Hydraulic Drive & Controls

-: Course Content Developed By :-

Er. H. S. Dhingra
Associate Professor
Department of Farm Machinery and Power Engg., PAU,
Ludhiana
-:Content Reviewed by :-

Dr. S. S. Dhami
Associate Professor
NITTTR, Chandigarh
 INDEX
Lesson Name Page
No.
Module 1. Hydraulic Basics
LESSON 1. HYDRAULIC BASICS 5-9
LESSON 2. HYDRAULIC BASICS 10-15
Module 2. Hydraulic Systems
LESSON 3. PASCAL’S LAW, FLOW, ENERGY, WORK AND 16-18
POWER
LESSON 4. PASCAL’S LAW, FLOW, ENERGY, WORK AND 19-22
POWER
LESSON 5. PASCAL’S LAW, FLOW, ENERGY, WORK 23-26
AND POWER
LESSON 6. HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS 27-29
LESSON 7. HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS 30-32
LESSON 8. Colour coding 33-34
LESSON 9. Reservoirs 35-37
LESSON 10. Strainers and Filters 38-40
LESSON 11. Filtering Elements 41-42
LESSON 12. Filtering Materials 43-45
LESSON 13. Hydraulic Accumulators 46-50
LESSON 14. Pressure Gauges 51-53
LESSON 15. Volume Meters 54-55
MODULE 3.
LESSON 16. Hydraulic Circuits 56-60
LESSON 17. Hydraulic Circuit Fittings and Connectors 61-64
LESSON 18. Pumps and pump classification 65-66
LESSON 19. Pumps working and Performance 67-73
LESSON 20. Design of Gear Pump 74-78
LESSON 21. Design of Reciprocating type of Pump 79-81
LESSON 22. Design of Vane Pump 82-84
MODULE 4.
LESSON 23. Hydraulic actuators and cylinders 85-90
LESSON 24. Construction Application Maintenance of Linear 91-94
Actuators
MODULE 5.
LESSON 25. Hydraulic motors 95-100
LESSON 26. Valves pressure control valves, Direction 101-105
control valves, Flow control valves
LESSON 27. Hydraulic Valve installation, Valve failures and 106-107
remedies, valve assembly, Troubleshooting
MODULE 6.
Lesson 28 Hydraulic circuit diagrams and troubleshooting 108-110
Lesson 29 United States of American Standards institute ( USASI ) 111-117
Graphical symbols
MODULE 7.
Lesson 30 Tractor hydraulics and nudging system 118-121
MODULE 8.
Lesson No 31 Fail safe and safety systems in hydraulic 122-123
and pneumatics
Lesson No 32 Robotics , Hydraulic and Pneumatics and 124-130
Programmable Logic Control
Hydraulic Drive

Module 1. Hydraulic Basics

LESSON 1. HYDRAULIC BASICS

Introduction

Electrical motors can provide rotary motion, which if required can be converted into linear
motion by devices such as screw jack or rack and pinions etc. For very short stroke, say upto
10 mm, a solenoid may be used to obtain linear motion directly.

Enclosed fluids (both liquids and gases) can also be used to produce rotary or linear motion
or apply a force. Fluid based systems using liquids as transmission medium are called
hydraulic systems, whereas gas based systems are called pneumatic systems.

A comparison of main features of electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic systems is given in

Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Comparison of Electrical, Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems

ELECTRICAL HYDRAULIC PNEUMATIC

Electric motor or Diesel

ENERGY SOURCE Electrical power station
engine

ENERGY STORAGE Limited (batteries) Limited (accumulator) Good (reservoir)

DISTRIBUTION Excellent with minimum

Limited Good (plant wide)
SYSTEM losses

ENERGY COST Lowest Medium Highest

AC motors cheap,
Good speed control in
Low speed with good Wide speed range, speed
ACTUATOR DC motors,
control control difficult
Short linear motion with
solenoids

FORCE AVAILABLE Low High Medium

Oil leakage dangerous and

HAZARDS Electric shock Noise
unsightly

1.2 Hydraulics

When a force is applied on a liquid in an enclosed vessel, a uniform pressure is exerted on the
liquid throughout the enclosed volume. Any leak in the vessel will decrease the pressure.
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Hydraulics is the science of transmitting force or motion or both through the medium of
confined liquid. In hydraulic devices, power is transmitted from one location to another by
applying a force on a confined liquid, to produce rotary or linear motion or to apply a force.
To operate liquid-powered systems, it is required to have knowledge of the basic nature of
liquids as the basic principles of hydraulics are based on certain characteristics of liquids

 Liquids have no shape of their own. However, they have definite volume.

 Liquids acquire the shape of the container they are put in.


 Liquids always seek a common level.



Therefore, oil in a hydraulic system will flow in any direction and through any passage,
regardless of size or shape. Liquids are basically incompressible, which gives them the ability
to transmit force. The pressure applied to a liquid in a sealed vessel is transmitted equally in
all directions and to all areas of the system. Since force equals pressure times area, liquids can
provide great increases in the force available to do work by getting larger area to system
pressure.

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1.3 Brief History

Humans recognized fluids as a source of power long ago. Water is available in nature and
water flowing under pressure has two forms of energy – kinetic and potential energy. This
natural source of energy has been harnessed by humankind since early ages for irrigation
and to drive simple machines.

Joseph Bramah (1748 -1814), an inventor and locksmith of England, got a patent for his
invention of the hydraulic press in 1795. William George Armstrong (1810 – 1900), a
successful industrialist of England, developed hydraulic accumulator, a cast-iron cylinder
fitted with a plunger supporting a very heavy weight. Both Bramah and Armstrong are
considered fathers of hydraulic engineering.

In the early stages of industrial development, mechanical linkages had been used along with
prime movers, like electric motors and engines, for handling loads. But, the mechanical
efficiency of linkages is very low and these often fail under certain working conditions. With
the advent of fluid power technology, several applications, where motion and/or force are
primary requirements, started using hydraulic power.

Common examples of applications of hydraulic systems which we come across now-a-days

are shown in Fig. 1.4.

1.4 Advantages of Hydraulic Systems

The advantages of hydraulic systems over other methods of power transmission are:

Automation: Complete automation in many cases is possible with the use of hydraulics

Power to Weight Ratio: A high power to weight ratio is available in comparison with
electrical and pneumatic systems.

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Simpler design: In most cases, readily available components, such as cylinders and valves,
can be used to build a hydraulic system.

Flexibility: Hydraulic components can be located with considerable flexibility. Pipes and
hoses in place of mechanical elements reduce location problems.

Smoothness: Hydraulic systems are smooth and quiet in operation. Vibration is kept to a
minimum.

Lubrication: Since oil is used as working medium, separate lubrication of various

components is not required.

Bidirectional: Hydraulic systems or devices can be operated in forward (clockwise) or

backward (anticlockwise) directions easily.

Control: Control of a wide range of speed and forces is easily possible.

Responsive: Since the medium used for power transmission in hydraulic systems is
incompressible, they exhibit a quick response.

Transmission Efficiency: Hydraulic systems exhibit high efficiency due to minimum friction
loss.

Overload protection: Automatic valves guard the system against a breakdown from
overloading.

1.5 Disadvantages of Hydraulic Systems

The following disadvantages are associated with hydraulic systems:

Initial Cost: The initial cost of hydraulic systems is high.

Leakage: Oil leakage in hydraulic systems results in unsightly and slippery conditions.

Protection against Dirt / Water: Protection is required against dirt and water entering
hydraulic system.

Maintenance: Frequent maintenance in terms of gaskets, seals and packagings etc. is

required.

Hazardous: Oil leakage is a fire and environment hazard.

1.6 Hydraulic Systems Fundamentals, Operation and Control

The knowledge of the following is necessary for understanding the working of hydraulic
systems, their operation and control:

 Physical units for fluid power

 Principles of fluid power

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 Fluids used in hydraulic systems

 Hydraulic power packs

 Hydraulic system components

 Fittings and connectors

 Basic hydraulic circuits

 Design of hydraulic circuits

 Maintenance and troubleshooting

In the next lecture, the physical units for fluid power and units of measurement will be
discussed. Also the basic hydraulic system and its terminology will be introduced.

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LESSON 2. HYDRAULIC BASICS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Transmission of motion can be done easily with liquids. Consider a simple hydraulic device
used for lifting a load as shown in Fig. 2.1. It consists of an L-shaped cylinder filled with
hydraulic oil and fitted with two pistons at the two extremes. The pistons can move in the
cylinder. Piston ‘A’ is used for applying force and piston ‘B’ is used for lifting a load. Piston
A is called the apply piston and piston B is called the output piston.

In a hydraulic device power is transmitted by pushing on a confined liquid. The transfer of

energy takes place because the confined liquid is subjected to pressure due to the push. This
pressure acts equally in all directions. Therefore, when apply piston ‘A’ is pushed towards
right a pressure is created in the hydraulic oil, which acts throughout the system equally in
all directions. This results in a force on output piston ‘B’ equal to pressure multiplied by area
of the piston ‘B’.

For example if a pressure ‘P’ = 20 kgf/cm2 is acting on output piston having area ‘Ap’ = 10
cm2, then the force ‘F’ acting on the piston is calculated as:

F = P x Ap = 20 kgf/cm2 x 10 cm2 = 200 kgf.

Due to this force, the piston ‘B’ will move in upward direction along with the load. The
displacement and speed of the output piston will depend upon a number of factors such as
combined mass of piston ‘B’ and load, dimensions of cylinder and pistons, fluid
characteristics etc. A hydraulic engineer may require to calculate the output piston
displacement for a given force on the apply piston or calculate the force required on apply

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piston for desired displacement of the output piston. For this purpose familiarity with
various physical units of fluid power is essential.

2.2 Physical Units for Fluid Power

Hydraulic engineers are concerned with the following three fundamental units:

(a) Length

(b) Mass

(c) Time

Other units such as area, volume, velocity, force and pressure etc. can be defined in terms of
the above mentioned fundamental units.

The fundamental units used in hydraulics are measured in various systems of units. British
Imperial System also known as FPS system uses foot, pound and second. Metric system uses
centimetre, gram and second (the CGS system) or metre, kilogram and second (the MKS
system). The MKS system has evolved into SI system which uses is a logical method for
defining derived units such as force and pressure, as compared to MKS system.

Now, we will discuss the fundamental and derived units which are significant for
understanding hydraulics.

The unit of length is foot (ft) in FPS system, centimetre (cm) in CGS system and metre (m) in
MKS and SI systems.

The unit of time is second (s) in CGS, MKS, SI and FPS systems.

Mass is the quantity of matter contained in a body. It’s unit is pound (lb) in FPS system, gram
(gm) in CGS system and kilogram (kg) in MKS and SI systems. Mass of a body is always a
constant, irrespective of the location where it is measured.

Weight of an object is the force due to gravitational attraction between the object and the
earth. Thus weight of an object is a force which is not constant for the object. It’s value
depends upon the force of gravity at the location where weight is measured. Thus the weight
of an object will be different on the moon than on earth, but the mass of the same object will
be same on moon and earth.

When a force ‘F’ is applied to a body having mass ‘m’, acceleration ‘a’ (or deceleration) is
produced in the body, given by Newton’s second law of motion:

F = ma (2.1)

The unit of force is pound-force (lb-f) in FPS system, dyne in CGS system, kilogram-force (kg-
f) in MKS system and Newton (N) in SI system.

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A Newton is defined as the force which produces an acceleration of 1 ms-2 when applied to a
mass of 1 kg. Here, it may be noted that the value of acceleration due to gravity is taken as
9.81 ms-2 i.e. 1 g = 9.81 ms-2.

However, when force is taken in lb-f and mass in lb in the relation (2.1), acceleration is
measured in g. Thus if a force of 10 lb-f acts on a body having mass of 5 lb, an acceleration
equal to 2 g is produced in it.

Similarly, when force is taken in kg-f and mass in kg in the relation (2.1), acceleration is
measured in g. Thus if a force of 10 kg-f acts on a body having mass of 5 kg, an acceleration
equal to 2 g is produced in it.

Pressure is defined as the normal force acting per unit area. In FPS system the unit of
pressure is pound-force per square inch (psi). In metric system, the unit of pressure is taken
as kilogram-force per square centimeter (kg-f/cm2).

The SI system defines pressure as the force in Newton per square metre (Nm-2). Further 1
Nm-2 is called 1 Pascal (Pa). One Pascal of pressure quantifies a very low pressure from
practical point of view. Therefore kilo Pascal (kPa i.e. 103 Pa) or mega Pascal (MPa i.e. 106 Pa)
are more commonly used.

Pressure is exerted due to weight of a fluid. This is usually called pressure head and depends
upon height ‘h’ of the fluid. In FPS and metric systems, head (P) is given by:

P = wh (2.2)

where head ‘P’ is measured in psi or kg-f/cm2, ‘w’ is the specific weight of the fluid.

In SI system, expression (2.2) is written as:

P = ρgh (2.3)

where ‘g’ is acceleration due to gravity (9.81 ms-2). The head ‘P’ is measured in Pascal, ‘ρ’ is
the density of the fluid and ‘g’ is the acceleration due to gravity.

Pressure in a fluid can also be defined in terms of equivalent head pressure. Common units
are millimeter of Mercury (mm of Hg) and centimetre, inches, feet or metre of water.

Pressure is generally measured either with reference to atmospheric pressure or vacuum.

When atmospheric pressure is used as reference, the measured pressure is called gauge
pressure. When vacuum is used as reference, the measured pressure is called absolute
pressure.

2.3 Conversion between Units

The conversion between units for various fundamental and derived quantities is given in
Table 2.1.

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Table 2.1 Conversion between Units

Mass

1 kg = 1000 gm

Length

1m = 100 cm = 1000 mm

Volume

1 litre = 1000 ml

Force

1N = 105 dynes

Pressure

1 bar = 100 kPa

= 0.9872 atm (atmosphere)
= 750 mm Hg

1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa

= 1.013 bar

2.4 A Hydraulic System

The physical components and their layout for a typical hydraulic system are shown in Fig.
2.2. The basic components are pump, strainer, oil reservoir, filter, pressure gauge, pressure
relief valve, control valves, actuator (cylinder or motor) etc. These components are joined
together by means of pipes, tubes or hoses.

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Hydraulic pump

It converts the mechanical energy into hydraulic energy by forcing hydraulic fluid, under
pressure, from the reservoir into the system. It may be called heart of the hydraulic system.
The pumps used in the hydraulic circuit are generally of three types - piston type, gear type
or vane type. A pump normally creates a partial vacuum, which causes the fluid to move
through the pump and hence it keep on moving the fluid in the components.

Electric motor and coupling

These are used for running the hydraulic pump. An electric motor of suitable power rating is
fitted as per the size of pump, pressure requirements etc. The pump and motor are connected
with the help of a flexible coupling. The coupling absorbs the shocks and slight misalignment
between the pump and the motor.

Oil sump or reservoir

It acts as a storehouse for the fluid and a heat dissipater. The hydraulic fluid stored in the
sump is pumped into various components of the hydraulic system with the help of a pump.
The capacity of the sump should be kept large, around three to four times the pump delivery,
so that pump can move the fluid through the components continuously.

Strainer or filter

It filters the hydraulic oil circulating in the system. A strainer is required to have a filter in the
system because the same oil is utilized again and again which makes the oil contaminated.
The filters can be placed in the pump line, pressure line or return line. It collects the particles
and prevents them from recirculation in the circuit.

Pressure gauge

It is used for measuring pressure in the hydraulic system. System pressure is required to be
measured at the outlet of the pump and hence a pressure gauge is mounted. It indicates the
pressure in the lines which is an indicator of the safe working of the system. The pressure
gauge may be of dial type or digital type.

Relief valve

It is used to protect the system from damage by releasing excess pressure in the system.
Pressure relief valve limits the pressure of the circuit. As the system pressure exceeds the set
operating pressure, the relief valve discharges oil directly to return line thereby protecting
the system from any damage.

Hydraulic valves

These are provided to control pressure, direction and flow rate of the fluid in the hydraulic
system.

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Fluid lines

These transport the fluid to and from the pump through the hydraulic system. These lines
can be rigid metal tubes, or flexible hose assemblies. Fluid lines can transport fluid under
pressure or vacuum (suction).

Fluid

It can be almost any liquid. The most common hydraulic fluids contain specially
compounded petroleum oils that lubricate and protect the system from corrosion.

Actuators

It convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy to do work. A linear actuator gives force
and motion outputs in a straight line. It is more commonly called a cylinder. A rotary
actuator produces rotational motion like an electric motor.

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Module 2. Hydraulic Systems

LESSON 3. PASCAL’S LAW, FLOW, ENERGY, WORK AND POWER

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Hydraulics plays a significant role in the industrial and agricultural sectors. Hydraulic
devices are perhaps amongst the greatest inventions which help human beings in performing
complicated and heavy tasks. It is quite wonderful that how a small jack can lift tons and tons
of weight with just the pressing of a handle or a hydraulic press can easily cut thick metal
sheets. In a tractor or other automobiles hydraulic brake stop a vehicle by overcoming huge
momentum of the vehicle using force applied by the driver on brake pedal. All these tasks
are possible due to certain principles of hydraulic theory. The fundamental principle of
hydraulics was discovered by Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician in 17th century. The law
is known as Pascal’s law or principle of transmission of fluid-pressure.

3.2 Pascal’s Law

Pascal’s law states that that pressure exerted anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid is
transmitted equally in all directions with equal force on equal areas and acts normal to the
surface. The law is illustrated in Fig. 3.1. A force of ‘P’ kgf is exerted on a piston having cross
sectional area of ‘A’ cm2. This results in a pressure of magnitude ‘P/A’ kgf/cm2 act on the
liquid exactly underneath the piston. Since the liquid is confined, the same pressure is
transmitted throughout the liquid and acts on all the surfaces normally with equalmagnitude

i.e. ‘P/A’ kgf/cm2.

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3.3 Application of Pascal’s Law

The principle of Pascal’s law was successfully applied by an English Engineer Mr. Joseph
Bramah in 1795 to develop a hydraulic press, in which by applying a small input force a large
output force was generated. The Bramah’s press principle may be understood by considering
the two piston system shown in Fig. 3.2. A force of 100 kilogram is applied on the smaller
cylinder having cross-sectional area of 1 cm2. This creates a pressure of 100 kg/cm2 in the
liquid under the cylinder. According to Pascal's Law, this pressure is transmitted
undiminished throughout the fluid acting normal in every direction. The 100
kg/cm2 pressure acts on the larger diameter piston having an area of 5 cm2. This results in a
force of 100 kg/cm2 x 5 cm2 i.e. 500 kg acting perpendicularly on the piston. Thus the 500 kg
force applied on the larger piston in the downward direction is balanced by the 500 kg force
on the piston due to fluid pressure in the upward direction. Thus the applied force has been
multiplied 5 times – a mechanical advantage of 5 to 1.

