec
Larger units of power are kilowatts (kW) and Megawatts (MW).

1 kilowatt = 1000 watt
1 Megawatt = 106 watts
The practical unit of power that is often used in mechanical engineering is horsepower (hp).
1.3.1 Horsepower
A horsepower is the power of one horse, or a measure of the rate at which a single horse can work.
When we specify an engine as 30 hp, it implies that the engine can do the work of 30 horses.
One horse is said to be capable of walking 50 meters in one minute, lifting a 90-kgf weight.
Work done by the horse = 90 × 50 = 4500 kgf-m
Power = Work done/ time
= 4500 kgf-m/min
1 hp = 4500/60 = 75 kgf-m/sec
1 hp = 746 watts
We have mentioned earlier that energy is expressed in a larger unit called kilowatt-hour (kWh).
1 kWh = 1 kilowatt × 1 hour
= 1000 joules/sec × 60 × 60 sec
= 3.6 × 106 Joules
1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 Joules
1 Wh = 3.6 × 103 Joules
Fundamentals 5
1.4 Energy
A body is said to possess energy when it is capable of doing work. Therefore, energy may be
broadly defined as the ability to do work. In other words, energy is the capacity of a body for
producing an effect. In hydraulics, the method by which energy is transferred is known as Fluid
power. The energy transfer takes place from a prime mover or input power source to an output
device or actuator.
Energy is further classified as:

• Stored energy: Examples being chemical energy in fuel and energy stored in water,
and
• Energy in transition: Examples being heat and work
The following are the various forms of energy:
1.4.1 Potential energy (P.E.)

It is the energy stored in the system due to its position in the gravitational field. If a heavy object
such as a large stone is lifted from the ground to the roof, the energy required to lift the stone is
stored in it as potential energy. This stored potential energy remains unchanged as long as the stone
remains in its position.
Potential energy is given by:
P.E. = z × g
where z is the height of the object above the datum.
1.4.2 Kinetic energy (K.E)

Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion. If a body weighing one kg
is moving at a velocity of v m/sec with respect to the observer, then the kinetic energy stored in the
body is given by:
K.E. = v2 / 2
This energy will remain stored in the body as long as it continues in motion at a constant velocity.
When the velocity is zero, the kinetic energy is also zero.
1.4.3 Internal energy

Molecules possess mass and have both translational and rotational motion in liquid and gaseous
states. Owing to both, their mass as well as their motion, these molecules have a large amount of
kinetic energy stored in them. Any change in the temperature results in a change in the molecular
kinetic energy, since molecular velocity is a function of temperature.
In addition, the molecules in the solid state are attracted towards each other by forces, which are
quite large. These forces tend to vanish once the molecules attain a perfect gas state. In processes
such as melting of a solid or vaporization of a liquid, it is necessary to overcome these forces. The
energy required to bring about this change is stored in the molecules as potential energy.
The sum of these energies is called Internal energy, and is stored within the body. We refer to this
energy as internal energy or thermal energy denoted by the symbol ‘u’.
Energy is usually expressed in terms of British thermal unit (Btu) or joule (J).
1.5 Mass
The mass of a body or an object is a measure of the quantity of matter contained in it. The mass of
a body is constant and independent of the surroundings and position. A physical balance is used to
measure the mass of a body. Mass is normally measured in kilograms (kg) or in pounds (lbs). The
mass of one liter of water at 4°C is taken as 1 kilogram.
The other commonly used unit of mass is the metric ton, where 1 metric ton = 1000 kg.
1.6 Weight
Weight refers to the force of gravity acting on a given mass.
On the earth, weight is the gravitational force with which the earth attracts the object. If ‘m’ is the
mass of the object, then the weight is given by the relationship,
Weight (W) of the object = mass of the object (m) × acceleration due to gravity (g)
So, W = m × g
The unit of weight (in SI units) is Newton (N).

Since ‘g’ on earth is 9.81 m/sec2, a 1-kgf object weighs 9.8 Newton on earth:
1 kgf = 9.81 N
1.7 Torque
Torque also known as twisting force is measured in kg-meter or foot-pounds (see figure 1.3).
Figure 1.3
Principle of torque
In the illustration shown, a 10 kg-meter torque is produced when a force of 10 kg’s is applied to a
1-meter long wrench. This is the theory that finds application in hydraulic motors. For a given
pressure, hydraulic motors are rated at specific torque values. The torque or twisting force
produced in a hydraulic motor is the generated work. The specifications of a hydraulic motor in
terms of its rpm at a given torque capacity specifies the energy usage or power requirement.
1.8 Density
The density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit volume. It is denoted by the symbol ‘ρ’
(rho).
If equal masses of cotton and lead are taken (say 1 kg each), we will find that the volume of cotton
is much larger than the volume of lead. This is because lead is heavier (denser) than cotton. The
particles of lead are closely packed while those of cotton are more diffused.
Density for a given substance can be calculated from the following equation,
Density (ρ) = Mass of the substance (m) / Volume of the substance (V)
Fundamentals 7
The mass of 1 cm3 of iron is 7.8 grams; hence the density of iron is 7.8 g/cm3 or 7.8 ×
103 kg/m3. Density changes with change in temperature.
For example: When water is cooled to 4°C, it contracts i.e. its volume decreases, thereby resulting
in an increase in density. But, if water is further cooled below 4°C, it begins to expand i.e. its
volume increases and hence its density decreases. Thus, the density of water is a maximum at 4°C
and is 1 gm/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3.
1.9 Specific gravity or relative density

The relative density of a substance is the ratio of its density to the density of some standard
substance. The letter ‘s’ denotes it. The standard substance is usually water (at 4°C) for liquids and
solids, while for gases it is usually air.
Relative density for liquids and solids (s) = Density of substance

Density of water at 4°C
Relative density for gases (s) = Density of substance

Density of air
Density of substance = Density of water at 4°C × Relative density of liquid or solid
i.e.: ρ (for liquids and solids) = 1000 × s , and:

ρ (for gases) = 1.29 × s
1.10 Specific weight

The specific weight or weight density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the weight of the fluid to
its volume. The letter ‘w’ denotes it.
Thus, the weight per unit volume of a fluid is called the Weight density.
Weight of fluid
Weight density (w) =
Volume of fluid
Mass of fluid (m) × g

=
V
Since m / V is density (ρ), the equation for weight can be written as:
w = ρ×g
So, weight density (w) = mass density (ρ) × acceleration due to gravity (g).
Specific weight of water is given by = 1000 × 9.81 = 9810 N/m3 (in SI units)
2
Air Preparation, Generation and
Distribution
Since compressed air forms the core part of any pneumatic system, it is important that one gets a
good grasp of the characteristics of air and its fundamental properties. It is important for the air
generation and distribution system to be designed such that the compressed air requirements are
properly estimated and made available in the appropriate quality. This chapter explains the
working of the various parameters related to air supply and distribution in a pneumatic system,
while bringing out the distinct characteristics of pneumatic systems.
Learning objectives
• Describe the characteristics and properties of air
• Explain the purpose of air preparation and the need for filtration, regulation and
lubrication
• Understand how compressed air is generated and distributed to various points of
consumption in a pneumatic system
2.1 Characteristics of air

Air is a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas. It is actually a mixture of gases such as Oxygen
(21%), Nitrogen (78%) and the rest comprising gases such as Argon and Carbon-dioxide.
Depending on the humidity factor, air may also contain up to 4% water vapor and this percentage
may constantly vary from time to time even at the same designated location.
While being readily compressible, the volume of air tends to vary, in order to fill the vessel
containing it. This is on account of the fact that air molecules possess large amount of internal
energy and are also located at a considerable distance from each other. This explains the sensitivity
of density changes with regard to pressure and temperature variations.
The blanket of air surrounding the earth is known as the atmosphere. Air has weight and therefore,
the atmosphere exerts a pressure at any point due to the column of air above that point. Sea level
acts as a reference point where the atmosphere exerts a pressure of 14.7 psia (101 kPa abs.) The
atmospheric pressure decreases with increase in altitude and this relationship is nearly linear up to
an altitude 0f 20,000 ft (6.1 km), with a pressure drop of about 0.5 psi per 1000 ft change in altitude
(11 kPa per km).
The density of a gas depends not only on its pressure but also its temperature. For pneumatic
calculations, a standard atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psia is used. The corresponding standard
weight density value for air is 0.0752 lb/ft3 at 14.7 psia and 68ºF (11.8 N/m3 at 101 kPa abs and
20ºC).
The air at normal atmospheric conditions is considered as free air and its characteristics tend to
vary with changes in atmospheric temperature and pressure. Thus the term standard air is used
when making pneumatic circuit calculations. Standard air is sea-level air with a temperature of
68ºF, a pressure of 14.7 psia (20ºC and 101 kPa abs.) and a relative humidity of 36%.
2.1.1 Absolute pressures and temperatures