Similarly, the distance moved by larger piston due to movement of smaller piston, in Fig. 3.2,
can also be determined. Since hydraulic oil is incompressible, if the small piston moves down
it displaces a volume of oil equal to the product of cross-sectional area of the cylinder and the
distance traveled by the piston. For example, if the smaller piston is pushed down through a
distance of 10 cm it will displace 1 cm2 x 10 cm i.e. 10 cm3 of oil. This will cause the larger
piston to move up through a distance equal to 2 cm i.e. displaced oil volume of 10
cm3 divided by larger cylinder area of 5 cm2. Thus it can be observed that for forces F1 and
F2 acting on two cylinders undergoing displacements d1 and d2:

F1 x d1 = F2 x d2 (3.1)

Since the product of force and displacement is the work done, Equation 3.1 shows that work
done by external force on the system is equal to the work done by the system.

3.4 Flow

Fluid flows from high pressure point to low pressure point. Fluid can be forced to flow from
low pressure to high pressure by using a pump. In a hydraulic system, a pump is used to
produce oil flow in the system. Flow can be measured in terms of velocity and flow rate.

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3.5 Velocity

Velocity of a fluid is the mean speed with which fluid particles move past a given point in
unit time. It is usually measured in metre per second (ms-1). Flow velocity is of prime
importance in design of hydraulic systems as the pipes and hoses are sized according to
velocity requirement.

3.6 Flow Rate

Flow rate of a fluid is the volume of fluid moving past a given point in unit time. It is usually
measured in litre per second (l/s) or cubic centimeter per second (cusec). Flow rate
determines the speed at which a load moves and therefore it is an important factor for power
calculations.

3.7 Relationship between Flow Rate and Velocity

Flow rate through a pipe is equal to product of flow velocity through the pipe and cross-
sectional area of the pipe. The following example illustrates this relationship.

Example: Oil flows through a hydraulic pipe of 15 mm diameter at a flow rate of 12 litre per
minute. Find the flow velocity.

Solution:

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LESSON 4. PASCAL’S LAW, FLOW, ENERGY, WORK AND POWER

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Hydraulic devices are used to perform variety of tasks in industry, agriculture and many
other fields. All these tasks require objects or substances to be lifted or moved from one
location to another or a force to be applied to hold, shape or compress a product. Thus
hydraulic devices perform work on objects in order to perform the desired task. A body is
said to possess energy if it can do work and power is work done per unit time.

4.2 Energy

Energy is the capacity of a body to do work. Hydraulic devices are able to do work on objects
because hydraulic oil possesses energy. The total hydraulic energy consists of three different
types of energy:

(i) Kinetic energy – due to motion

(ii) Potential energy – due to position

(iii) Pressure energy – due to condition of the fluid

4.3 Kinetic Energy

By definition, kinetic energy is energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion. Kinetic
energy is proportional to mass of a body and square of its velocity. Hence greater the
velocity, greater is the kinetic energy. For example, when water is released from a dam, it
moves at a very high velocity which represents the energy of motion or kinetic energy. The
kinetic energy possessed by a body of mass ‘m’ moving with a velocity ‘v’ is given by:

\[K.E.\; = \;\frac{1}{2}m{v^2}\] (4.1)

where, if ‘m’ is in kg and ‘v’ is in ms-1, then unit of K.E. is N-m or Joule (J).

Since mass, m = volume of liquid ‘V’ × density ‘r’

\[K.E.\; = \;\frac{1}{2}V\rho {v^2}\; = \;\frac{{V\rho {v^2}}}{2}\]

This is also called velocity pressure i.e. pressure caused by kinetic energy.

K.E. when expressed per unit weight is given by

\[\;\frac{{K.E.}}{{Weight}} = \;\frac{{\frac{1}{2}m{v^2}}}{{mg}}\; =
\;\frac{{{v^2}}}{{2g}}\] (4.3)

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In SI units, v2/2g is expressed in m.

4.4 Potential Energy

Potential energy is the energy of a body or a system due to the position of the body or the
arrangement of the particles of the system. It is also called stored energy. An object has
potential energy in proportion to its vertical distance above the ground surface. For example,
water stored in a dam represents potential energy until it is released. When a mass is lifted
up, the force of gravity will act so as to bring it back down. Lifting the mass requires energy
to perform work on the mass. According to the law of conservation of energy, energy can
neither be created nor destroyed; energy can only be changed from one form into another.
Thus the energy that went into lifting up the mass is stored in its position in the gravitational
field i.e. as potential energy. If the mass is dropped, this stored energy will be converted into
kinetic energy. The potential energy in a hydraulic system is the equivalent of the height ‘h’
of the liquid column in the system.

Potential Energy = mass x gravitational acceleration x height

PE = mgh (4.4)

Since the earth exerts a continuous gravitational pull on all objects of mass ‘m’, which we call
weight ‘W’ = mg

PE = Wh (4.5)

If ‘m’ is in kg, ‘g’ is in ms-2 and ‘h’ is in m, then unit of P.E. is N-m or Joule (J).

P.E. when expressed per unit weight is given by

\[\;\frac{{P.E.}}{{Weight}} = \;\frac{{mgh}}{{mg}}\; =
\;h\] (4.6)

Where ‘h’ is in m in SI units.

4.5 Pressure Energy

Pressure energy is the energy of a body by virtue of its condition. Pressure energy of a oil
column of height ‘h’ is given by

\[\frac{P}{{\rho g}}\] (4.7)

Where ‘P’ is the pressure of oil column and ‘ρ’ is the oil density.

4.6 Work

Work is a measure of energy expanded. By definition, work done by a force is equal to the
product of the force and the displacement of its point of application in the direction of force.

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For example, a force ‘F’ applied by a person on a cart using a rope moves it through a
distance ‘s’, Figure 4.1.

As the force ‘F’ has component Fcosθ in the direction of displacement ‘s’, work done is given
by, W = Fcosθ × s

However if the force ‘F’ is applied along the displacement ‘s’, then θ = 0 and consequently
cosθ = 1, then

W=F×s (4.8)

In SI units, force is in Newton (N), displacement is in meter (m) and work done is measured
in N-m or Joule (J).

4.7 Power

Power is the rate at which work is performed. It is defined as work done per unit time.

\[Power\; =
\;\frac{{Work\;done}}{{Time\;Taken}}\]
(4.9)

SI unit of power is Watt (W) which is equal to Js-1.

Horse-power (hp) is widely used unit of power and 1 hp = 746 W

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4.8 Units of Work and Power

Work can be considered as time integral of power. As electrical power is measured in

kilowatt (kW), kilowatt-hour (kWh) is also used a unit of work or energy.

Work (Energy)

1J = 1 N-m
= 0.102 kgf-m
= 2.778 × 10-7 kWh
= 107 erg (cgs unit)

Power

1 kW = 1000 W
= 102 kgf-m s-1
= 1.34 hp

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LESSON 5. PASCAL’S LAW, FLOW, ENERGY, WORK AND POWER

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Hydraulic devices are concerned with flow of liquid in enclosed paths such as pipes, tubes,
valves, actuators etc. Flow can be quantified in terms of volumetric flow rate and mass flow
rates. Flow can be classified as steady flow and unsteady flow based upon state of conditions
at a point with respect to time. Further flow may be classified as laminar flow and turbulent
flow based upon flow pattern.

5.2 Volumetric Flow

Volumetric flow rate is the volume of fluid moving past a given point in unit time. It can be
calculated as the product of average flow velocity and area of cross-section of the path. It is
usually measured in litre per second (l/s) or cubic centimeter per second (cusec).

Volumetric flow rate, V = v.A, cm3/s (5.1)

Where, ‘v’ is the velocity in cm/s and ‘A’ is area of pipe cross-section in cm2.

Example: Calculate the volumetric flow rate of a liquid flowing with an average velocity of 15
cm/s in a pipe of diameter 5 cm.

Solution:

5.3 Mass Flow

Mass flow rate can be defined as the measure of the mass of fluid passing through a point in
the system per unit time. It is equal to the product of density of the fluid and its volumetric
flow rate.

Mass flow rate, M = rV gm3/s (5.2)

Where, ‘ρ’ is the density in gm/cm3 and ‘V’ is volumetric flow rate in cm3/s.

Example: Calculate the mass flow rate of a liquid flowing with an average velocity of 15 cm/s
in a pipe of diameter 5 cm. Density of the liquid is 60 gm/cc.

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Solution: Volumetric flow rate,

Mass flow rate = ρV

= 60 X 294.52 = 17,671.2 gm/cc.

5.4 Steady and Unsteady Flow

In steady flow, fluid properties like pressure, temperature and velocity at point in the system
do not change with time. In the steady state flow rate there is no mass accumulation in the
system or component.

Unsteady flow is a transient phenomenon which may become a steady flow or zero flow with
time. For example, when a valve is opened suddenly, liquid flow into the pipe is unsteady
which become steady with time. Similarly, when a valve is suddenly closed at the discharge
end of a pipe, there will be fluctuations in both velocity and pressure in the pipe before the
flow becomes zero in the pipe.

5.5 Laminar and Turbulent Flow

When a fluid is flowing through a pipe or pipe like structure ,there may be two types of flow
that generally occur i.e. laminar flow or turbulent flow depending on the velocity of the fluid.

At low flow velocities, the flow pattern is smooth and linear. This is known as laminar or
streamline flow. In this type of flow, velocity is minimum at the pipe walls and maximum at
the centre of the pipe. As flow velocity increases, eddies start to form until at high flow
velocities complete turbulence results. At this stage, flow velocty is virtually uniform across
the pipe cross-section. Laminar flow and turbulent flow are depicted in Fig. 5.1

Laminar flow occurs in parallel layers, with no disruption between the layers. At low
velocities the fluid tends to flow without lateral mixing, and adjacent layers move over one
another. There are no cross currents perpendicular to the direction of flow. In laminar flow

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the motion of the particles of fluid is such that the particles are moving in straight lines
parallel to the pipe walls.

In turbulent flow the fluid undergoes irregular fluctuations, or mixing. It is in contrast to

laminar flow, in which the fluid moves in smooth paths or layers. In turbulent flow the
velocity of the fluid at a point is continuously changing in both magnitude and direction.
Common examples of turbulent flow are river flow, blood flow in arteries, oil transport in
pipelines, ocean currents and flow through pumps and turbines.

5.6 Reynolds Number

The nature of the flow i.e. whether the flow is laminar or turbulent is determined by
Reynolds Number, Re, given as:

Where ‘v’ is flow velocity, ‘d’ is pipe diameter, ‘ρ’ is the fluid density and ‘\[\eta \]’ is the
fluid viscosity. For a given liquid flowing in a pipe the fluid density, fluid viscosity and the
pipe diameter are constant. Thus, the value of Reynolds Number depends upon flow
velocity.

Reynolds Number is a ratio and hence dimensionless. For a fully developed flow in a pipe
flow is laminar for Re < 2000 and flow is turbulent for Re > 4000.

5.7 Bernoulli’s Principle

Recall that the total energy ‘E’ of a liquid flowing in a pipe is given by

E = Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy + Pressure Energy

And Kinetic Energy, \[K.E.\; = \;\frac{1}{2}m{v^2}\]

Potential Energy, PE = mgh

Pressure Energy = PV

Where ‘m’ is the mass, ‘v’ is the velocity, ‘h’ is the height, ‘P’ is the pressure and ‘V’ is the
volume of liquid.

KE, PE and pressure energy when expressed as per unit weight of liquid are written as

\[\;\frac{{{v^2}}}{{2g}}\] , h and \[\frac{P}{{\rho g}}\] respectively.

According to Bernoulli’s principle, the total energy of a liquid is constant neglecting any
losses

\[E = \;\frac{{{v^2}}}{{2g}}\; + \;h\; + \;\frac{P}{{\rho g}}\quad=\] = constant

(5.4)
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Therefore, total energy of a flowing liquid at point 1 will be equal to total energy at point 2,
i.e.

mgz1 + ½ mV12 + p1v1 = mgz2 + ½ mV22 + p2v2 (5.6)

where,

m = mass

g = acceleration due to gravity

z1 = head at 1

V1 = velocity at 1

v1 = volume at 1

p1 = pressure at 1

z2 = head at 2

V2 = velocity at 2

v2 = volume at 2

p2 = pressure at 2

Therefore, Bernoulli's principle states that for a fluid flow, an increase in the speed of the
fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluids potential
energy. Bernoulli's principle can be applied to various types of fluid flow, and equation (5.4)
is called Bernoulli's equation. Bernoulli’s equation is best applicable under the following
assumptions:

 Fluid is under steady state flow, hence flow rate at all the positions in the pipe is not
changing.

 Fluid is having streamline flow, hence flow at all the points is exhibiting streamline or
laminar flow.

 Fluid is assumed to be of negligible viscosity, hence the fluid does not have tendency
to stick on to the pipe.

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LESSON 6. HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Hydraulic systems are normally based on Pascal’s law in which a liquid is moved in a closed
system in such a way that it uses the laws governing liquids to transmit power and do work.
This lesson describes some basic types of hydraulic circuits and the major components used
there in. A sump or a tank is utilized for the purpose of oil storage. Filters,strainers and
magnetic plugs condition the fluid by removing harmful impurities that could clog passages
and damage parts. Accumulators are used to store energy. Heat exchangers or coolers are
generally provided to keep the oil temperature within safe limits as this helps in maintaining
the oil properties.

6.2 Features of Hydraulic Systems

Hydraulic systems offer many advantages and some disadvantages as compared with other
methods of power transmission. Some of the major advantages are:

1. A hydraulic system is simple in design. In general a few standard hydraulic

components replaces complicated mechanical linkages used in mechanical systems.
2. The hydraulic systems are smooth and quiet in operation.
3. The hydraulic components are connected with flexible pipes and hoses and therefore
locating components in a setup is easier as compared to rigid mechanical elements.
4. In hydraulic systems, a wide range of speed and forces can be controlled easily.
5. It gives better efficiency with low friction loss which gives lower cost of power
transmission.
A hydraulic system also has following disadvantages:

1. Oil leakage is a fire hazard and is unsightly.

2. Maintaining of the hydraulic system is costlier.
Care must be taken against rust, corrosion, dirt, oil deterioration etc.

6.3 Hydraulic Circuits

For the hydraulic fluid to do work, it must flow to the actuator, then return to a reservoir.
The fluid is then filtered and re-pumped. The path taken by hydraulic fluid is called
a hydraulic circuit of which there are several types. In this lesson two types of hydraulic
circuits – closed centre type and open centre circuits are discussed. Closed centre
circuits supply full pressure to the control valves, whether any valves are actuated or not.
The pumps vary their flow rate, pumping very little hydraulic fluid until the operator
actuates a valve. Open center circuits use pumps which supply a continuous flow.The flow is
returned to tank through the control valve's open centre i.e. when the control valve is
centred, it provides an open return path to tank and the fluid is not pumped to a high
pressure.
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6.4 Basic Hydraulic Closed Centre Circuit

In closed centre system circuit, the pump generally rests when the fluid is not required to
operate an actuator or another device in the hydraulic circuit. This means that when the
control valve is in the neutral position i.e. at the centre, the flow of the oil from the pump is
altogether stopped or reduced to a minimum. The valve's spool therefore doesn't need an
open centre return path to tank. A closed centre hydraulic system provides oil flow on
demand, which enables simultaneous operation of many loads connected to one pump. A
basic closed centre hydraulic circuit is shown in the Fig. 6.1.

Closed centre hydraulic circuits almost always use variable flow pump. When a fixed
displacement pump is used an accumulator is employed which is charged to required system
pressure.

6.4.1 Fixed-Displacement Pump and Accumulator System

In fixed displacement pump and accumulator system, a pump of small but constant volume
charges an accumulator. When the accumulator is charged to full pressure, an unloading
valve diverts the pump flow back to a reservoir. A check valve traps the pressured oil in the
circuit. On operating the control valve, an accumulator discharges its oil and actuation is
caused into a cylinder. As pressure starts decreasing, an unloading valve directs the pump
flow to an accumulator to recharge the flow. Since this system uses a small capacity pump,
therefore, it is quite effective when operating oil is needed only for a short time. However,
when there is a need of oil for longer periods, an accumulator system is not very effective
unless provided with very large accumulator. A closed centre hydraulic circuit with fixed
displacement pump and accumulator is shown in Fig. 6.2.

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6.4.2 Variable Displacement Pump System

In this system, shown in Fig. 6.3,oil is pumped until the pressure rises to required system
pressure when valve is at neutral position. A pressure-regulating valve allows the pump to
stop and maintain this pressure to the valve. When the control valve is operating, oil is
directed from the pump to the cylinder which raises the load. This causes the pressure to
drop from maximum level and the pump is restarted. When the valve moves, the top of the
piston connects to a return line and it allows the oil that was forced from the piston to return
to the sump. When the valve is again positioned at neutral, the oil is trapped on both sides of
the cylinder and the pressure in the passage between the pump and control valve begins to
rise. When the pressure rises to required system pressure,the pump stops.

6.5 Advantages of Closed Centre Circuit

Relief valve is not required as the pump stops by itself when standby pressure is reached.

The size of the flow lines, valves, and cylinders etc can be chosen as per the flow
requirements in the hydraulic circuit.

Closed centre system is more efficient as compared to open centre system as the pump does
not function continuously.

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LESSON 7. HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

7.1 Introduction

Hydraulic circuits are of different types. Two major types of hydraulic circuits are closed
centre circuit and open centre circuit. The two types were introduced and the closed centre
hydraulic circuit was discussed in the previous lecture. The open centre hydraulic circuit is
discussed in this chapter.

7.2 Basic Open Centre Hydraulic Circuit

Open center system uses a pump which provides constant flow of oil continuously. The flow
is returned to sump through the open centre of control valve at neutral position. When the
control valve is actuated the oil is routed to or from an actuator based on the control valve
position. The pressure of oil will get increased to meet any resistance, since the pump has a
constant output. If the pressure becomes too high, the oil returns to sump through a relieve
valve.

Fig. 7.1: Open Centre Hydraulic Circuit

An open centre hydraulic circuit is shown in Fig. 7.1. In this system, a control-valve (spool
valve) is kept open at the center which allows the pump flow to pass through the valve and
return to the sump. In order to operate several functions simultaneously, an open-center
system must have the correct connections. An open-center system is normally efficient on
single function but can also be utilized in multiple functions. Open center system may be in
series, parallel or flow divider configuration.

7.2.1 Series Connection

Opencenter systems with series connection have the oil from a pump applied to more than
one open centre control valves fitted in series. A series connection with three functions is
shown in Fig. 7.2. The return from the first valve is directed to the inlet of the second, and so

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on. When all the control valves are kept at neutral, the oil moves through the valves in series
and returns to the sump. When a control valve is operated, the incoming oil is diverted to the
cylinder that the valve serves. Return oil from the cylinder is moved through the return line
and on to the next valve. This system is performing satisfactorily when only one valve is
operating at a time. This ensures the full output of the pump at full system pressure for that
particular function.

7.2.2 Series Parallel Connection

In this system oil from the pump is directed through the control valves in series as well as in
parallel. When the valve is kept at neutral, the oil moves through the valves in series. On
operating any one of the valve, the return is closed and the oil is available to all the valves
through the parallel connection. Whereas, on operating two or more valves, the cylinder that
needs the least pressure will operate first, then the cylinder with the next least pressure
requirement, and so on so forth. Therefore, the series parallel connection has an advantage
over the series connection when operating two or more valves simultaneously.

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7.2.3 Flow Divider

A flow divider is a device which takes the volume of oil from a pump and divides it between
two functions. An open Centre Hydraulic Circuit with Flow Divider is shown in Fig. 7.4. A
flow divider used in open centre hydraulic circuit may be designed to open the left side first
in case both control valves are actuated simultaneously. Or, it might divide the oil to both
sides equally or in some other proportion. Hence the pump used in a flow divider circuit
must be of larger capacity to operate all the functions in the hydraulic circuit simultaneously.

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LESSON 8. Colour coding

8.1 Introduction

Hydraulics is the science of transmitting force or motion or both through the medium of
confined fluid. Oil in a hydraulic system is in a state of rest or motion and the oil pressure is
different in different sectors of the hydraulic circuit at any given time. The states of flow and
pressure of the oil in a hydraulic system at a given time depends upon the stage of operation
the system at that particular time. For example if a cylinder piston is extending towards the
right, oil at high pressure is flowing from pump side into the left chamber of the cylinder and
flowing out of the right chamber of the cylinder to the sump at low pressure. Similarly if a
cylinder piston is fully extended towards right against a load, oil is at high pressure in the left
chamber of the cylinder and oil flow is not taking place on both the sides of the piston. It is
convenient to indicate the oilflow and pressure conditions in different parts of hydraulic
circuits with industrial standardized colour codes.

8.2 Colour Coding

To understand or to depict the fluid states in hydraulic systems easily, Joint Industries
Conference (JIC) and American National Standards Institute (ANSI) have established a
standardized colour coding scheme for flow conditions or fluid paths as shown in Fig. 8.1.

The significance of different colours is as follows:

 Greencolour signifies the intake fluid which is piped from oil reservoir to pump in the
hydraulic circuit.

 The red colour generally signifies operating system pressure of the fluid. The oil from
the pump flows through pressure relief valve to a directional control (DC) valve. The
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DC valve either blocks the flow or directs the flow to a cylinder. The resistance to fluid
flow due to a closed DC valve or a cylinder piston causes pressure to be created. The
fluid under pressure is shown in red colour.

 The blue colour is used to indicate the fluid that is not restricted and having minimum
oil pressure. It is generally used to show the oil exhausting from a cylinder or a valve
to the sump.

A hydraulic system in which the fluid conditions are indicated with green, red and blue
colours is shown in Fig. 8.2.

 Yellow indicates the controlled fluid flow or the oil which is metered through a
restriction valve.

 Orange is generally for the oil flow that has been reduced from the system pressure
like the oil at the output of a pressure regulating valve.

 Violet indicates the increased oil pressure due to the result of amplified system
pressure, like oil with increased pressure at the output of intensifier

 .White is used to indicate the oil pressure in a part of the system which has no
pressure. For example, oil at the output of a cylinder having fully extended piston is
shown in whitecolour as fluid from the rod end of the cylinder to the sump is inactive
as there is no movement.

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LESSON 9. Reservoirs

9.1 Introduction

A hydraulic system usually consists of basic components like reservoir, pump, valves
strainers, lines, etc. The hydraulic reservoir is a sort of fluid store house for the hydraulic
system. It is having enough fluid to supply the normal operating requirements of the
hydraulic system and an additional supply to replace fluid lost through minor leakages, if
any. It also allows the settling of impurities like dust or dirt etc. The reservoirs may also be
designed to do the separation of air from the fluid stored in it.

9.2 Reservoirs

A reservoir stores a liquid for transmitting the fluid energy. Hydraulic systems are generally
operated by a liquid fluid being transmitted in the system components. The purpose of the
hydraulic reservoir is to hold a volume of fluid, transfer heat from the system, allow solid
contaminants to settle and facilitate the release of air and moisture from the fluid. A typical
reservoir is shown in Fig. 9.1.

(Courtesy: http://www.htetechnologies.com/vendors/view/Lube%20Devicesl)

Hydraulic systems, on the other hand, need a very large quantity of liquid fluid which is to
be stored and reused continually as the circuit works. Therefore, part of any hydraulic circuit
is a storage reservoir or tank. This tank may be part of the machine framework or a separate
unit. In general reservoir design and its development is very important. The efficiency of a
hydraulic circuit is greatly affected by tank design. Hence a hydraulic reservoir does much
more than just provides a place to store fluid. A well-designed reservoir does the following
functions.

 It should remove the gases if any.

 It should dissipate the heat. It should allow time for contamination to settle down at
the surface.

 It should allow air bubbles to come to the surface and dissipate trapped air.

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 It should give a positive pressure to the pump inlet.

 It may provide a convenient mounting place for the pump and motor, and valves.

 There are different types of reservoirs which may be installed in hydraulic circuit and
are discussed as under.

9.2.1 Pump on Tank Top

It is the most commonly used layout of reservoir and pump. The flat top surface of a
reservoir makes a perfect place to mount the pump and motor as shown in Fig. 9.2. Axial or
in-line piston pump life may be affected by vacuum at its inlet when using this layout. The
piping in this configuration is kept sealed. Also the piping should have least number of
bends and it should be as short as possible.

9.2.2 Pump at side of tank

It is another type of design which is used satisfactorily for any type of pump. This
arrangement is sometime called a flooded suction, because the pump inlet always is filled
with fluid. Still, there may be some vacuum in the inlet line when the pump is running. This
design is considered to be better than the pump on top arrangement. Pump on side of tank
layout is shown in Fig. 9.3.

9.2.3 Pump under tank

It is one of the most useful pump and tank layout. In this design pump is kept below the
reservoir to take advantage of static head pressure. Since the tank is above the pump,
therefore the fluid is available at its inlet all the time. Pump under tank layout is shown in
Fig. 9.4.

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9.3 Shape of Reservoir

Shape of the reservoir should be such that it should have oil level as high as possible. For this
high and narrow reservoirs are made rather than shallow and broad, which keeps the oil
level high above the pump suction line. This prevents the vacuum at the line opening and
thus prevents air from entering into the system. Aerated oil will not properly transmit power
because air is compressible.

9.4 Size of Reservoir

While designing a reservoir the size is normally kept large enough so that it should have a
reserve of oil with all the cylinders in a system fully extended. An oil reserve must be high
enough to prevent a vortex (a whirling mass of fluid, especially one in which a force of
suction operates, as a whirlpool) at the suction line opening. A reservoir must have sufficient
space to hold all the oil when the cylinders are retracted, as well as allow space for expansion
when the oil is hot. The size of reservoir in moving type of machine is generally kept in the
range of 70 litre to 120 litre in a system requiring 350 LPM(Litre Per Minute) of oil flow rate.
Whereas, for stationary equipment as a thumb rule, the size of reservoir is kept two to three
times the pump output per minute. A large size tank is preferred for better cooling.

9.5 Location of Reservoir

In moving equipment reservoirs are normally located above the pumps, which create a
flooded-pump-inlet condition. This condition reduces the possibility of pump cavitations (a
condition where vapours are formed in low pressure region and when these vapours collapse
on moving to high pressure region causing shocks and sometimes even erosion of metal
parts).The location of a reservoir affects heat dissipation. Therefore while orienting the
location of tank it should be kept in mind that tank walls should be exposed to the outside
air.

9.6 Ventilation and Pressurization

Reservoirs are provided with vents to the atmosphere. A vent opening allows air to leave or
enter the space above the oil as the level of the oil goes up or down. This maintains a constant
atmospheric pressure above the surface of oil. A reservoir filter cap, with a filter element, is
often used as a vent.

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LESSON 10. Strainers and Filters

10.1 Introduction

The oils used in hydraulic systems contain foreign matter in solid and liquid forms, which is
quite undesirable and need to be removed. Hence, strainers, filters, and magnetic plugs are
used to remove dust particles or foreign matter from a hydraulic fluid and are effective as
safeguards against contamination. It is very important to select a filter that will improve the
reliability of a lubrication or hydraulic system by eliminating failure due to contamination of
oil used in the system. Maintaining hydraulic fluid within the allowable limits is quite
difficult to protect the equipment. Therefore it is necessary to prevent the contamination in
the fluid and also remove the contaminants if present in the fluid. Hence filters are installed
at suitable places in the hydraulic system.The filtration devices used in the system are
commonly known as strainer and filters.

10.2 Strainers

To remove large particles of foreign matter from a hydraulic fluid a strainer is provided as
the primary filtering system. Its screening action is not as good as that of a filter but a strainer
offers less resistance to flow of the fluid. A strainer usually consists of a metal frame wrapped
with a fine-mesh wire screen or a screening element made up of varying thicknesses of
specially processed wire. Strainers are used in the pump inlet lines. There may be different
possible arrangements of strainer for use in a pump inlet line. If one strainer causes excessive
friction in the flow of fluid to the pump, two or more strainers can be used in parallel.

10.3 Filters

Filters are generally provided to remove the small foreign particles from a hydraulic fluid
and are most effective in removing fine contaminants. Filters can be classified based upon (i)
location and (ii) full/partial filtering action. Based upon location filters can be classified as
inlet line filters, pressure line filters and return line filters. Based upon filtering action filters
are classified as full-flow filters and proportional-flow filters.

10.3.1 Inlet Line Filters

Inlet filters for pipe-lines and systems are designed to stop dust and dirt particles from
entering the pump and contaminating the oil. Replaceable elements are available as
disposable, cleanable. Inlet line filters must cause low pressure drop or the pump will not be
able to lift the oil from the tank. Therefore inlet line filters are coarse filters. Fig. 10.1 shows
the location of inlet line filter.

Fig. 10.1:Inlet Line Filter Location Sketch

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10.3.2 Pressure Line Filter

This type of filters is used to protect downstream components such as valves and actuators
from contamination. Since these are sized for the output of the pump, pressure filters tend to
be smaller than return line filters. In systems using accumulators, pressure filters must be
sized according to the large effective flow rates.In some applications, pressure filters are used
as isolation filters to protect specific components. These filters are non-bypass type of filters
which are capable of withstanding full system differential pressure.

Fig. 10.2: Pressure Line Filter Location Sketch

10.3.3 Return Line Filters

Return flow filters usually have cartridge elements in an in-line mounted housing within the
reservoir itself which is also called as an in-tank filter. Return line filters are an integral part
of an effective contamination control system. Return line filters are ideal for systems where
the pump is the sensitive component. These are placed before the fluid enters the reservoir in
order to prevent debris and particles from recirculation through the system.

Fig. 10.3: Return Line Filter Location Sketch

10.3.4 Full-flow Filter

A full flow filter is designed to filter the full output from pump. In this type of filter the fluid
entering a unit passes through a filtering element. A full-flow type of filter provides a more
positive filtering and offers greater resistance to flow, particularly when it becomes dirty. A
hydraulic liquid enters a full-flow filter through an inlet port in the body and flows around
an element inside a bowl.

Filtering occurs as a liquid passes through the element and into a hollow core, leaving the
dirt and impurities on the outside of the element. A filtered liquid then flows from a hollow
core to an outlet port and into the system.

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10.3.5 Proportional-flow Filter

In this type of filter there is a venturi tube. The throat of venturihas smaller diameter which
increases the velocity of fluid moving through it . Flow through a venturi throat causes a
pressure drop at the narrowest point. This pressure drop causes a sort of suctionthat draws a
portion of a fluid down around a cartridge through a filter element and up into the venturi
throat. This method has the advantage of low pressure drop.

10.4 Contamination Indicators

The effectiveness of the filter can be checked by a contamination indicator. The

contamination of a filter is measured by the drop in pressure. As the contamination increases,
the pressure ahead of the filter rises. This pressure acts on a spring-loaded piston. As the
pressure increases, the piston is pushed against the spring and is displayed onto a display
unit.

10.5 Contaminants

There may be following types contaminates which may be there in the hydraulic fluids-

 Biological materials like straw shreds, hair, flies, etc.

 Welding scales

 Bits of sealing materials

 Wear particles

 Rust particles

 Water

 Dirt from atmosphere

 New oil

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LESSON 11. Filtering Elements

11.1 Introduction

Filtration is an important part of any hydraulic system or machinery which provides the
safety of a system or machinery. It also maintains the right condition of fluid circulating in
the circuit. Contamination of the fluid may result in wear in the moving parts, corrosion,
reduced performance, and also clogging. Therefore filtration is needed to remove the solid
contaminants from the circulating fluid. Usually filter work on the basis that it traps the
particles in the small holes or pores. It allows the fluid to pass through it but the particles of
certain size get trapped in the filters.

11.2 Types of Filter Elements

There are mainly two types of filter elements used in hydraulic systems – surface filters and
depth filters.

11.2.1 Surface Filters Element

Surface filters are simple screens which are used to clean oil passing through their pores.
These are normally made with thin sheets which are folded into many sections and then
turned into a multi-pointed star shape as shown in Fig. 11.1. This increases the surface area
for the fluid to be entered into it.By doing so the space required for the filter is reduced and
this element is fitted into a bowl. The thin sheet is provided with number of pores of required
size, which traps the solid contaminant when the oil is passed through it as shown in Fig.
11.2. Surface filters are usually made of woven steel wire, woven nylon fibre and
cellular/paper.

11.2.2 Depth Filter Element

Depth filters are thick walled filter elements through which oil is passed and undesirable
foreign particles are trapped in the filter. Depth type filter elements consist of hollow cylinder
and its walls are made up of thick layer of cellulose. These may also be made up of multi-
layered fabric, compressed fabric, plastic, felt or metallic fibre. The fluid enters from the
casing and flows through the element in the hollow space in the cylinder and then cleaned
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fluid is discharged. In this type of element coarse particles are separated at the inlet surface
whereas, finer particles are separated within the material of element. These filters will have
higher capacity of dirt retention for the same area cross-section.

11.3 Comparison of Surface and Depth Filters

Depth-type filters capture particles and contaminant through the total thickness of the
medium, while in surface filters particles are blocked on the surface of the filter.
Surface filters are best for filtering sediment of similar-sized particles. If all particles are say
five micron, a 5-micron surface filter works best because it has more surface area than depth
filters. Compared with surface filters, depth filters have a limited surface area, but they have
the advantage of depth.

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LESSON 12. Filtering Materials

12.1 Introduction

Filtration may be defined as the removal of solid particles from a liquid or gaseous stream by
means of a porous medium. There are numerous types of filtering material available for
filtration. Filtering material may be mechanical or absorbent. Mechanical filters are relatively
coarse and utilize fine wire mesh. Mechanical filters can usually be removed, cleaned and
refitted for use. Absorbent filters are based on porous materials such as paper, cotton or
cellulose. Filtration size in an absorbent filter can be very small as filtration is done by pores
in the material.

12.2 Types of Filtering Material

There are different materials used for making filter elements are (i) Woven steel wire (ii)
Woven nylon fibre and (iii) Cellulose or paper

12.2.1 Woven Steel Wire Type Material

This type of material consists of woven steel wire which may be stainless steel or epoxy
based wire mesh available in different sizes which can filter from 150 µm to 40 µm of particle
size. These type of materials are normally used for trapping large and harsh particulate.

12.2.2 Woven Nylon Material

These are the nylon or synthetic fibres, which are smooth, rounded and provide less
resistance to flow.Its uniform shape and size provide the smooth flow of fluid through the
mat, which gives better filtration effectiveness in specific contaminants.

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12.2.3 Cellulose typeMaterial

It is basically wood fibre having microscopic size. The fibres are held together by resin. These
fibres are irregular in size and also in shape. It offers smaller pores in the material, which
causes more resistance to the flow of fluid. But cellulose material provides greater
effectiveness of filtration of hydraulic or other petroleum fluids

12.3 Filtration Test

Generally multi-pass test is carried out to evaluate the filter element performance.Fluid is
circulated through the test circuit under controlled conditions, which indicates the following
element performance characteristics:

 Dirt holding capacity

 Filtration efficiency as beta ratio

12.3.1 Beta Ratio (β)

It can be defined as the measure of filter element particle capturing efficiency. It is

performance indicator of a filter element. Beta ratio is the ratio of particles larger than a given
size counted upstream and downstreamof the test filter in a multi-pass test. Therefore it is a
dimensionless number which gives degree of separation.

Example: In a multi-pass filter test 40,000 particles of 10 mm and larger size were counted
upstream and 8,000 particles in the same range were counted downstream of the test filter.
Find the beta ratio of the filter.

Solution: Given,

Threshold size of particles, x = 10 micron

Number of particles upstream, Nu = 40,000

Number of particles downstream, Nd = 8,000

Beta ratio of the filter is calculated as:

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12.4 Element Indicator

The element indicator is the indicating device which gives the signals when the element is
loaded to the point that it should be cleaned or replaced. The indicator may be connected
mechanically to the bypass valve. But sometimesthere may be an independent differential-
pressure sensing device type of an arrangement is there which gives visual or electrical
signals or both.

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LESSON 13. Hydraulic Accumulators

13.1 Introduction

Accumulators are the devices used in the hydraulic systems which store hydraulic energy in
the form of fluid pressure and then provide this energy back to the system when it is
required in the system. Accumulators store the energy when hydraulic system pressure
exceeds a threshold value and provide hydraulic energy when the system pressure falls
below the threshold value. In many respects it resembles the operation of a capacitor in an
electronic power supply.