Absolute pressure and absolute temperature values are used to perform pneumatic circuit
calculations involving volume and pressure changes of air. In the English system, the unit of
absolute temperature is degree Rankine (ºR). A temperature of 0ºR (-460 ºF) is the temperature at
which all molecular motion ceases to exist and the theoretical value of volume and pressure of a
gas becomes zero. In the metric system, the unit of absolute temperature is degree Kelvin (K). As
shown in the equation below, a temperature of 0 K (absolute zero) equals -273ºC.
The equations for calculation of absolute pressures and temperatures are:

• absolute pressure (psia) = gage pressure (psig) + 14.7
• absolute pressure (Pa abs) = gage pressure (Pa gage) + 101,000
• absolute temperature (ºR) = temperature (ºF) + 460
• absolute temperature (K) = temperature (ºC) + 273
2.2 Characteristics of pneumatic systems

Pneumatic systems use pressurized air to transmit and control power. Air is used rather than any
other gas simply because it is safe, low-cost and readily available and is particularly safe in
potentially hazardous environments where an electrical spark could ignite leaks emanating from
system components.
Pneumatic systems are considered in place of hydraulic systems, on account of a variety of reasons.
As liquids exhibit greater inertia than gases, the weight of oil in a hydraulic system is a potential
problem during acceleration and deceleration of actuators or during sudden opening and closing of
valves. This problem is minimized when using air as a medium. Also, liquids possess greater
viscosity, resulting in larger frictional pressure and power losses. One other major advantage with
pneumatic systems is that air can be exhausted directly back into the surrounding environment,
which is not the case with hydraulic systems.
On the flip side, the compressibility property of air makes it impossible to obtain precise and
controlled actuator velocities in pneumatic systems. It is also not possible to achieve precise
positioning control. Pneumatic systems also have very low pressures in comparison with hydraulic
systems on account of compressor design limitations, thereby confining them to low-power
applications.
2.2.1 Distinguishing features/advantages of pneumatic systems

• Clean and suitable for processes that are extremely sensitive, especially the ones
involving hazardous products and electrical components.
• Several modes of operation such as manually operated, semi-automated and fully-
automated.
• Cost-effective and economical.
• Non-production of any other waste other than air.
• Faster response.
• Relative insensitivity to temperature fluctuations, ensuring reliable operation even
under extreme conditions depending on the protection material.
Air Preparation, Generation and Distribution 11
2.2.2 Demerits of pneumatic systems

• Need for good preparation of compressed air, to eliminate dirt and condensate.
• Difficulty in obtaining constant and uniform speed with compressed air.
• Limitations with regard to output force make them suitable for non-heavy duty
purposes only.
• Limitations with regard to pipe length.
• Noisy nature of exhaust air.
2.3 Air generation, preparation and distribution
2.3.1 Air generation and preparation