13.2 Accumulator Functions

An accumulator usually performs the following functions:

 It provides a reserve of power and supply oil for high transient flow demands

 It provides sufficient power to complete one or more cycles of operation of the

equipment when pump does not work

 It helps to reduce pump ripple

 It acts as a hydraulic shock absorber

 It may be used as a primary power source for small hydraulic systems

Most hydraulic systems use an accumulator to dampen pressure transients in the system.The
pressure transients result from pump ripple, opening/closing of valves, and so on. In some of
the hydraulic systems accumulators are not being utilised, other design considerations are
considered. The selection and design characteristics of accumulators will vary with the
applications of accumulator in the system. A few of selection considerations are:

 The size and mass of unit

 Operating temperature range

 Operation to be performed by the unit

 Quantity of energy to be stored by the system

13.3 Types of Accumulators

Accumulators can be classified as dead-weight type,spring-loaded type and hydro-

pneumatic type. The most commonly used accumulators in the industry are hydro-
pneumatic type. They use a gas for storing oil under pressure. Dry nitrogen is used as the

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gas. Compressed air is not used to avoid air-oil vapour explosion. Following types of hydro-
pneumatic accumulators are used in hydraulic circuits:

 Bladder type accumulator

 Diaphragm bladder type accumulator

 Piston type accumulator

 Metal bellows type accumulator

13.3.1 Bag or Bladder Type Accumulator

A bladder type accumulator consists of a metal shell,usually made of steel, attached to the
fluid pipe or tube through a fluid port. The shell contains a elastomeric bladder in which gas
can be filled through a valve located on the top of shell.A bladder type accumulator is shown
in Fig. 13.1. The bladder is usually charged with nitrogen gas to a nominal pressure when the
pumps are not operating. When the pressure in the pipe exceeds system pressure, oil flows
into the accumulator against the gas pressure. When the bag is fully compressed, the nitrogen
pressure and the hydraulic pressure are equal. As system pressure drops the bag expands,
forcing fluid from the accumulator into the system. As the bag expands, pressure in the bag
decreases. The bag will continue to expand until the bag pressure equals the hydraulic
pressure. The maximum flow rate of the accumulator can be controlled by the opening area
of the orifice and the pressure difference across the opening.The main advantages of this type
of accumulator are fast response and low hysteresis. The bag type of accumulator is the best
choice for pressure pulsation damping and is also reliable in service. Gas accumulators are
generally larger than the other type of accumulators.

13.3.2 Diaphragm Accumulator

A diaphragm accumulator consists of a pressure vessel in two parts usually in the form of
two hemispheres joined together. The two parts are separated by a flexible rubber
diaphragm. A diaphragm type accumulator is shown in Fig. 13.2.This type of accumulator is
similar to bag type of accumulator except the diaphragm which is used to separate the gas
and oil in place of a bag or bladder to store the gas. This reduces the overall volume of the
accumulator. The behaviour characteristics of a diaphragm accumulator are similar toa bag
accumulator.

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13.3.3 Piston Type Accumulator

Fluids are practically incompressible and hence cannot store pressure energy. The
compressibility of nitrogen gas is utilized this type of accumulator. A gas piston accumulator
consists of a cylinder body and a moveable piston. On one side of the piston is nitrogen gas
and on the other side is the hydraulic fluid and connection to the hydraulic system. A piston
type accumulator is shown in Fig. 13.3. The gas section is pre-charged with nitrogen and the
fluid section is connected to the hydraulic circuit so that the piston accumulator draws in
fluid when the pressure in the circuit increases. When the pressure decreases, the compressed
gas expands pushing the piston and stored fluid is displaced into the hydraulic circuit. A gas
piston accumulator will not respond as fast as a bladder accumulator. But a piston
accumulator will have better damping. Piston accumulators will generally provide higher
flow rates than gas accumulators for same accumulator volumes. This is because piston
accumulators can accommodate higher pressure ratios (maximumsystem pressure to
precharge pressure) in the range 10 to 1, as compared with bladderaccumulator ratios of 4 to
1. The disadvantages of piston accumulators are that they have a lower response time than
bladderand will have hysteresis.

13.3.4 Metal Bellow Accumulator

A metal bellows accumulator consists of a pressure vessel with a metal bellows assembly
separating fluid and nitrogen. Metal bellows are made up of Teflon and alloys which offer
better dampening quality. Metal bellows are used where a fast response time is not critical.
This type of accumulator is quite reliable for the hydraulic circuits. The accumulator is
similar to a piston accumulator, except a metal bellows replaces piston and piston seals.
Metal bellows accumulators are slow in responding to pressure changes due to increased
mass of piston and bellows. Metal bellows accumulators are reliable, have long life
components and have proven service history.

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13.4 Gas Accumulator Precharging

The precharge may be expressed as the pressure of the gas in the accumulator without
hydraulic fluid in the fluid side. A gas accumulator is pre-charged with nitrogen gas when
there is no hydraulic fluid in the accumulator to the desired pressure. The gas accumulator
pre-charge is a very important parameter for accumulator performance .

13.5 Accumulator Design Considerations

The design of an accumulator is based on the following factors:

 Accumulator Type: It includes various types of hydraulic accumulators like- bag or

bladder type, diaphragm, piston, and metal bellows type. Each type has advantages
and disadvantages and the specifications will also vary in each type of accumulator.

 Accumulator Volume: Another parameter is accumulator volume or the total volume

of the accumulator which includes both gas and fluid volume.

 Nominal Hydraulic System Pressure: It is the hydraulic system pressure in the

system, which will usually be the no-flow rating of the hydraulic pump

 Minimum Hydraulic System Pressure: This is the minimum pressure that the
accumulator must maintain in the hydraulic system. This parameter helps in
designing of size of the accumulator.

 Precharge Pressure: It is basically the pressure of the nitrogen in an accumulator

without any hydraulic fluid in the accumulator. This pressure indicates the amount of
fluid that an accumulator canhold at the system pressure and the desired minimum
hydraulic system pressure.

 Flow Rate: The required flow rate is the basic requirement which determines the size
of the accumulator. The accumulator volume for hydraulic flow is given bythe product
of flow rate and time required for the flow.
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Flow = Q * t

Where Q = flow rate

T = time required for the flow.

 Output Volume: It is the output volume capacity of the fluid volume of the
accumulator that is capable of providing between the nominal hydraulic system
pressure and the required minimum hydraulic pressure.

 Response Time: It is the time for the accumulator to make available the required fluid
volume.

 Recharge Time: It is the time required to fully charge an accumulator from a fully
drained condition.

 Type of Fluid: Accumulator seals and elastomeric bladder/diaphragm material must

be compatible with the hydraulic fluid used in the system

 Operating Temperature: Accumulator performance should be evaluated over the

expected temperature range of the nitrogen.

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LESSON 14. Pressure Gauges

14.1 Introduction

The behaviour of a fluid can be gauged from measurements of pressure or flow. A flow
transducer has to be fixed in the line in a way that it obstructs the flow of fluid, thereby
changing the local behaviour of fluid. On the other hand, pressure transducers can be added
non-intrusively to the pipe through which fluid is flowing.The pressure gauges are generally
used to monitor the pressure in filter systems, pumps and pipeline systems in the hydraulic
circuit. Pressure gauges are essential in liquid-powered systems to measure pressure to
maintain efficient and safe operating levels. Pressure is generally measured in kg/cm 2, psi
and bar. A typical pressure gauge for a hydraulic system is shown in Fig. 14.1

14.2 Pressure Gauges

Mostly dial type pressure gauges use a bourdon tube-sensing element generally made of a
copper alloy (brass) or stainless steel for measuring pressures. Bourdon tube gauges are
widely used in the hydraulic machines or systems to measure pressure and vacuum. Its
construction is simple but is considered to be rugged and operation does not require any
additional power source. The sensing element is usually a C-shaped tube having oval cross-
section, fig 14.2 and 14.3. One end of the tube is exposed to the system pressure through
suitable connection. The other end is sealed and free to move. This end is connected to the
pointer through mechanical linkages. When pressure is applied to the tube it tends to attain a
circular cross-section. This results in distortions which lead to a movement of the free end.
The elements of a bourdon tube pressure gauge are shown in Fig. 14.2.

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Fig. 14.2: Elements of a Bourdon Pressure Gauge

The movement of the free end of the bourdon tube is converted to circular movement of a
pointer using a sector and pinion arrangement. The restraining force is provided by a hair
spring. As the external surface of the bourdon tube is exposed to atmospheric pressure, the
pointer indicatesgauge pressure. These gauges are generally suitable for most of the fluids. A
photograph of bourdon pressure gauge without the pointer is shown in Fig. 14.3. Note the
almost flattened C-shaped bourdon tube made of copper alloy.

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(Courtesy: http://www.indiamart.com/nationalinstruments/fluid-mechanics.html)

For low pressure ranges, a spiral tube is used to increase the sensitivity.Other configurations
of bourdon tube used are helical and twisted type.

Digital gauges use an electronic pressure sensor to measure the pressure and then transmit it
to digital display readout. Using this method information can be stored for processing.

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LESSON 15. Volume Meters

15.1 Introduction

The working of hydraulic systems depends upon the flow rate and pressure of the oil in
various sections of the circuit. Flow causes motion and increased rate of flow results in higher
velocities of hydraulic cylinders or motors. Measurement of oil flow rate is important for
controlling the speed of actuators in hydraulic systems. Further, higher flow rates may cause
turbulent flow in the system leading to increased energy loss through friction and premature
wear due to cavitation. Thus measurement of flow rate or velocity is of prime importance in
hydraulic systems. In hydraulic systems, which use incompressible oil as the medium,
volumetric flow is used to measure flow rate. A common type of inflow meter used for
measuring volumetric flow rate is shown in Fig. 15.1.

(Courtesy: http://www.alibaba.com/showroom/diesel-oil-volume-meter.html)

Flow measurement may be expressed in units of rate of flow such as Litre Per Minute (LPM)
or cubic meter per second (m3/s) etc. It may also be expressed in terms of total quantity in
litre or cubic meter.

15.2 Volume Meters

There are different types of flow meters depending upon the application. Choice of a flow
meter depends upon the flow quantities, flow rates, and types of liquids involved. Flow
meters must be used only for the purpose for which they were made. Some common
methods used for measuring flow rate are discussed below.

15.2.1 Venturi / Orifice Meters

The traditional method of measuring flow is based upon Bernoulli’s equation which was
discussed in lesson 2. The flow velocity of the fluid in pipe is increased locally by introducing
a restriction as shown in Fig. 15.2.

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(a) (b)
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Fig. 15.2: (a) Venturi Meter (b) Orifice Meter

The obstruction may be in the form of a venturi or an orifice plate. This increases flow
velocity causing a pressure drop, the pressure being minimum where the cross section of the
fluid stream is minimum. The differential pressure across points 1 and 2 is then a measure of
the flow velocity or flow rate.

15.2.2 Variable Area Flowmeter

Variable area flowmeters, also known as rotameters, uses a float in a vertical tube of variable
cross-sectional area as shown in Fig. 15.3

Fig. 15.3: Rotameter

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The obstruction in the path of fluid due to float causes increase in the fluid velocity which
results in a differential pressure drop across the float. Due to this, an upward force acts on
the float. The upward force is a function of the flow rate. The weight of the float acts
downwards. If the upward force due to differential pressure drop is more than the weight,
the float rises above, otherwise the float moves down. When the float moves up, the area
around the float increases. This increase in area decreases pressure drop across the float and
hence the upward force. The float therefore settles at a vertical position where the weight of
the float balances the upward force due to differential pressure. The vertical position of the
float thus gives the flow rate of the fluid.

15.2.3 Turbine Flowmeter

A turbine flowmeter uses a turbine mounted in a pipe to measure the flow rate of the fluid in
the pipe as shown in Fig. 15.4.

Fig. 15.4: Turbine Flow Meter

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The flowing fluid makes the turbine propeller to rotate. The rotational speed of the propeller
is proportional to the flow rate. Blade rotation can be counted by a proximity sensor which
generates electric pulses. Thus turbine flow meter can be used for remote indication of flow
rate.

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MODULE 3.

LESSON 16. Hydraulic Circuits

16.1 Introduction

A hydraulic control system is used to control position / speed of a load and provide
necessary force for doing work. This is achieved by designing and building appropriate
hydraulic circuits required for operating some kind of a hydraulic machine or hydraulic
power system. A hydraulic circuit includes various components like reservoir, pump,
actuator, motor, pipes, hoses, clamps, accumulator, valves, intensifier etc. These components
can be arranged in number of ways to get the desired output from the hydraulic circuit.
There may be different types of hydraulic circuits as discussed in the following sections.

16.2 Speed Control Circuits

In hydraulic operated machine tools and other mechanical equipment, speed control is
required to enhance the functional versatility of the machine. Speed control required during
different strokes can be done by regulating oil flow to the cylinder. Speed control of a single
load can be done using variable displacement pump. If the speeds of a number of loads are to
controlled independently, the metering of the oil to individual cylinders is done by using
flow control valves. Depending upon the location of flow control valve for metering the oil,
speed control circuits can be classified as meter-in, meter-out and bleed-off circuits.

16.2.1 Meter-in Speed Control

This type of circuit consists of a pressure compensated flow control valve between the pump
and cylinder. This flow-control valve is placed in pressure line that actuates the cylinder to
work. Oilflowing into the work cylinder is metered through the flow-control valve. Since this
metering action involves reducing flow from a pump to the cylinder, the pump must deliver
more fluid than is required to actuate the cylinder at the desired speed. Excess fluid returns
to the tank through a relief valve. To conserve power and avoid undue stress on the pump,
the relief valve pressure is kept little higher than the working pressure. A meter-in circuit is
considered to be better in applications where a load always offers a positive resistance to
flow during a controlled stroke.These circuits are used where slow feed rates are required. A
meter-in speed control is shown in Fig. 16.1.

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16.2.2 Meter-out Speed Control

In this type of circuit, a flow-control valve is installed on the return side of a cylinder so that
it controls the cylinder actuation speed by metering its discharge flow. A relief valve is kept a
little above the operating pressure which is required by the type of application. These types
of circuit are best suited where work resistance is negative such as climb milling. These
circuits may also be used for overhauling load applications in which a workload tends to pull
an operating piston faster than pump delivery,like in drilling, reaming, boring, turning
machines. A flow-control-and-check valve used in this circuit would allow reverse free flow.
A meter out speed control circuit is shown in Fig. 16.2.

16.2.3 Bleed Off Speed Control

In this type of circuit flow control valve is not directly provided in the feed line but is
connected to the pressure side as shown in Fig. 16.3. The flow control valve regulates flow to
a cylinder by diverting a portion of a pump flow to the tank. This type of circuit usually
involves less heat generation because pressure on a pump equals the work resistance during
a feed operation. This type of circuit is used for constant load applications.

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16.3 Pressure Compensated Circuit

Flow rate through flow control valves can vary if either the fluid pressure or the temperature
changes. In some cases where precise control of actuator speed is needed, a true flow control
valve is required which delivers a fixed flow regardless of the line pressure or fluid
temperature. For such cases, a compensated flow-control valve is used. This valve
automatically changes the adjustment or pressure drop. A compensated flow-control valve is
used mainly to meter fluid flowing into a circuit. A pressure compensated valve is shown in
Fig. 16.4. A piston is subjected to pressure on the two sides of the orifice meant for flow
control. The orifice setting is done with the help of adjustable screw. The net force on the
piston balances the spring force set as per flow requirement. If the line pressure changes, the
piston moves to the left or right thereby modulating the area of the variable orifice. This
piston thus helps in maintaining a constant pressure drop across the flow control valve
orifice, which implies a constant flow through the valve.

16.4 Pressure Reducing Circuit

This type of circuit is normally utilized where two branches of a circuits are working at
different pressures. In this one of the cylinder receives the pressure fluid from direction
control valve in forward stroke where as other cylinder receives pump pressure through
pressure reducing valve. The pressure of first cylinder will depend upon the relief valve
setting. The pressure in the second cylinder can be adjusted by pressure reducing valve. A
pressure reducing valve is shown in Fig. 16.5.

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A spring loaded spool senses the outlet pressure. If the force on the spool is more than the
spring force, the spool moves towards right, thereby reducing the oil flow to the output
side.Flow through the small bleed hole in the spool to the spring chamber and drain prevents
the valve from closing completely.

16.5 Sequencing Circuit

Cylinders may be sequenced by restricting flow to one cylinder. This type of circuit is used
where there are two cylinders and are to be operated in sequence. One method of restricting
flow is with backpressure check valves. They prevent flow until a set pressure is reached. In
this circuit, cylinder one extends and retracts ahead of cylinder two. This circuit is mainly
comprised of a sequence valve which allows the flow into cylinder one (1) and then to the
cylinder two (2) as shown in Fig. 16.6.

16.6 Intensifier

A hydraulic intensifier or booster is a device that converts low pressure from a large area of
the intensifier into high pressure in a small area of the intensifier. An intensifier consists of
two different-sized cylinders connected by a common piston.The force exerted on the smaller
side is the same as that on larger side, but the pressure exerted on the smaller cylinder get
intensified due to different sizes of pistons. An air-oil intensifier is shown in Fig. 16.7.
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The large-area air piston pushes a small-area hydraulic ram against trapped oil. The
difference between the two areas gives high-pressure capability at the small ram. This
capability is indicated by the area ratio. If the air piston has a 5-in. diameter and the oil piston
has a 1-in. diameter, the area ratio is 25:1. With this area ratio, 80 psi acting on the air piston
produces 2000 psi at the hydraulic piston.

16.7 Reciprocating Circuit

The back-and-forth extension and retraction of a hydraulic cylinder is called reciprocation of

a piston in the cylinder. This type of circuit can be utilized in number of machines, like
shaper machine, punch press etc. In the punch press there is a single hydraulic cylinder that
extends and retracts and the required work is done with the help of single cycle cylinder
reciprocation.

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LESSON 17. Hydraulic Circuit Fittings and Connectors

17.1 Introduction

A hydraulic system includes various components like reservoir, pump, actuator, motor,
accumulator, valves, intensifier etc. These components are connected with each other in
different configurations to form different tasks. The connections are made with the help of
fittings and connectors. Thus fittings and connectors are of great importance for the
functioning of hydraulic system components. There are different types ofconnectors
available, which dependon the type of circulatory system (pipe, tubing, or flexible hose),
fluid medium, operating pressure of a system etc. Some of thecommonly used fittings and
connectors arediscussed as under.

17.2 Threaded Connectors

Thesetype of connectors are generally used in low-pressure hydraulic systems. These are
normally made of steel, copper, or brass, with varying designs. The connectors are made with
standard female threading cut onthe inside surface. The end of the pipe is threaded with
outside (male) threads for connecting.Standard pipe threads are tapered slightlyto ensure
tight connections. A straight threaded connector is shown in Fig. 17.1. O-ring seal is provided
for leak proof connection.

Fig. 17.1: A Threaded Connector

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17.3 Flared Connectors

Flared connectors provide safe, strong and dependable connections and this method does not
require any thread, weld, or solder in the tubing. A connector consists of a fitting, a sleeve,
and a nut. Fittings are made of steel, aluminum alloy, or bronze. The fittings should be of a
material that is similar to that of a sleeve, nut, and tubing. Tubing used with flared
connectors must be flared before being assembled. A tube with flared end is shown in Fig.
17.2 (a). A nut fits over a sleeve and, when tightened, draws the sleeve and tubing flare
tightly against a male fitting to form a seal as shown in Fig. 17.2 (b). A male fitting has a cone-
shaped surface with the same angle as theinside of a flare. The tubes are normally flared at
37° from the centreline. In some of the applications this angle may also be 45°.Thesetype of
fittings are comparatively less expensive. Flared connectors will have leak if the flare is
distorted, split and eccentric or if the sleeve is damaged.

(a) (b)

Fig. 17.2: (a) A Tube with Flared End (b) A Flared Joint

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17.4 Flexible Hose Couplings

Flexible pipes are generally used to prevent vibration transmission or to allow relative
movement between the ends. Hydraulic pumps are usually connected to the system with a
flexible hose to prevent transmission of vibrations. The flexible tubes are made up of nylon or
polyurethane but rubber tubes may also be utilized. Flexible hosing consists of several
concentric layers. The material of the inner tubing is compatible with the hydraulic oil and its
operating temperature. One or more braided reinforcing layers cover the inner tubing. The
outer layer is provided to resist abrasion and protect inner layers from physical damage.
Flexible hose coupling fittings are an integral part of hose assembly. A flexible hose with
integral fittings is shown in Fig. 17.3.

17.5 Reusable Fittings

Reusable couplings are attached to a hose using a ferrule. A ferrule is a collar which is
screwed on to the hose cover. The stem is wedged into the tube of the hose using threads on
the ferrule. The compression of the hose between the stem and the ferrule holds the coupling
on the hose. A reusable coupling with sectioned view of the ferrule is shown in Fig.
17.4.Permanent couplings are attached to the hose using a crimping tool. As the coupling is
crimped inward, serrations on the ferrule pierce the hose cover.

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17.6 Bite Ring Type Compression Fittings

Sometimes thickness of the tube is more and it becomes difficult to flare it. In such situations
flare less fittings are used. Bite ring compression fittings consist of a bite ring or a ferrule
having sharp leading edge which is pressed against the tube tightening the nut as shown in
Fig. 17.5. The wedging action of the bite ring makes a seal between the tube and connector
body.

Fig. 17.5: Bite Ring Compression Fitting

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17.7 Leakage

Hydraulic system may havesome amount of leakage, which reducesefficiency of the system
and results in power loss.Leakageis not always due to faults, sometimes leakage is
introduced deliberately in a planned manner. The leakage may be internal, external, or both.

17.7.1 Internal Leakage

This type of leakage is generally provided or built-in into hydraulic componentsto lubricate
various components likevalves, shafts, pistons, journals,pumping mechanisms, and similar
other movingparts. Internal planned leakage is provided through small orifices or pathways
that allow a fluid from a higher pressurized zone of a system to travel into a lower
pressurized zone to lubricate, clean and cool a specific component or area. Hydraulic oilis not
lost in internal leakages but it returns to a reservoir through return lines.

17.7.2 External Leakage

The most common cause of external leaks is faulty joints.Leakage from components is usually
due to damaged seals and packings. External leakage can be harmful and expensive.
Faultyinstallation and poor maintenance are the main reasonsof external leakage. Therefore,
the components of the hydraulic system must be assembled and installedcorrectly so that
there are fewer chances of leakages.

17.7.3 Prevention

External leaks are generally identified by oil spray from system or pool of oil under the
system. Excessive internal leaks are detected by observing the temperature or by ultrasonic
detection techniques. Oil leakages in hydraulic systems can be prevented by observing the
following guidelines:

 Installation of pipes and tubing as per the recommendations of the manufacturer.

 Operating the hydraulic system at correct operating conditions.

 Regular preventive maintenance of the system.

 Never use additives without approval of the manufacturer.

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17.8 Seals

Seals are packing materials used to prevent leaks in liquid-powered systems.Leakage is

hydraulic systems is a common occurrence which must be prevented for efficient working of
the system. Seals are used in both static and dynamic portions of hydraulic components to
prevent leakage. A seal may be in the form of gasket, packing, seal ring, or other type
designed specifically for sealing. Sealing ensures the hydraulic oil keep flowing in the lines or
passages at desired pressure. Static seals are used when no relative movement occurs
between the mating parts. Dynamic seals are used between the surfaces of hydraulic parts
where movement occurs and they control both leakage and lubrication. Seals are usually
classifies by the geometric shape or configuration as shown in Fig. 17.6.

Fig. 17.6: Common Seals

17.8.1 Seal Material

Both metallic and non-metallic materials are used for fabrication of seals used in hydraulic
systems. Material hardness is an important characteristic for specific applications. Dynamic
seals need to be softer as it helps in better sealing action through compression. Common seal
materials are leather, elastomers, nitrile, silicone, neoprene.

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LESSON 18. Pumps and pump classification

18.1 Introduction

Hydraulic pumps are the devices which converts the mechanical energy into hydraulic
energy. Mechanical rotations are provided to the pump with the help of an electric motor ,
which creates a partial vacuum in the inlet of the pump and allows the fluid into the pump
through inlet pipe . The entered fluid is being pushed by the pump into the various
components of hydraulic system or machine.

There is a misconnect that a pump generates pressure, it only make the flow of fluid.
Pressure occurs when the flow from the pump is subjected to a resistance. The mechanical
action of the pump creates a vacuum at the inlet port, which allows atmospheric pressure to
force liquid from the reservoir into the pump. The mechanical rotations of the pump then
forces the liquid into the hydraulic system or hydraulic equipment.

18.2 Pump Classification

Classification

Pumps can be broadly classified into two categories-

 Positive Displacement Pumps

 Non Positive Displacement Pumps

18.2.1 Positive Displacement Pumps

Normally the hydraulic pumps used in the hydraulic systems are positive displacement
pumps. A positive displacement pump has an extremely close fit between the pumping
element and the pump housing, which results in very low or negligible slippage. A positive
displacement pump causes a fluid to move by trapping a fixed amount of it and then forcing
the trapped volume of fluid into the discharge pipe. This type of pumps work using an
expanding cavity on the suction side and a decreasing cavity on the discharge side. Fluid
flows into the pump as the cavity on the suction side expands and the liquid flows out of the
discharge as the cavity vanishes. In the positive displacement pump the flow enters and
leaves the pump at same velocity and no change in the kinetic energy takes place.

Advantages

This type of pump will have the following advantages –

 It can produce high pressure

 These are having wide application in the hydraulic systems

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 The volumetric efficiency is comparatively more

 This will have less change of efficiency through out the pressure range

 Size of pump is small

18.2.1.1 Positive displacement types

A positive displacement pump can be further classified depending upon the mechanism
used -

 Rotary pump
Rotary type of pumps are most commonly utilized in the hydraulic systems when low to
medium pressures are there. These may be of various types like - gear type, screw type, vane
type etc. It works on the principle that a rotating gear, screw, or vane traps the liquid at bthe
suction side of the pump and forces it to the discharge side of the pump. This type of pump is
generally self type priming because it has the capability to remove the air from the suction
side of pump. This type of pumps are having close clearance between the rotary element and
the housing and hence rotated at low speeds to have reliable operation.

 Reciprocating Pump
This type of pumps are normally consisted of piston, cylinder, crank with connecting rod
delivery and suction pipe, etc. Operation of reciprocating motion is done by the power source
ytglike electric motor or an engine, etc.

18.2.2 Non positive displacement

Non-positive displacement pumps are those in which fluid is transferred with the help of
inertia of fluid in motion . These pumps include centrifugal pump, propeller pump etc. These
are normally used in low pressure and high volume systems. With this pump, the volume of
liquid delivered for each cycle depends on the resistance offered to flow. This type of pump
costs less as the it has fewer moving parts. It has the following advantages-

Advantages

 Its initial cost is low

 Simple in design

 Maintenance cost is low

 Reliability is more

 Operation is comparatively quiet

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LESSON 19. Pumps working and Performance

19.1 Introduction

Mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic energy with the help of pumps. Rotations are
provided to the pump with the help of an electric motor , which creates a partial vacuum in
the inlet of the pump and allows the fluid into the pump through inlet pipe . The fluid so
entered is being pushed by the pump into the various components of hydraulic system or
machine. There is a misconnect that a pump generates pressure, it only make the flow of
fluid. Pressure occurs when the flow from the pump is subjected to a resistance and it forces
the liquid into the hydraulic system or hydraulic equipment.

19.2 Positive Displacement Pumps

Generally positive displacement pump has an extremely close fit between the pumping
element and the pump housing, which results in very low or negligible slippage. In the
positive displacement pump the flow enters and leaves the pump at same velocity and no
change in the kinetic energy takes place. A positive displacement pump causes a fluid to
move by trapping a fixed amount of it and then forcing the trapped volume of fluid into the
discharge pipe.

19.2.1 Positive displacement types

A positive displacement pump can be further classified depending upon the mechanism
used -

 Rotary pump
Rotary pump may be of various types like - gear type, screw type, vane type etc. It works on
the principle that a rotating gear, screw, or vane traps the liquid at both suction side of the
pump and forces it to the discharge side of the pump. In this type of pump generally
priming is not required .This type of pumps are having close clearance between the rotary
element and the housing and hence rotated at low speeds.

Gear Pump

The basic gear pump consists of two meshed gears , a housing to house the gears. One of the
gear is connected to the drive shaft and other is driven as it is meshed with driver gear. .This
type of pumps are capable of developing a very high pressure and it delivers a fixed quantity
of fluid per revolution of pump shaft. These are simple in design and compact in size and
used in moving equipment etc. There may be the following types of gear pumps-

 Spur gear pump

 Internal gear pump

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 Screw pump

 Lobe pump

Spur Gear Pump

It consists of a driving gear and a driven gear enclosed in a closely fitted housing. Both the
gears move in opposite directions and mesh at a point in the housing between the inlet and
outlet ports. Both sets of teeth project outward from the center of the gears. As the teeth of
the two gears separate, a partial vacuum forms and draws liquid through an inlet port into
the housing is trapped between the teeth of the two gears and the fluid is discharged
through the housing to the discharge side. The liquid then pushed through the outlet as the
rotating gears develop sufficient pressure.

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The velocity of fluid flowing through the pump can be given as-

Where,

v = velocity

Q = Flow rate

A = Area

Volume of fluid can be calculated as-

Let V = volume of fluid

D1 = outer diameter of gear teeth

D2 = inner diameter of gear teeth

N = speed of pump (rpm)

w = gear teeth width

Performance of Pump

Internal Gear Pump

Internal gear pumps used in hydraulic systems are versatile, efficient and produces less
noise. It is consisted of internal gear, outside ring gear set offcenter. There is a stationary
spacer between the two gears around which oil is carried. Liquid enters the suction port
between the large exterior gear and the small interior gear teeth. Liquid travels through the
pump between the teeth of the gear-within-a-gear principle. The spacer divides the liquid
and acts as a seal between the suction and discharge ports. The large exterior gear and the

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small interior gear teeth mesh completely to form a sort of seal and forces the liquid out of
the discharge port.

In the internal gear pump the internal gear is coupled with the drive shaft and the external
gear is rotated or vise versa. It is a positive displacement pump and used for low pressure
system to high pressure systems.

Screw Pump

This type of pumps are a little complicated type of rotary pumps as compared to other types.
It is having two or three screws with opposing thread and in this type one screw turns
clockwise, and the other anticlockwise. The screws are each mounted on shafts which moves
parallel to each other. These shafts also have gears on them that mesh with each other in
order to turn the shafts together and keep everything in place. The rotation of the screws, and
subsequently the shafts to which they are mounted, draws the fluid through the pump. The
clearance between moving parts and the pump housing is kept quite less.

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Lobe Pump

Lobe pumps are rotary type of pumps which are positive displacement pump. A positive
displacement pump operates by trapping a fixed amount of fluid from tank or inlet pipe and
then forced the trapped volume into a delivery pipe. In this two lobes are used to rotate one
against the other, creating two chambers between the lobes and the of pump housing. One of
the lobe is driven by the power source where as other is rotated by the timing gear. As the
lobes un-mesh on the intake side, they create a cavity with an expanding volume. And hence
, the fluid is trapped between the lobes and the housing of pump and moved from suction
side to the delivery side. The capacity of material being pumped can be changed by varying
speed of the pump.

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Vane pump

The rotary vane pump is consisted of rotor and stator. The stator is the stationary enclosure
in which the rotor rotates. The rotor is mounted with eccentric and therefore the rotor makes
contact with the stator at the top of the stator between the inlet and the outlet. This point is
called the contact point and is actually in close contact separated only by a thin film of oil.
The sliding vanes move in and out of the rotor, making contact with the stator surface. The
vanes can be spring-loaded or slide by centrifugal force. These are high volume pumps which
can pump at higher pressures .When the rotor rotates within the stator , at the inlet of the
pump one of the vanes and the contact point create a large volume which is initially void of
molecules. This allows the fluid to to enter the pump. As it enters inside the pump, the fluid
is trapped between the rotor vanes and the stator during rotation, it is pushed out through
the outlet of the pump..

Reciprocating Pump

This type of pumps are normally consisted of piston, cylinder, crank with connecting rod
delivery and suction pipe, etc. Operation of reciprocating motion is done by the power source
ytglike electric motor or an engine, etc. Power source gives rotations to the crank through the
connecting rod which is subsequently converted into reciprocating motion of piston in the
cylinder. When crank moves from inner dead centre to outer dead centre vacuum will create
in the cylinder. When piston moves outer dead centre to inner dead centre and piston force
the fluid at outlet or delivery value. The reciprocating type pump may be of axial piston
pump or radial piston type pump.

Axial Piston pump

An axial piston pump is that type of pump, which uses the contact between the a swash plate
and rotating piston to convert rotary motion of shaft to linear motion of pistons. Axial piston
pumps may be an in-line or angle type. Efficiency of this pumps is high, and pumps
generally have better durability. In an in-line piston pump , a drive shaft and cylinder block
are on the same centerline. Reciprocation of the pistons is accomplished by a swash plate . In
the axial piston pump the pistons reciprocate parallel to the drive shaft. Generally the pistons
are fitted around a cylinder block which turns also. Displacement in this type of piston
pump is found by the size and number of pistons as well as the length of stroke. This
variabledisplacement piston pump changes the length of the stroke continuously to match

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the changing flow requirements of the hydraulic system. Each piston is fitted with a ball joint
shoe and each shoe has a flange. As the swash plate is rotated, the pistons will be forced into
and out of the their respective bores as the cylinder block rotates. When the swash plate is not
rotated, the pistons remain stationary in their bores as the cylinder block is turned and no oil
is pumped.

Radial Piston Pump

Radial piston pumps are compact and reliable. These are capable of builting high pressure,
high volume and high speed. It is having a number of closely fitted parts and therefore wear
is also considered to be more. In this type of pump , the pistons are arranged like wheel

spokes in a short cylindrical block. There are many types of designs of radial piston pump .
In this type of pump the pistons are arranged radially around an eccentric cam . The cam is a
part of the main shaft. As the shaft rotates the pistons are reciprocated in the cylinders which
are oriented radially . As the piston moves inwards the suction is caused and the space in the
cylinder is filled with the fluid . When the piston moves outwards the fluid filled inside the
cylinder forced outside the cylinder to the delivery side.

fig.

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LESSON 20. Design of Gear Pump

20.1 Introduction

Most of the hydraulic systems are generally provided with positive displacement pumps. In
these pumps there is hardly any slippage and the quantity of fluid pumped is nearly same for
each rotation of shaft. Specially piston pumps exhibit this quality. The piston sucks and
pushes the same quantity (volume) of fluid every rotation of shaft.

20.2 Design of Gear Pump

Therefore,

Q = VxN

Where, Q = Flow rate

V = Displacement

N = speed

In actual practice there may be some leakages because of mating components are not perfect
fits and therefore, the leakage occur in valves or pistons. The leakage will be more with the
increase in pressure , as in fig . .

20.3 Volumetric Efficiency

The volumetric efficiency may be defined as the ratio of actual flow rate to the theoretical
flow rate

Let

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Qa = actual flow rate

Qt = theoretical flow rate

\[\eta \]vol = volumetric efficiency

\[\eta \]vol = \[\frac{{{\text{Qa}}}}{{{\text{Qt}}}}\] x 100

The piston pump is the most suitable example of positive displacement pump but other
pumps like gear pump, lobe pump, screw pump and vane pump also come under the same
category and calculations can be made accordingly.

20.4 Power of the Pump Shaft

It can be defined as the mechanical power transmitted to the pump shaft by the shaft of
power source. It is basically product of torque and speed of the shaft. Hence it can be given as
–

Ps = ωxt

Ps = shaft power

ω = angular speed

t = torque

The angular speed of the shaft isfined as the in radians per second and torque transmitted is
in Nm. Now if the torque is transmitted in Nm and speed in revolution per second (rpm) the
the equation can be deduced as below-

20.5 Fluid Power Calculations

It can be defined as the energy per second by the fluid in the form of pressure and the
quantity of fluid. It is product of fluid quantity (flow rate) and the differential pressure.
Hence

Pf = Q x Dp

Where Pf = Fluid power

Q = flow rate , m3/s

Δp = differential pressure, N/m2

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20.6 Overall Efficiency

It can be defined as the ratio of fluid power to the shft power or in other words ratio of
output power to the input power. The input power is greater than the ouput power due to
leakages in the sysem and friction between the moving parts. Hence overall efficiency can be
given as-

Example 1

A pump delivers 10x10-3 m3 /min with a pressure rise of 680 N/m2 .The shaft speed of
1400rpm and the nominal displacement is 8.2 cm3/rev. The applied torque is 12 Nm.
Determine the followings-

a) Shaft power

b) Volumetric efficiency

c) Overall efficiency

Soln.

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Example 2

The pump is operating at a speed of 410 rpm and the pressure difference over the hydraulic
pump is 82 bar. The nominal displacement is 5.2 cm3/rev. The overall efficiency is 83% and
the volumetric efficiency

Is 91% calculate the followings-

a) Theoretical flow rate

b) Actual flow rate

c) Fluid power

d) Shaft power

e) Torque transmitted

Soln.