In a pneumatic system, compressed air is produced in a compressor and stored in a receiver. The
compressor converts mechanical energy into pneumatic form by compressing the air taken in at
atmospheric pressure to approximately 1/7th of its volume and delivering it at a higher pressure. It
is important to ensure that the air supply for a particular application is sufficient and of adequate
quality. The air receiver helps reduce pressure fluctuations. During normal operation, the
compressor fills the receiver when needed and the receiver is available at all times as a reserve,
thereby reducing the switching cycles of the compressor. A sample air supply and distribution
system is shown.
Figure 2.1
Air Supply and Distribution System
To ensure acceptable quality of air and to make it a more acceptable fluid medium for the
pneumatic system as well as operating personnel, air service equipment are employed to prepare
the air before being applied to the control system. During this process, fluid conditioners are used
to filter, regulate and lubricate the air. Correct preparation ensures that malfunctions in the
pneumatic system are considerably reduced. Considerations in the preparation of service air
include:
1. Air quantity to meet system demand.
2. Compressor type employed to produce the required quantity of air.
3. Storage and air cleanliness requirements.
4. Pressure requirements.
5. Acceptable levels of humidity to reduce corrosion and sticky operation.
6. Lubrication requirements, if needed.
7. Air temperature and its effects on the system.
8. Selection of material for meeting system as well as environmental requirements.
9. Line and valve sizes to meet system demand.
10. Drainage points and exhaust outlets in the distribution system.
11. Distribution system layout to meet demand.
Air service units may comprise of filters, regulators and lubricators. The correct combination, size
and type of elements are in turn determined by the application and control system demand. These
units may be fitted at each control unit in the network, to ensure the quality of air for each
individual task.
Air filters
The function of a filter in a pneumatic system is to remove contaminants from the air
before it reaches components such as valves and actuators. In general terms, an in-line filter
element may remove contaminants in the size range of 5-50-μm.
Figure 2.2
Filter
Air regulators
A regulator helps keep the operating pressure of the system (secondary pressure)
virtually constant regardless of the fluctuations in the line pressure (primary pressure) and the air
consumption.
Figure 2.3
Air Regulator
Air lubricators
A lubricator ensures adequate and proper lubrication of internal moving parts of
pneumatic components. It does this by delivering a metered quantity of oil mist into a leg of the air
distribution system when necessary.
Figure 2.4
Lubricator
2.3.2 Air distribution

The distribution part of the pneumatic system refers to the network of piping that leads the air from
the production portion of the system, to various points of consumption. A well designed air
distribution network contributes immensely to the overall efficiency of the pneumatic system and
eliminates many potential problems.
Before being delivered to the distribution system, air is compressed to approximately 1/7th of its
volume by the air compressor. Although the components in a pneumatic system are designed for
maximum pressures in the range of 8-10 bar (800-1000 kPa), in practice they are recommended to
operate in the range between 5 and 6 bar (500-600 kPa). Accounting for the pressure losses in the
distribution system, the compressor must deliver between 6.5 and 7 bar, in order to attain these
figures.
The piping network in an air distribution system should be designed such that the pressure losses
do not ideally exceed approximately 0.1bar (10 kPa). The selection of the pipe diameter is
governed by the following factors:
• Line length
• Flow rate
• Operating pressure
• Permissible pressure loss
• Number of flow control points in the line
Primary lines
Figure 2.5
Piping Networks
They are permanently installed lines that carry the compressed air away from the receiver to the
various points of use. It is recommended that a slight slope be provided when installing a primary
line in the direction of air flow. This is to enable any moisture in the line to flow away from the
compressor to a point where it can be removed.
Secondary lines
There are two types of secondary lines in an air distribution system
1. Air take off
2. Water leg
Figure 2.6
Secondary lines in an air distribution system
As shown in the figure, air take-offs come off the top of the main distribution lines. This is to
prevent any condensed moisture, oil or sludge at the bottom of the main distribution line from
entering the air take off lines. On the other hand, water legs come off the bottom of the main
distribution line. This is to allow any moisture or oil gathered at the bottom of the distribution lines
to come down the water leg. A trap provided at the bottom of the water leg helps separate the solids
from the liquids and the liquids are drained off either manually or automatically.
In general, air distribution systems may be of the following types

• Dead end system
• Loop system
• Decentralized system
Let us discuss these individual systems in detail, with the help of graphics.
Dead end system