Given
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N = 410 rpm

= 410/60 rps

= 6.83 rps

Theoretical flow rate Qt = Nominal displacement x speed

= 5.2 x 6.83

= 35.51 cm3/s

= 35.51x10-6m3/s

Volumetric efficiency \[\eta \]vol = \[\frac{{{\text{Qa}}}}{{{\text{Qt}}}}\] x 100

Qa = Qt x\[\eta \]vol /100

= 35.51x10-6x91/100

= 32.3 x 10-6 m3/s

Now fluid power Pf = Qa x Δp

Qa = 32.3 x 10-6 m3/s

Δp = 82 N/m2

= 82x105N/m2

Pf = 32.3x10-6x82 x105 watts

= 264.86 watts

Shaft power Ps = \[\frac{{2\pi N}}{{60}}\]

Overall efficiency \[\eta \]ova = \[\frac{{{\text{Pf}}}}{{{\text{Ps}}}}x100\]

Ps = Pf x 100/hova

= 264.86 x 100/83

= 319.1 watts

Ps = \[\frac{{2\pi x410x}}{{60}}\]

t = 319.1x60/ \[2\pi x410\] Nm

= 7.43 Nm
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LESSON 21. Design of Reciprocating type of Pump

21.1 Introduction

Hydraulic systems are generally provided with positive displacement pumps. The piston
sucks and pushes the same quantity (volume) of fluid every rotation of shaft .In these pumps
there is hardly any slippage and the quantity of fluid pumped is nearly same for each
rotation of shaft. Specially piston pumps exhibit this quality..

21.2 Design of Reciprocating type of Pump

In the reciprocating pump as the crank rotates the reciprocating motion transmit a liquid
from a pump inlet to its outlet. When a piston moves to the, a partial vacuum is created
which draws a liquid through an inlet valve into a cylinder. When a piston moves other way
an inlet valve is closed and the fluid is forced out of a cylinder through an outlet valve.

Let us consider single acting reciprocating pump

Let D = diameter of cylinder

A = crosectional area

L = length of stroke

R = radius of crank

N = speed of crank

Qth = theoretical discharge

Qth = Ax LxN discharge per min

= Ax LxN/ 60 discharge per second

The ratio of actual discharge (Qac) to the theoretical discharge (Qth )is called discharge
coefficient (cd). But when discharge coefficient is expressed in percentage it is called as
volumetric efficiency.

cd = \[\frac{{{\text{Qac}}}}{{{\text{Qth}}}}\]

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Slip

It can be defined as the difference between the theoretical discharge and the actual discharge.
If S' is the slip,

then

S' = (Qth - Qac)

Percentage slip can be given as-

S = [ 1 - \[\frac{{{\text{Qac}}}}{{{\text{Qth}}}}\] ] x 100

Work done and Power Requirement of Reciprocating Pump

It can be defined as the product of of weight fluid lifted and the total height through which it
has been lifted .

Let W = work done / s

w = weight of fluid lifted

H = Total height of fluid lifted

Q = discharge of pump

W = wxQxH

H = (hs + hd)

hs = suction head

hd = delivery head

Example

A reciprocating pump is having diameter of piston 260 mm with stroke length of 510 mm
operating at a speed of 32 rpm delivers 0.0125 m3/ s of fluid.Calculate the followings-

a) Theoretical discharge of pump

b) Coefficient of discharge

c) Slip

d) Percentage slip

Soln

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Given

diameter of piston D = 260 mm = 0.26 m

stroke length of L = 510 mm =0.51 m

actual discharge Qac = 0.0125 m3/ s

Speed of pump N = 32 rpm

Qth = Ax LxN/ 60

A = \[\frac{{\pi {D^2}}}{4}\]

= \[\frac{{\pi {{\left( {0.26} \right)}^2}}}{4}\]

= 0.053 m2

Now Qth = 0.053x 0.51x32 / 60

= 0.0144 m3/ s

Coefficient of discharge cd = \[\frac{{{\text{Qac}}}}{{{\text{Qth}}}}\]

= \[\frac{{0.0125}}{{0.0144}}\]

= 0.868

= 86.8%

Slip S' = (Qth - Qac)

= (().0144 – 0.0125)

= 0.0019 m3/ s

Slip % S = [ 1 - \[\frac{{{\text{Qac}}}}{{{\text{Qth}}}}\] ] x 100

= [ 1 - \[\frac{{0.0125}}{{0.0144}}\] ] x 100

= 13.1 %

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LESSON 22. Design of Vane Pump

22.1 Introduction

Vane pumps are the rotary type of pump which are fitted in the hydraulic systems. In these
pumps there is hardly any slippage and the quantity of fluid pumped is nearly same for each
rotation of shaft. These are generally positive displacement pumps

22.2 Design of Gear Pump

Gear pump consists of a driving gear and a driven gear enclosed in a closely fitted housing.
The gears rotate in opposite directions . Both sets of teeth project outward from the center of
the gears. As the teeth of the two gears separate, a partial vacuum forms and draws liquid
through an inlet port . Liquid is trapped between the teeth of the two gears and the housing
so that it is carried and a force is developed which drives a liquid through an outlet port.
Volume of fluid can be calculated as-

Volume of fluid

Let V = volume of fluid

D1 = outer diameter of gear teeth

D2 = inner diameter of gear teeth

N = speed of pump (rpm)

w = gear teeth width

Therefore volume displaced in one revolution V = \[\frac{\pi }{4}(D{1^2} -

{\text{}}D{2^{2{\text{}}}})\] x w

Discharge of pump

Discharge per sec . Q = VxN

Efficiency

Efficiency \[\eta\] = \[\frac{{Qa}}{{Qt}}x100\]

Qa = actual discharge

Qt = theoretical discharge

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22.3 Vane Pump Design Calculations

The rotary vane pump is consisted of rotor and stator. The stator is the stationary enclosure
in which the rotor rotates. The rotor is mounted with eccentric and therefore the rotor makes
contact with the stator at the top of the stator between the inlet and the outlet. This point is
called the contact point and is actually in close contact separated only by a thin film of oil.
The sliding vanes move in and out of the rotor, making contact with the stator surface. The
vanes can be spring-loaded or slide by centrifugal force. These are high volume pumps which
can pump at higher pressures .When the rotor rotates within the stator , at the inlet of the
pump one of the ffallows the fluid to to enter the pump. As it enters inside the pump, the
fluid is trapped between the rotor vanes and the stator during rotation, it is pushed out
through the outlet of the pump.

22.4 Volumetric Displacement

It can be defined as the product of area and width of rotar. It can be given as-

Let Dc = diameter of cam ring/stator

Dr = diameter of rotor

e = eccentricity

N = speed (rpm)

w = width of rotor

Maximum eccentricity can be given as

emax = \[\frac{{{\text{Dc}} - {\text{Dr}}}}{2}\]

Now volumetric displacement will be- \[A = \pi {r^2}\]

Vd = \[\frac{\pi }{4}(D{c^2} - D{r^2})\] x w

= \[\frac{\pi }{4}(Dc - Dr)\] (Dc + Dr ) x w

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= \[\frac{\pi }{4}(Dc + D{r^2})\] x 2emax x w

= \[\frac{\pi }{4}(Dc + D{r^2})\] x emax x w

22.5 Cavitation

Pump cavitation is the formation and subsequent collapse of vapor bubbles in a pump. It
occurs when the absolute pressure on the liquid falls below the liquid vapor pressure. When
the vapor bubbles collapse with high frequency, it sounds like marbles are moving through
the pump. It causes wear and tear and damage to the pump.

22.6 Aeration

Aeration is the presence of air in the hydraulic fluid . It causes the fluid to appear milky and
components are to operating erratically. It is because of the compressibility of trapped air in
the fluid.

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MODULE 4.

LESSON 23. Hydraulic actuators and cylinders

Introduction

Hydraulic actuator are the devices which receives pressure energy and converts it to
mechanical output in the form of force and motion. An actuator can be linear or rotary. A
linear actuator gives force and motion outputs in a straight line. It is commonly known as a
cylinder but is also referred to as a ram or linear motor. A rotary actuator produces torque
and rotating motion. It is called a hydraulic motor or simply motor.

In the hydraulic systems pump is utilized to make the flow of the fluid and valves are
utilized to the flow of fluid , pressure in the circuit or direction of flow. Whereas, the actual
purpose is achieved with the help of actuators. The actuators are converting the hydraulic
fluid energy into useful work or mechanical output. There are two basic types of hydraulic
cylinders-

 single-acting cylinder and

 double-acting cylinder

Single Acting cylinder

This type of cylinder is consists of a tube, sealed at both the ends and a piston along with
piston rod which moves in the cylinder linearly in the tube. The fluid leakjage if any out of
the cylinder is controlled by seals. When oil is pumped into the cylinder, it pushes the piston
and the extend of piston takes place. To return or retract a cylinder, oil must be braught back
to the reservoir.

In the single acting cylinder a piston returns either because of the weight of a load or from
some mechanical force like a spring.

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Double Acting Cylinder

The double acting cylinder can hydraulically actuated or moved in both the directions with
the help of fluid which is not in the single cylinder cylinders. As the oil is pumped into the
head end of the piston it moves the piston to extend. The oil in the rod end is pushed out
and returned to the reservoir. To retract a rod, flow is reversed. Hence oil from a pump goes
into a rod end, and the oil from head end is connected to allow return flow.

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Baics of cylinder actuator

Force

The hydraulic fluid pushes the piston and applies a force over it which can be given as

F = pxA

Where F = force, N

p = pressure, N/m2

A = correctional area, m2

It is assumed here that other side of piston is having negligible pressure.If pressure is acting
on the rod side then it can be given as-

F = p x ( A- a)

a = rod area

Piston Speed

Piston speed is commonly based on the flow rate of fluid, hence at piston side

Q = A x v m3 / s

Q = flow rate, m3 / s

A = crossectional area, m2

v = velocity m/s

Flow rate at rod end Q = (A – a) x v m3 / s

Piston power

It can be defined as the product of force and velocity, which can be given as-

P = Fxv watts

Where F = force, N

v = velocity, m / s

Example :

A single acting cylinder has piston diameter of 70 mm and is having a fluid flow rate of

0.2 x 10 -3m3/s , with applied pressure of 1.5 x 106 N/m2calculate the followings

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a) thrust force

b) velocity

c) power

Soln:

Given D = 70 mm

Q = 0.2 x 10 -3m3/s

p = 1.5 x 106 N/m2

0.07

A = \[\frac{{\pi {D^2}}}{4}\]

= \[\frac{{\pi {{\left( {0.07} \right)}^2}}}{4}\]

= 0.0038 m2

F = pxA

= 1.5 x 106 x 0.0038

= 5772.6 N

= 5.77 kN

Q = A x v m3 / s

0.20 x 10 -3 = 0.0038 x v

v = \[\frac{{0.20{\text{x}}10{\text{}} - 3}}{{0.0038}}\]

= 0.0526 m/s

P = Fxv

= 5772.6 x 0.0526

= 303.8 watts

Example 2 :

In a double acting hydraulic cylinder the push force produced is 12.1 kN with available flow
rate at both the directions of 0.2 x10-3 m3/s . The bore of the cylinder is 98 mm with stroke of
125 mm. and the rod diameter is 40 mm. Calculate the followings-

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a) pressure of the system

b) force required to pull

c) speed in outward stroke

d) Speed in inward stroke

e) power in inward stroke

Soln. :

Given F = 12.1 kN

= 12100 N

Q = 0.2 x10-3 m3/s

D = 98 mm

= 0.098m

A = \[\frac{{\pi {D^2}}}{4}\]

= \[\frac{{\pi {{\left( {0.098} \right)}^2}}}{4}\]

= 0.0075 m2

L = 125 mm

d = 40mm

= 0.04 m

a = \[\frac{{\pi {D^2}}}{4}\]

= \[\frac{{\pi {{\left( {0.04} \right)}^2}}}{4}\]

= 0.0012 m2

Pressure p = F/A

= \[\frac{{12100}}{{0.0075}}\]

= 1.61 x 106 N/m2

Pulling force F = p ( A – a)

= 1.61x106 (0.0075 – 0.0012)

= 10164 N
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speed in outward stroke = Q/A

= \[\frac{{0.2x10 - 3}}{{0.0075}}\]

= 0.0266 m/s

speed in outward stroke = Q/ (A – a )

= \[\frac{{0.2x10 - 3}}{{\left( {0.0075 - 0.0012} \right)}}\]

= 0.031 m/s

Power P = pxQ

= 1.61x106x0.2x10-3

= 322 N

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LESSON 24. Construction Application Maintenance of Linear Actuators

Introduction

Linear actuator are the devices which receives pressure energy and converts it to mechanical
output in the form of force and motion. A linear actuator gives force and motion outputs in a
straight line. It is commonly known as a cylinder but is also referred to as a ram or linear
motor. In the hydraulic systems, pump is utilized to make the flow of the fluid and valves
are utilized to the flow of fluid , pressure in the circuit or direction of flow. Whereas, the
actual purpose is achieved with the help of actuators. The actuators are converting the
hydraulic fluid energy into useful work or mechanical output. This may be single-acting
cylinder or double-acting cylinder.

Construction

The cylinder are generally constructed of cold drawn steel barrel or tube. The piston and
rod are chrome plated and polished. Two end caps, and suitable oil seals are used to prevent
leakages. A barrel is usually seamless steel tubing,or cast, and the interior is kept highly
finished and very smooth. A steel piston rod is highly polished and usually hard chrome-
plated to resist scoring. .

The end caps are screwed on to the tube, welded, attached by tie bolts or bolted flanges. If
the cylinder barrel is cast, the head-end cap may be integral with it. Seals are provided in the
rod end cap to keep the rod clean and to prevent

Application

Hydraulic systems have many requirements and therefore actuating cylinders are available
in different shapes and sizes. A cylinder type actuator is versatile and may be the most
trouble-free component of a hydraulic systems. A cylinder and a mechanical member of a
unit to be actuated is required to be aligned properly. Any misalignment will cause excessive
wear of a piston, a piston rod, and the seals etc.

 Single-acting cylinders are used wherever hydraulic power is required for only one
direction of motion. For example lifting, clamping and lowering work piece, in
hydraulic lifts, lifting platforms and lowering and raising of implement in hydraulic
lift of a tractor.

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Mounting of cylinder

vertical mounting

when the return movement of the piston is brought with the help of external forces like
lifting table

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Lifting table

horizontal mounting

It is done in single-acting cylinders with spring-return. Like in hydraulic presses

Double Acting Cylinder

The movements generated by hydraulic cylinders are used for the followings-

Machine tools

 Feed movements for tools or work piece

 Clamping devices

 Movements on presses

 Movements on printing and injection moulding machines, etc.

Handling devices

 Lifting and lowering in fork-lift etc.

Moving equipment

 Excavators

 Loaders

 Tractors

 Tipper trucks

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Maintenance of Linear Actuators

The linear actuators are the hydraulic cylinders, which are compact and simple in design.
The seals and pivots are important to be considered. The following points are required to be
viewed in maintaining cylinders-

External Leakage :

If a cylinder’s end caps are leaking, tighten them. If the leaks still do not stop, replace the
gasket. If a cylinder leaks around a piston rod, replace the packing.

Internal Leakage :

If the leakage ocure after the piston seals inside a cylinder can cause sluggish movement .
Piston leakage can be caused by worn piston seals or rings. Therefore replace all the seals and
packings.

Creeping Cylinder :

If a cylinder creeps when stopped in midstroke, check for internal leakage

Sluggish Operation :

Some times air comes in a cylinder and cause the sluggish operation. Internal leakage in a
cylinder is another cause. If sluggish operation there, check for oil of too high a viscosity or
check for other, etc.

Loose Mounting :

If pivot points and mounts are loose, the bolts or pins are needed to be tightened.

Periodically check all the cylinders for loose mountings.

Misalignment :

Piston rods are required to work in line . If it is not so, the piston rods may be bent or get
damaged. Hence go for proper alignment

Rotary actuators

Hydraulic actuators are the muscles of many machines. They are produced in varying sizes
from miniature units to massive actuators. A rotary actuator is a device that produces
a rotary motion or torque. The motion developed by an actuator may be either continuous
rotation or an angular rotation..It basically transforms the hydraulic energy into rotary
energy in the form of mechanical rotations which can be applied to the an object with the
help of a shaft. These are also called hydraulic motors.

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MODULE 5.

LESSON 25. Hydraulic motors

Introduction

Hydraulic motors are the devices which receives pressure energy and converts it to
mechanical output in the form of motion or rotation. These are rotary actuators. A rotary
actuator produces torque and rotating motion is called a hydraulic motor or simply motor.
Hydraulic actuators are the muscles of many machines. They are produced in varying sizes
from miniature units to massive actuators. A rotary actuator is a device that produces
a rotary motion or torque. The motion developed by an actuator may be either continuous
rotation or an angular rotation..It basically transforms the hydraulic energy into rotary
energy in the form of mechanical rotations which can be applied to an object with the help of
a shaft.

Hydraulic Motors

A hydraulic motor is a device which converts the flow of a liquid under pressure into
rotational motion. It is similar in construction to a hydraulic pump. Instead of mechanical
parts are moved and fluid is pushed , high-pressure fluid pushes the mechanical parts,
causing them to move. The rotary motors are provided in the hydraulic systems to convert
the fluid power into shaft power by forcing the shaft to rotate .When fluid pushed is at faster
speed , the shaft speed is more and vise versa. Basically there are three types of hydraulic
motors, like- gear, vane and piston.

Gear Motor

The gear motor is consist of two meshed gears in a housing, with inlet and outlet pipes on
opposite sides. Both gears are driven gears, but only one is connected to the output shaft. Its
working is reverse of a gear pump. Fluid at high pressure is injected into the housing, where
it flows , between the gear teeth and the housing wall. Similar to the gear pump gears in gear
motor are closely fitted into the housing. This forces the gears to rotate. The meshing teeth
of gears prevent the fluid from flowing back, and results in continuous rotations. This rotary
motion is then available in the form of rotary work at the output shaft. The direction of
motion can be reversed by changing the direction of fluid through the motor.

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Vane Type motor

This type of motor is a positive displacement motor. Vane motors is having a single rotor
with vanes sticking at the housing wall of motor. The inlet and outlet pipes are located on
opposite sides of the motor. The fluid flow from the pump enters the inlet of the motor and
forces the rotor and vanes to rotate, and passes out through the outlet pipe. As motor rotate
it causes the output shaft to rotate . As the vane is near to inlet pipe, it get rotated due to
fluid and a tight seal is created .The seal is loosening and letting the fluid flow from the
outlet pipe of the housing of the motor. Since the fluid is always pushing against the vanes
tangentially, the rotor is rotated by the fluid pressure.

Piston Motors

This type of motor is a positive displacement motor which can develop torque at shaft with
the help of pressure of the fluid. It may be of following three types

 In line piston

 Axial piston

 Radial piston
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Axial piston

This type of motor consists of a cylinder fitted with a number of pistons. As the fluid is forced
into the cylinder barrel with pressure, the pistons forced outward against an angled plate. By
pushing on the plate at an angle, the pistons rotate the plate and generate torque. Y In this
manner fluid energy is converted into rotary output .

Radial piston

Radial piston motors are best suited for low speed high torque applications, like in winches.
Radial piston motors are designed in in varying capacities ranging from 20 to 10,000 cm 3/rev
at higher pressures like 450x105N/m2 or so. In radial piston motor the pistons are connected
to a shaft with the help of crank . The pump flow into the cylinder forces the piston to
reciprocate and rotate the shaft. In this way a high power and torque is produced.

Points to be considered while choosing a hydraulic motor

 Torque needed

 Working pressure of the hydraulic system

 Speed required

 Size of fly wheel required

 Heat generated if any

Calculations in Motor

Motor Power

It is the output power of motor shaft which can be defined as the product of shaft torque and
speed .

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Ps = \[\frac{{2\pi N}}{{60}}\]

where N = speed (rpm)

\[\tau \] = torque

Fluid Power Calculations

It can be defined as the energy per second by the fluid in the form of pressure and the
quantity of fluid. It is product of fluid quantity (flow rate) and the differential pressure.
Hence

Pf = Q x Δp

Where Pf = Fluid power

Q = flow rate , m3/s

Dp = differential pressure, N/m2

Overall Efficiency

It can be defined as the ratio of output power to the input power or shaft power to the fluid
power, which can be given as-

\[\eta \]ova =

\[\eta \]ova = \[\frac{{{\text{Shaftpower}}}}{{{\text{Fluidpower}}}}x100\]

\[\eta \]ova = \[\frac{{{\text{Ps}}}}{{{\text{Pf}}}}x100\]

Where

\[\eta \]ova = overall efficiency

Pf = Fluid power

Ps = Shaft power

Speed and Flow Rate

The flow rate and speed can be given as-

Flow rate Q = Kq x speed

Where Kq = Nominal displacement of motor, cm3/rev

Torque and Pressure

Let motor be 100% efficient, then the shaft power will be equals to fluid power.
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Therefore,

Shaft power = Fluid power

Ps = Pf

\[\frac{{2\pi N}}{{60}}\] = Q x Dp

\[\tau\] = \[\frac{{{\text{Qxpx}}60}}{{2\pi N}}\]

Volumetric Efficiency

It can be defined as the ratio of theoretical flow rate to the actual flow rate of fluid.

Let

Qa = actual flow rate

Qt = theoretical flow rate

\[\eta \]vol = volumetric efficiency

\[\eta \]vol = \[\frac{{{\text{Qt}}}}{{{\text{Qa}}}}\] x 100

Example

A hydraulic motor is running at a speed of 395 rpm with the differential pressure of
8.2x106 N/m2. The nominal displacement is 5 cm3/rev and the overall efficiency and
volumetric efficiency of 86 and 89% respectively. Calculate the followings-

a) Theoretical flow rate

b) Actual flow rate

c) Fluid power

d) Shaft power

e) Torque of shaft

Soln.

Given N = 395 rpm

Δp = 8.2x106 N/m2

\[\eta \]ova = 86%

\[\eta \]v = 89%

Kq = 5cm3/rev
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= 5x10-6m3/rev

Theoretical flow rate Qt = KqxN

= 5x10-6x395/60

= 3.29x10-5 m3/s

\[\eta \]vol = \[\frac{{{\text{Qt}}}}{{{\text{Qa}}}}\] x 100

\[{\text{Qa}}\] = \[\frac{{{\text{Qt}}}}{{\eta {\text{vol}}}}\] x100

= \[\frac{{3.29{\mathbf{x}}10 - 5}}{{89}}\] x100

= 3.69x10-5 m3/s

Fluid power Pf = Q x Δp

= 3.69x10-5 x 8.2x106

= 303.27 Nm/s

= 303.27 watt

Shaft Power \[\eta \]ova = \[\frac{{{\text{Ps}}}}{{{\text{Pf}}}}x100\]

Ps = \[86x303.27{\text{}}/{\text{}}100\]

= 260.8 watt

Shaft Torque

Ps = \[\frac{{2\pi N}}{{60}}\]

\[\tau \] = \[\frac{{Psx60}}{{2\pi N}}\]

= \[\frac{{260.8x60}}{{2x\pi x395}}\]

= 6.3 Nm

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LESSON 26. Valves pressure control valves, Direction control valves, Flow control valves

Introduction

In the hydraulic systems valves play an important role. These are necessary to control the
pressure, flow rate and the direction of flow in the circuit. These are generally made with
high standards, strong materials and with precision. These valves can be operated manually,
hydraulically, pneumatically or electrically. It can be classified as-

Pressure Control valves

This type of valves are used to control the pressure of hydraulic system or circuit and called
pressure control valves. It includes pressure reducing valve, pressure relief vale etc.

Pressure relief valve

This type of valves are utilized to limit the maximum operating pressure in the circuit. These
are also called safety valves and protects the pump and other components from overloading,
etc. Pressure relief valve is provided in the circuit such that one port is connected to the
pressure line and the other port is connected to the the reservoir. There is a ball which is
held on its seat with the spring force. The spring force can be changed by rotating the
adjusting screw. When the circuit pressure at the valve inlet is less than the spring pressure ,
the ball remains on its seat and the valve is closed and no flow takes place through it. As the
pressure in the circuit exceeds the adjusted spring force, the ball is forced off its seat and the
valve is opened. Now the liquid flows from the pressure line through the valve to the
reservoir. This diversion of flow continue till the. pressure decreases below the valve setting
and hence the spring reseats the ball and the valve is again closed. In this way it prevents
circuit and provide the safety.

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Pressure reducing valve

Pressure reducing valves are used to reduce the output pressure which is part of circuit from
rest of circuit . It generally limits the pressure in a branch circuit at lesser value than the
required in the main circuit. If in a hydraulic system, a branch circuit is required to be
limited to a pressure of 200 N/cm2, but the main circuit is to be operated at a pressure of 600
N/cm2. Therefore, a relief valve in a main circuit will be kept at a pressure setting above
600 N/cm2 to meet the main circuit requirements. Therefore, in the branch circuit a
pressure reducing valve will be provided to keep the pressure at 200 N/cm 2 It is normally a
open valve rather than closed as in relief valve. As the liquid from the main circuit enters the
valve at the inlet port it flows and enters the branch circuit through the outlet port .The fluid
bleeds to the tank through the valve drain passage, pressure will start reducing . This result
in a reduced pressure equal to the setting of the valve.

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Flow Control valves

Flow control valves are those which are used to control the flow rate of the fluid in the circuit
and also called volume control valves, like needle valve, globe valve, gate valve, etc. Flow-
control valves are generally used to control the speed of hydraulic motors or actuators in
work spindles and the travel rates of tool heads, etc. Flow control valves keeps uniform flow
rate in the circuit with the help of pressure compensator. A non pressure, compensated flow
control, like in needle valve etc., there may be changes in the flow rate.

Needle valve

Needle valves are generally designated as non-compensated flow control or throttling valves.
They are good metering devices when the pressure differential across the valve remains
constant. This type of valve is used in the hydraulic system where there is no need of precise
speed control because the flow may vary with pressure difference. A needle valve and globe
valve are similar in design and operation . In this type of valve there is a long, tapered point
at the end of a valve stem which can be raised or lowered to control the flow through it. A
long taper allows a needle valve to open or close gradually. A needle valve is used to control
flow at points where a small flow rate is desired or at other points where precise flow is
required.

Globe Valve

In the globe valve there is a disc, which is attached to the end of the stem which controls flow
of fluid through the valve. The valve is closed by lowering a disc into a valve seat and
opened by raising it off the seat. Since fluid flows equally on all sides when a valve is open,
there is no unbalanced pressure on a disc to cause uneven wear.

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Gate Valve

This type of valves are normally used to allow or prevent the flow of liquids and also used
for regulating the flow of fluid. In this type of valve there is a wedge or sort of gate which
controls the flow. Opening and closing of a passage is done with the help of a hand wheel,
which moves a wedge or gate up and down across a flow line. The gate valve is provided
with good sealing surfaces between the gate and seats. As the valve is opened, the gate
moves up within the bonnet and as it is closed, the gate blocks the flow by coming across
the line where it rests firmly against the seats. The gate valve permits the flow and offers
small or no resistance to the fluid flow when the valve is fully open. But if it is in the
partially open it restrict the flow rate through the circuit.

Direction Control valves

Those valves which are use to give a particular direction to the fluid in the circuit are called
direction Control valves, like spool valve.

Spool valve

Spool valve is a valve which controls the direction of hydraulic fluid flow. It consists of
cylindrical spools which can block and open the channels in the hydraulic system. A spool
valve can change the direction of flow of hydraulic fluid from a hydraulic pump to an
actuator by blocking off the route of the fluid through which it takes place.

Spool valve is consists of a spool which can move in the body of the valve and may have four
or five ports. As in the figure below, a three way spool valve connected to an actuator of
cylinder type. The fluid is applied to the port P of the valve and C of the cylinder, whereas,
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port T of the valve is connected to drain or return to the tank. Port A of the valve is connected
to the B of the cylinder. Now if the spool is moved to right side with the help of lever, the
high pressure fluid flows from port A and B. The moves to right due to pressre of fluid and
displacing the fluid through port C and P.Now if the spool is moved to left, high pressure
fluid comes into the cylinder through port C, and the piston moves to left causing the fluid
into the tank via port B and A and T.

Sequence valve

It is also a sort of direction control valve which gives the sequence of operation in the
hydraulic circuit. It gives entire fluid to one of the circuit until pump delivery exceeds the
requirement

of that particular circuit and then extra fluid is made available to other circuits. This type of
valve is very much of use in the machine tool operation. One of the outlet port is open and
the and is utilized for clamping of work piece. After completing this operation fluid pressure
builts up and forces the spool to move against the spring force and allowing the fluid to flow
through port 2 to actuate main actuator for tooling of work piece.

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LESSON 27. Hydraulic Valve installation, Valve failures and remedies, valve assembly,
Troubleshooting

Introduction

Hydraulic valves are necessarily required to control the pressure, flow rate and the direction
of flow in the circuit. These are generally made with high standards, strong materials and
with precision. In the hydraulic systems valves play an important role. These valves can be
operated manually, hydraulically, pneumatically or electrically.

Valve installation

Hydraulic valve is a device in a hydraulic system or equipment which gives better control of
the fluid flowing through the lines and pumps. There are various types of hydraulic valves
like flow control, pressure control and directional control valves. A flow-control valve meters
the flow in one direction only, and hence the inlet and outlet ports are required to be
connected correctly. The drain connection of valve should be connected to tank to avoid
pressure surges if any. The location of a flow-control valve with respect to workload should
be proper. The basic types of flow-control valve installations are

 Meter-in circuit - In this type of circuit flow control valve is installed in pressure line.

 Meter-out circuit – In a meter-out circuit, a flow-control valve is installed on the

return side of a cylinder to control cylinder actuation by metering its discharge.

 Bleed off circuit – In general bleed-off circuit is not installed directly in a feed line.

Valve failures, remedies and troubleshooting

Hydraulic valves are manufactured with precision and are required to be as accurate as
possible to control pressure of fluid , direction, and flow in the hydraulic system. Valve
failures are normally due to contamination in the hydraulic fluid . Small amounts of dust,
dirt, rust, or sludge may cause improper functioning of valve parts and may lead in leakages
in the valve.

Possible causes their remedies in the valve

Source of trouble Causes Remedies

Clean the valve

a) Valve chatter due to dust or dirt
b) Flow noises during operation
Excessive noise
c) Wrong design
Check for noise
Redesign

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Reset pressure
a) Operating pressure set too low
Inadequate power b) Internal leakages
Remove leakages
c) damaged valve seat
Correct the valve seat

Make more constant flow

a) constant flow is low
Excessive temperature Make proper pressure setting
b) pressure setting too high

a) Valve chatter due to dust or dirt Clean the valve

Jerky motor or cylinder movement b) Non suitable remote control valve
Have suitable valve

valve assembly

The following points are to be considered while assembling of the valves-

 Wash the parts of valve in kerosene

 Blow the air to dry them and then dip in hydraulic oil with rust inhibitor to prevent
rusting.

 Make sure that valve mating surfaces are free of burrs and paint.

 Replace all the seals and gaskets when repairing a valve assembly.

 Soak the new seals and gaskets in clean hydraulic oil before assembling.

 Make sure to assemble a valve sections in their correct order.

 Check for distortion if any while mounting valves.

 Make sure that spool of valve is working properly

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MODULE 6.

Lesson 28 Hydraulic circuit diagrams and troubleshooting

Introduction

Hydraulic systems is consisted of a number of components which work closely together to

get desired performance which may be pressure control, flow control direction control or
miscellaneous functions. A family of graphic symbols has been developed to represent fluid
power components and systems on schematic drawings. Hydraulic-circuit diagrams are
complete drawings of a hydraulic circuit. It includes the description, a sequence of
operations, notes, and a components list. Such diagrams are essentially required by the
designers, the machine makers and mechanics to repair it.

Hydraulic Circuit Diagrams

The circuit diagrams are used in hydraulics to show the components along with their
interaction. It a useful tool for the manufacturers and assemblers so that they can come to
know how the components are to be connected. Mechanics or technicians will be helped
with it, that how the system works, what each component does and what is the flow of the
fluid . It helps them in repairing and also in maintenance of the system. There are various
types of hydraulic circuit diagrams which are as follows-

Block Diagram

This type of diagram indicates the various components and the lines between the blocks,
which indicate connections and/or interactions.

Cutaway Diagram

This type of diagram indicates the internal construction of the components along with the
flow paths. This diagram uses colors, shades, or various patterns in the lines thus it can
depict the flow and pressure conditions.

Pictorial Diagram

This type of diagram indicates a circuit piping arrangement. The components are usually
having similarity of their actual shapes and sizes.

Graphical Diagram

This type of diagram indicates is usually preferred for design and troubleshooting. It uses
simple geometric symbols for various components and their controls and connections.

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Troubleshooting in hydraulic system

Troubleshooting procedure is required to be performed in a proper manner so that no

component is being changed illogically. Hence systematic approach for correcting a
hydraulic problem is a must in the hydraulic circuits. Before starting any troubleshooting
operations get informed about the problem. Make out the possible causes and their suitable
remedies of different hydraulic problems occurred during hydraulic system operation. Take
care to check that the proper drawings and diagrams are always available of the system or
circuit .A convenient table is given for probable cause and suitable remedies-

Remedies
Fault Probable causes

Hydraulic pump may have cavitations and taking Remove cavitations

air into the system.

Low fluidl level

Fill fluid

Noisy Pump
To heavy of flud Use light fluid

Cold fluid Raise temperature

Suction filter clogged Clean it

Add the recommended fluid

Fluid level in the reservoir is low.

Fluid inlet hose or inlet filter is clogged Clean the filter

Fluid does not come Air leak in the inlet line prevents priming Repair the leaks

The viscosity of fluid is too high Use a lighter oil viscosity

Clean the pump

Pump has dirt in it

Contaminants present in relief valve

Viscosity is low

fan not running

Overheating of fluid
Dirty oil

Low fluid level

Excessive pump wear

Low pressure in the Air in the fluid e Fill the tank nearly full or

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system recommended level

Pressure relief valve set too low Reset valve

Repair or replace pump /

Defective or worn out pump /actuator
actuator

Rectified, adjust the relief

Pressure relief valve not properly seated
valve.

Leak in the hydraulic line Tighten leaky connections.

Air leak in hydraulic pump suction side Tighten leaky connection

fluid level low Fill fluid

Foaming of fluid or air
in the fluid Wrong fluid put in tank Use proper fluid

Pump shaft seals or access plates could be drawing

Check for leakage
air into the system

Use appropriate
Viscosity of fluid is too low .
recommended fluid

High pressure occurs above the maximum pump

Check the relief
rating

Check the parts and rectify

Excessive Wear Misaligned in the drive or belt drive is tight
the problem.

Remove the air from the

Air recirculation is causing a chatter in the system
system

Abrasive matter in the hydraulic oil is being Put a proper filter to check
circulated dust particles

Misalignment in control valve Align it

Control valve sticky or
working hard
Valve is broken Repair or replace it

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Lesson 29 United States of American Standards institute ( USASI ) Graphical symbols

Introduction

Schematic symbols are used to identify and graphically depict the function of fluid power
components. Recognizing and understanding schematic symbols will enable us to know
about the circuit functioning. The United States of American Standards Institute (USASI), the
old American Standards Association (ASA), and the Joint Industry Conference (JIC) are three
systems of symbols used in circuit diagrams.

Reservoir

It is represented by a rectangle in which horizontal side is kept longer than the other side. A
reservoir if vented to the atmosphere, the top of the symbol is open and a reservoir if
pressurized, the top is closed. Lines which connect to a reservoir usually drawn from the top.
But the line terminates below the fluid level, it is drawn to the bottom of the symbol.

Lines

Working line

It is made as solid line which indicates a hydraulic pipe, tube, hose, or other conductor
carrying the fluid between the components.

Pilot line

It is given by long dashes which indicates control lines.

Drain line

It is given by short dashes which indicates drain lines.

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Flexible line

It is made a solid, arced line which is drawn between two dots which represents a flexible
line in the system.

Pump

The hydraulic pump is a usually given by a symbol of circle with a black triangle in the circle
pointing outward. The triangle indicates the flow direction The pressure line from the pump
is drawn from the tip of the triangle, whereas, the suction line is drawn opposite it.. If a
pump is reversible, it will have two triangles.

Motor

In the hydraulic system motor is also symbolized as circle like in pump but the black
triangles pointing inward, which is a indication of receiving of pressure energy. One triangle
indicates a nonreversible motor; two triangles indicate a reversible motor.

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Cylinder

A simple rectangle is the symbol for cylinder but it is different for different types of cylinders
and is as below-

Single acting cylinder

One of the cylinder is open in the cylinder symbol

Double acting cylinder

Both ends of the cylinder are closed in the cylinder symbol

Double end rod cylinder

A rod line extends from each end of the basic cylinder symbol.

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Pressure-Control Valves

The pressure control valve is given the symbol as a square with external port connections.
An arrow inside shows the direction of flow of fluid.

Relief Valve

The relief valve's symbol goes between the pressure line and the tank. The flow-direction
arrow points away from the pressure-line port and toward the tank port. When pressure in
the system overcomes the valve spring, flow is from the pressure port to the tank port

Pressure Reducing Valve

It is a unit which gives nearly constant output pressure provided that the inlet pressure
remains higher than the required outlet pressure. The symbol indicates the outlet pressure
opposite the spring

Flow Control Valve

This type of valve may be with fixed output in which variations in inlet pressure do not affect
rate of flow will have the different symbols for the basic flow control valve, adjustable and
nonadjustable valves.