It is simplest type of air distribution system and consists of one main line delivering air
to each point of use. The main line typically starts with a large line at the compressor and
progressively smaller lines downstream, as shown. A system with many points of use may have a
dead end system that along with its branch lines assumes a grid-like pattern.
Dead end systems have several disadvantages associated with them. Firstly, only one flow path is
provided and there are also pressure losses at the far end. Also, heavy upstream demands can create
air shortages at downstream points of use, resulting in uneven distribution.
Loop system
In this system, two parallel flow paths are provided such that air is distributed to the
different points of use with less pressure loss and leading to an even distribution of air in the
system. In order to eliminate shortages during peak demand, extra receivers may be provided in the
lines at points of heavy momentary demand.
In order to facilitate maintenance, isolation valves can be placed at various points in the main line
to help isolate portions of the system without affecting the rest of the system. Since the air flow in
this system is in both directions, the lines from the compressor need to slope and have adequate
drains at all low points. Also, the same sized pipe may be provided throughout the loop. Even
though air can flow in both directions, it is recommended that the lines be sized as though all the
flow had to go through a given point in the system.
Decentralized system
As the name suggests, this system consists of multiple small systems, each with their
own compressor. The various systems and their compressors are located close to their point of use
so that the main lines are shorter. One major advantage with this system is that if a compressor
develops a problem, only the individual system tends to get affected. On the flip side, there are
multiple compressors to be maintained and also the fact that there cannot be one main compressor
room.

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ITH MODEL ANSWERS

1.2 History of hydraulics

Aristotle 384–322 BC Theory of motion of liquid

1.3 Advantages over electrical devices

1.4 Advantages over pneumatics

1.5 The energy transfer in a hydraulics field

1.6 Summary of chapters

Chapter 1 Introduction to Fluid Power

Chapter 2 Basics of hydraulics-general physical principles and hydraulic principles

Chapter 3 Hydraulic pumps of industrial application, theory, construction, functions,

Chapter 4 Hydraulic motors of industrial applications, theory, constructions, functions,

Chapter 5 Hydraulic cylinders of industrial applications, theory, construction, functions, energy

Chapter 6 Hydraulic directional control valves of industrial applications, theory, construction,

Chapter 7 Hydraulic pressure control valves of industrial applications, theory, constructions,

Chapter 9 Hydraulic filters of industrial applications, theory, construction, functions,

Chapter 10 Electro-hydraulic systems applied to industrial hydraulics, theory, construction,

Chapter 12 Hydraulic fluids used in industrial hydraulic systems, functional characteristics

Chapter 14 Maintenance and troubleshooting of industrial hydraulic system, erection, cleaning

Appendix A Important hydraulic knowledge

With the above introduction, we proceed further on chapters as tabulated above.

2.1 Physical principles

The mass of 1 l of water at 4°C is taken as 1kg.

Mass is classified into two categories, namely,

Where “g” is the acceleration due to gravity.

Since “g” is on earth, 1kg of mass or object weighs 9.8N.

Weight of a mass on earth is taken as one.

2.6 Relative density or Specific gravity

The relative density of gases (s)

In SI units, the unit is meters per second (m/s)

Velocity is also defined as the “rate of change of displacement.”

The average velocity of a moving object

dv Change in linear velocity

where, v = final velocity,

Tangential velocity (TV)2

2.9 Acceleration due to gravity

2.10 Newton’s Law of Motion

This relationship is also referred to as “Newton’s second law of motion.”

2.14 Potential energy

Examples of potential energy:

Therefore, the formula is derived as follows

W = m × g × d, and m × g × h replacing distance with height

Potential energy P.E = m × g × h

2.15 Kinetic energy

Therefore, the formula derived is as follows:

The average acceleration of an object during a particular interval of time

The distance traveled by an object during the particular interval of time

Work = force × distance and according to Newton’s second law,

The work = mass × acceleration × distance “x”

W = mass × (v − v0)/Dt × (v + v0)/2 × Dt.

Simplifying the above equation

W = w = 1/2 × m × v2 − 1/2 × m × v02.

Since we consider the kinetic energy at maximum, the formula becomes,

The standard measurement of kinetic energy in metric units

2.16 Internal energy

Power “Paverage” = F cos θ × Vaverage