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Directional Control Valves

These are the valves which provide full or restricted flow by opening or closing of one or
more paths .A directional control valve symbol uses a multiple envelope system. It has
separate rectangle for each position. All the port connections are made to the envelope, which
shows the neutral condition of the valve. It is also having the arrows in each envelope which
indicates the flow paths when the valve is moved to that position.

Direction control valve

Sequence valve

In a sequence valve the inlet port is connected to a primary cylinder and the outlet port is
connected to the secondary cylinder. This valve is drained externally and therefore drain
connection is added to the symbol.

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MODULE 7.

Lesson 30 Tractor hydraulics and nudging system

Introduction

It is desired by a tractor to have more useful work performed at the field which led to the
application of hydraulic system to accomplish various field tasks like tilling, harrowing,
plowing, interculture, sowing etc. quickly. The most basic description of hydraulics is that it
is the science of transmitting force or motion through a fluid. The hydraulic engineering
through which we are well concerned with it is called hydrostatics, and deals with the ability
to transmit force or motion through a fluid which is confined. Since the fluids are
considered practically to be incompressible, hence these are preferred over gasses can be
compressed. Flexibility of fluid make it the most advantageous in its use to transmit power.
It can change shape, divide into parts, reunite as a whole, and fit exactly into the container of
any shape. The liquid usually used in hydrostatics is hydraulic oil which gives the lubricating
qualities also required by the moving components of the hydraulic system.

Components of a hydraulic system

Normally a hydraulic system is consisted of various components like sump, pump, safety
valve, actuator, direction control valve, lines hoses, clamps etc. these are discussed here
below-

Hydraulic pump

One type of fluid power transmission device is provided in the system which could be piston
pump or gear pump or vane pump, etc. Reciprocating pumps are most efficient in hydraulic
systems but rotary pumps are convenient to put in the system

Spur Gear pump

At present so many tractors are fitted with rotary pump like spur gear pump. The spur gear
type pump is having a driving gear and a driven gear enclosed in a closely fitted housing.
The rotary motion from crank shaft of tractor engine is transferred to the driving gear of the
pump. Both the gears move in opposite directions and mesh at a point in the housing
between the inlet and outlet ports. Both sets of teeth project outward from the center of the
gears. As the teeth of the two gears separate, a partial vacuum forms and draws liquid
through an inlet port into the housing and is trapped between the teeth of the two gears and
the fluid is discharged through the housing to the discharge side. The liquid then pushed
through the outlet as the rotating gears develop sufficient pressure. In this way the
pressurize fluid flows through lines to a hydraulic ram or actuator.

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Radial Piston Pump

Some of the Indian tractors are fitted with radial piston pump. Radial piston pumps are
compact and reliable. These are capable of building high pressure, high volume and high
speed. It is having a number of closely fitted parts and therefore wear is also considered to be
more. In this type of pump , the pistons are arranged like wheel spokes in a short cylindrical
block. There are many types of designs of radial piston pump . In this type of pump the
pistons are arranged radially around an eccentric cam . The cam is a part of the main shaft.
As the shaft rotates the pistons are reciprocated in the cylinders which are oriented radially .
As the piston moves inwards the suction is caused and the space in the cylinder is filled with
the fluid . When the piston moves outwards the fluid filled inside the cylinder forced outside
the cylinder to the delivery side.

Lubrication

It is desired to have lubrication in the components of pump and actuator for smooth
operation of the hydrostatic system. The pressure and flow of the fluid to the actuator which
is ram cylinder begins when the pump moves the fluid away from its centered position by
the tractors control apparatus. Lubrication of the various component increases as the system
pressures rise by providing more fluid flow. Fluid which is utilized for lubrication should be
an additional quantity so as not to affect the functioning of the system.

Pressure Control Valve (Relief Valve)

It is needed in the hydraulic system to have resistance in the flow of fluid which produces
pressure and is necessary for the system to function. If the amount of resistance could not be
controlled, it could become so high that the weakest component may burst. Therefore, the
hydraulic circuit requires a relief valve to protect against excessive pressure cuased if any.
The relief valve allows the fluid to be returned to the reservoir. The relief valves are utilized
to limit the maximum operating pressure in the circuit. These are also called safety valves
and protects the pump and other components from overloading, etc. Pressure relief valve is
provided in the circuit such that one port is connected to the pressure line and the other port
is connected to the the reservoir. There is a ball which is held on its seat with the spring
force. The spring force can be changed by rotating the adjusting screw. When the circuit
pressure at the valve inlet is less than the spring pressure , the ball remains on its seat and the
valve is closed and no flow takes place through it. As the pressure in the circuit exceeds the
adjusted spring force, the ball is forced off its seat and the valve is opened. Now the liquid
flows from the pressure line through the valve to the reservoir. This diversion of flow
continue till the. pressure decreases below the valve setting and hence the spring reseats the
ball and the valve is again closed. In this way it prevents circuit and provide the safety.

Direction Control Valve

Valves which are used to control cylinder type actuators are known as the directional control
valves. These may be check valve, rotary valve or spool valve, etc. Most of Indian tractors are
fitted with spool type of valve. It may be open centre type or closed centre type depending
upon type of circuit. Spool valve is a valve which controls the direction of hydraulic fluid

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flow. It consists of cylindrical spools which can block and open the channels in the hydraulic
system. A spool valve can change the direction of flow of hydraulic fluid from a hydraulic
pump to an actuator by blocking off the route of the fluid through which it takes place.
Spool valve is consists of a spool which can move in the body of the valve and may have four
or five ports. As in the figure below, a three way spool valve connected to an actuator of
cylinder type. The fluid is applied to the port P of the valve and C of the cylinder, whereas,
port T of the valve is connected to drain or return to the tank. Port A of the valve is connected
to the B of the cylinder. Now if the spool is moved to right side with the help of lever, the
high pressure fluid flows from port A and B. The moves to right due to pressure of fluid and
displacing the fluid through port C and P. Now if the spool is moved to left, high pressure
fluid comes into the cylinder through port C, and the piston moves to left causing the fluid
into the tank via port B and A and T. Spool valve are generally manually operated in the
tractors and are located at the right hand side of the operator.

Cylinder Type Actuator

A hydraulic system of tractor may have single or double acting cylinder . Most of our tractors
are fitted with single acting cylinders . In this type of actuator the fluid is pumped into the
cylinder forcing the piston outward. As the direction control valve is kept to neutral, the fluid
get trapped and the load remained lifted. As the lever of this valve is moved to the left or
right the trapped fluid gets away to sump. In single acting cylinder the piston braught back
due to weight on the piston. But in the double acting cylinder the fluid can move both the
sides of piton and applies the pressure to extend and retract the piston in the cylinder.

Sump

There is a rectangular shaped sump which store the fluid in it to move the piston for lifting
the load. Hydraulic systems are generally operated by a liquid fluid being transmitted in the
system components. A receiver tank, which stores energy for future use is basically a
pressure vessel .It need a very large quantity of liquid fluid which is to be be stored and
reused continuously as the circuit works. This tank is generally part of the tractor
framework . In general reservoir design and its development is very important. The
efficiency of a hydraulic circuit is greatly affected by tank design. Hence a hydraulic
reservoir does much more than just provide a place to put fluid.

Lines and connectors

Tractor fluid lines are generally made up of metal tubing or flexible hose. Metal tubings are
used where there are long runs are there. It is used to connect components like control valve
and actuator or pump and safety valve etc. hoses are preferred where moving parts are there
or where vibrations occurred. Metallic tubes are made up of steel ,or titanium etc. Various
types of connectors may be used to connect the lines to the components.

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Automatic Draft and Depth Control (ADDC)

In some of the tractors a mechanism is provided so that required depth of field operation is
maintained quite closely and simultaneously draft control is also allowed to work to have
better traction. This is known as automatic draft and depth control.

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MODULE 8.

Lesson No 31 Fail safe and safety systems in hydraulic and pneumatics

Introduction

The components of hydraulic and pneumatic circuits are normally designed with simplicity,
ease of maintenance and adaptability point of view. It is having a number of considerations
which improves the reliability and field performance of the system. A fail safe device is that
which even get failed but responds in such a manner that it will cause no harm or least
harm to other devices of the system or sub system.

Fail safe devices

Fail safe devices are those which even get failed but responds in such a manner that it will
cause no harm or least harm to other devices or the system / sub system etc. These may be
actuator, valves, etc.

Safety in Hydraulics

Consider the following points while observing the safety of a hydraulic circuit-

 Do not crack a hydraulic connector for finding the pressure, flow, etc. in a hydraulic
system.

 Do not leave or test a hydraulic system or component to atmosphere, partially or fully

open a transmission line to atmosphere.

 Do not have the air bleeding in a hydraulic component or system to atmosphere

 Provide safe-T bleed in the hydraulic systems which is a safety device.

 Skilled and trained workers are to be put on and around hydraulic systems from
safety point of view.

 Park the hydraulic machines beyond the reach of children.

 Lower the machines to the ground before leaving the machines.

 Do not service the hydraulic system when motor or engine is running.

 Do not remove the cylinder until the working units are resting on the ground.

 Relieve the hydraulic pressure and discharge the accumulator before disconnecting oil
lines

 Ensure there is no leakage and all the lines connections are tight.

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 Make use of hoist or jacks to remove the heavy components of hydraulic system.

Safety in Pneumatics

Consider the following points while observing the safety of a pneumatic circuit-

 Operate the pneumatic system within operating range of pressure

 While under pressure do not disconnect the lines.

 Do not activate the compressed air until all the line connections are complete.

 Take precautions while switching on the compressed air

 Make use of shortest lines possible.

 Make use of safety glasses

 Switch off the compressed air before repairing or dismantling the circuit.

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Lesson No 32 Robotics , Hydraulic and Pneumatics and Programmable Logic Control

Introduction

Robots are making a considerable impact on the many aspects of modern life, from industrial
field to transportation, and in agricultural fields. It is basically a machine which is skilled
and having intelligence (computer).. Production, assembly and packaging fields are are
specifically automated. The development of automation pushed forward for development of
robots . Hydraulic and pneumatic drive are widely used to give linear or rotary outputs in
the robos. Therefore, these systems use devices such as linear pistons and rotary vane
actuators to accomplish the motion of the joint. Pneumatic drive is normally used for smaller
robots used in simple material transfer applications. Electric drive and hydraulic drives are
used on sophisticated industrial robots. Control engineering and automation has evolved
long back. Earlier to which human beings were the main source controlling systems. The
development of low cost computer has revolutionized the in the field of programmable logic
controller (PLC). These are gaining popularity in many applications, specifically in
manufacturing controls, etc.

Robotics

Robotics may be defined as the technology which deals with the design, manufacturing
operation and application of robots along with computer systems for the control, sensory
feedback, and information processing. Robots are normally consisted of several systems
working together as a whole. Generally these are comprised of following systems-

 Controller

 Body

 Mobility

 Power

 Sensors

 Tools

Control System

The controller controls the movements of the robot which is also called brain or intelligence
of the robot. It generally uses a computer which stores the information about the robot and
the work environment and it also execute programs which operate the robot. The control
system contains programs, data algorithms, logic analysis and various other processing
activities which enable the robot to perform. Depending upon the task to be performed by
robots its control system may be of simple type or sophisticated type. It is having a Central
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processing Unit (CPU) and Power Unit which enable it for power generation, power
conditioning, power distribution and control, analog and digital input output (I/O) control
and processing, computing , and data storage in memory, etc.

Body

The body of the robot may be of any shape or size depending upon type of task to be
performed by it. Industrial robots are generally of the shape of a body less arm as it is
suitable to the job to be performed by it . Space robots have many different body shapes such
as a sphere, a platform with wheels or legs depending upon task to be performed . Some
planetary rovers have solar platforms driven by wheels. Aerobat bodies are balloons that
will float through the atmosphere of other worlds collecting data.

Mobility

Mobility of robot is basically movement of it viz how do robots moves. It depends on the
task to be performed under a particular
environment. http://web.mit.edu/afs/athena/org/t/towtank/www/tuna/pictures.html U
nmanned submersible robots are used ocean studies or industry for which automated
underwater vehicles use propellers and rudders to control their direction of travel. Their
shape may also be similar to fish for easy mobility. Similarly land based robots or rovers
may move on legs or tracks or wheels. If the surface uneven the robots can move easily with
the track type of arrangement.

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Power

Robots can be powered with electric, pneumatic or hydraulic source. Electric motors are
efficient, require little maintenance, and are less noisy. Pneumatic robots use compressed air
and come in a wide variety
of http://jewel.morgan.edu/~salimian/courses/IEGR470/223_lab.htmlsizes. It requires
another source of energy like electricity or gasoline to provide the compressed air. Hydraulic
robots use oil under pressure and generally perform heavy duty tasks. This is larger and
heavier than the other power sources. A hydraulic robot also needs another source of energy
to move the fluids through its components. Pneumatic and hydraulic robots require
maintenance of various components like tubes, fittings and hoses which connect the various
components.

Sensors

Sensors in the robot are the devices which collect the useful information as a engineering
parameter about the internal state of robots. These are used to communicate with outer
world. These also measure physical quantities like contact, distance, light, sound, strain,
rotation, magnetism, smell, temperature, inclination, pressure , etc. Sensors generate the
signals which subsequently processed with the help of computer brain of robot to provide
meaningful information. Robots are equipped with sensors and hence they can have an
understanding of their surrounding environment and make changes in their response on the
basis of collected information. Robot can also be fitted with acoustic sensor to detect sound,
motion or location, infrared sensors to detect heat sources, contact sensors, tactile sensors to
give a sense of touch.

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Tools

Robots are fitted with tools called end effectors so as to interact with the environment and to
carry out assigned tasks. These tools will have the variation according to the tasks to be
performed for which it has been designed. A robot in the manufacturing unit will be fitted
with interchangeable tools such as paint sprayers or welding torches. Many robots carry their
tools at the end of a manipulator. The manipulator contains a series of segments for moving
objects. The manipulator includes the arm, wrist and end effectors. An end effector is a tool
or gripping mechanism attached to the end of a robot arm to accomplish some task like a
gripping device, a paint gun, a drill, an arc welding device, etc. There are specific tools to do
a particular

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

A programmable logical controller (PLC) is a digital computer which is used in automation

for processes, such as control of machinery in a factory assembly line, production, pneumatic
, hydraulic ,etc.. PLCs are used in many industries and variety of machines. PLC basically
used to monitor inputs, and depending upon their state make decisions by using its program
or logic, to control its outputs to automate a machine or a process. The PLC may be
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designed for multiple inputs and output arrangements. Programmable Logic Controllers
(PLCs) are microprocessor-based devices used to control industrial processes or machines.
They provide advanced functions, including analog monitoring, control and high speed
motion control as well as share data over communication networks.

Advantages

 It is rugged in design

 It can withstand vibrations, temperature, humidity, and noise.

 It is provided with interfacing for inputs and outputs

 It can be easily programmed

 The language used for programming is simple

 Cheap and reliable

 Low cost

Disadvantages

 Connecting wires is difficult

 It is difficulty to make changes or replacements.

 It is difficulty to find errors

Configuration of PLC

PLC is basically an industrial microcontroller system or microprocessor based system which

is having hardware and software as per the requirement or use. Block diagram below give
the details of various components of it.

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Central Processing Unit ( CPU)

Central Processing Unit is the brain of a PLC controller. CPU itself is usually one of the
microcontrollers. These are normally 16 and 32 bit microcontrollers. The CPU consists of a
microprocessor, memory chip and other integrated circuits to control logic, monitoring and
communications. It can operate in different operating modes. In programming mode it accepts
the downloaded logic and then in run mode it can execute the program and operate the
process.

CPU also takes care of communication, interconnecting of other parts of PLC controller,
program execution, memory operation, overseeing input and setting up of an output.

Input Output System

The input output (I/O) system provides the physical connection between the equipment and
the PLC. A PLC input device is anything which gives an input to the PLC. These can consist
of digital, analog, switches, sensors, intelligent devices etc. A digital input card in an input
device handles discrete devices which give a signal like on or off such as a pushbutton, limit
switch, sensors or selector switches. An analog input card converts a voltage or current into
a digital form which is an equivalent number easily accepted by the CPU. Force transducer,
pressure transducer, thermocouples, torque sensors etc are give the analog signals which are
converted into digital form and processed by microprocessors. Similarly output device is
also consist of digital or analog types. A digital output card gives the signal out to put a
device on or off like as lights, LEDs, small motors, and relays, etc. An analog output card
will convert a digital number sent by the CPU to real world voltage or current which are
used to drive mass flow controllers, pressure regulators and position controls or some other
device.

Programming PLC

The software part is the heart of a PLC and is written by a programmer. The programming is
so done that the PLC can control or monitor the devices. These softwares are executed by the
processor in the CPU module or controller module. There are various types of PLC software
design packages which are in use. The logic can be written in Ladder Logic, Instruction List,
Sequential Function Charts, or any of the IEC (international electrotechnical commission )
languages.
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Power Supply

In PLCs electrical power supply is used to operate the central processing unit. Most PLC
controllers work on DC voltage. Therefore it is necessary to convert the 230 V AC voltage to
required DC voltage needed for logic circuit of processor and also for I/O system of
controller. The power supply may be a separate module in the PLC or some times integral
part of the CPU. . Depending upon the design of PLC current rating will be by the power
supply to the I/O module . Different types of modules use different amounts of electrical
current. This electrical supply is usually not used to start external inputs or outputs. Separate
supplies are provided in starting PLC controller inputs or outputs. By doing so pure supply
is applied to the CPU which is not affected by industrial environment.

Working of PLC

A PLC interfaces various types of external electrical and electronic signals. These signals can
be AC or DC currents or voltages from various sensors or devices. It ranges 4 to 20 milli-
amperes (mA) or 0 to 120 VAC and 0 to 48 VDC. These signals are called as I/O points.The
I/O ( input/output) system is physically connected to the field devices which are used in
the control of a process. These field devices may be discrete or analog I/O devices, like load
cells, pressure transducers, push buttons, motor starters, solenoids, limit switches, etc. The
I/O interfaces provide the connection between the CPU and the information providers
(inputs) and controllable devices (outputs). The CPU completes three processes viz. it reads,
the input data from the field devices via the input interfaces, then it executes, the control
program stored in the memory system, and thirdly it writes, or updates, the output devices
though the output interfaces. This process of sequentially reading the inputs, executing the
program in memory, and updating the outputs is known as scanning.

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