1 The Integers

Definition 1. Algebraic number

We call number a algebraic if there exists a polynomial p with coefficients in Z
such that p(a) = 0.
Definition 2. Transcendental number
The number is called transcendental iff its is not algebraic.

Theorem 1. Every rational number is algebraic

a
Proof. Let c ∈ Q then c = b and we have polynomial

p(x) = bx − a

clearly p(c) = 0.
Theorem 2. Not every algebraic number is rational
√
Proof. Consider x2 − 2 and its root 2
Definition 3. Fractional part
Let a ∈ R+ . We define fractional part as:

frac a := a − bac

Theorem 3. Dirichlet’s Approximation Theorem

If α ∈ R and n ∈ N+ , then
1
∃ a, b ∈ Z : 1 ≤ a ≤ n ∧ |aα − b| <
n
Proof. Let α ∈ R and n ∈ N+ . Consider fractional parts of following number

frac(0), frac(α), frac(2α) . . . frac(nα)

There n + 1 numbers. Each of them lies in one of the n disjoint intervals

[0, n1 ), [ n1 , n2 ) . . ..
From pigeon principle: there must exists intervals where two fractional parts of
two numbers frac(kα), frac(jα) fall. Distance between them is clearly < n1 .
Let a = k − j and b = bkαc − bjαc.
Finally

|aα − b| = |(k − j)α − (bkαc − bjαc)|

= |kα − bkαc − (jα − bjαc)|
1
= |frac(kα) − frac(jα)| <
n

1
Definition 4. Ulam numbers
Ulam sequence is defined in following way

u1 := 1
u2 := 2
un := min{x : ∃ m, k < n : ∀ m0 , k 0 < n :
(x > un−1 ) ∧ (um + uk = x) ∧ (um0 + uk0 = x =⇒ {m0 , k 0 } = {m, k})}

Using English: n − th element is smallest sum of two elements of sequence such

that x is bigger then any previous element and that its represented as a unique
sum.
Theorem 4. There are infinitely many Ulam number
Proof. Assume its not the case. Then there exists biggest element un . Consider
x = un + un−1 clearly its bigger then all elements and its represented uniquely.
Therefore the set in last part of our definition is not empty. Since we are
considering positive integers its minimum is well-defined, the same goes for
un+1 . Contradiction.
Definition 5. Telescoping series
Telescoping series is a sum of a form
n
X
(aj − aj−1 )
j=1

where an is a sequence of numbers.

They are easy to evaluate because they are equivalent to an − a0
Definition 6. Triangular numbers
We define n-th triangular number as
n
X
tn := i
i=1

Theorem 5. Formula for a n − th triangular number

Proof. Consider following identity
2
(k + 1) − k 2 = 2k + 1
2
(k + 1) − k 2 1
k= −
2 2

2
Now we use it to construct telescoping series
n
X
tn = k
k=1
n 2
X (k + 1) − k 2 1
= −
2 2
k=1
n n
!
1 X 2
X
= ((k + 1) − k 2 ) − 1
2
k=1 k=1
1
= (n2 + 2n + 1 − 1 − n)
2
n(n + 1)
=
2

Theorem 6. Sum of two consecutive triangular numbers gives a square

More precisely tn + tn−1 = n2

Proof. Simple evaluation.

n
X n−1
X
tn + tn−1 = i+ j
i=1 j=1
Xn
= −n + 2 ∗ j
j=1

= n(n + 1) − n
= n2

Theorem 7. Formula for sum of squares We will find formulae for

n
X
k2
k=1

Proof. We will try to construct a telescoping series again. Consider:

3
(k + 1) − k 3 = 3k 2 + 3k + 1
3
(k + 1) − k 3 − 3k − 1
k2 =
3

3
Now
n n 3
X X (k + 1) − k 3 − 3k − 1
k2 =
3
k=1 k=1
n n n
!
1 X 3
X X
= ((k + 1) − k 3 ) − 3k − 1
3
k=1 k=1 k=1

Rest is simple algebraic manipulation.

 
1 3 n(n + 1)
= (n + 1) − 1 − 3 −n
3 2
 
1 3 3n(n + 1)
= n + 3n2 + 3n + 1 − 1 − −n
3 2
2
 
1 3 3n + 3n
= n + 3n2 + 2n −
3 2
1
= 2n3 + 6n2 + 4n − 3n2 − 3n


6
2n3 + 3n2 + n
=
6
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
=
6

Theorem 8. Sum of the first n Fibonacci numbers.

We will prove that
Xn
fk = fn+2 − 1
k=1

Proof. This proof is trivial if we use telescoping sum (with obvious identity)
n
X n
X
fk = (fk+2 − fk+1 )
k=1 k=1
= fn+2 − 1

The second way to prove this is: use induction. But its definitely uglier.
Definition 7. Lucas numbers
They are defined similarly to Fibonacci numbers. The only difference is seed
L1 = 1 and L2 = 3.
Theorem 9. Sum of the first n Lucas numbers
Pn
Proof. This is identical to Fibonacci formulae k=1 Lk = Ln+2 − 1. Proof is
identical.

4
Theorem 10. Fib and Lucas I
We will show
Ln = fn−1 + fn+1
Proof. TODO
Theorem 11. Fibonacci and Lucas II
We will show
f2n = fn Ln
Proof. TODO
Definition 8. Zeckendorf representation of a positive integer
It is the unique expression of this integer as the sum of distinct Fibonacci
numbers, where no two of these Fibonacci number are consecutive terms in the
Fibonacci sequence and where the term f1 = 1 is not used (but f2 = 1 can).
Theorem 12. Zeckendorf
Show that every integer has unique Zeckendorf representation.
Proof. First I will show that every integer has Zeckendorf representation.
P In-
duction: case of 1 is obvious. Consider number n + 1 number n = j∈J fj . If
2, 3 not in J: we simply add 1.
TODO
Definition 9. Generalized Fibonacci numbers
We define generalized Fibonacci number by g1 = a g2 = b and

gn = gn−1 + gn−2

Theorem 13. Generalized Fibonacci numbers connection to Fibonacci Suppose

g1 = a, g2 = b. We will show

gn = afn−2 + bfn−1

Proof. TODO
Definition 10. Linear homogeneous recurrence
TODO
Definition 11. Generating function
The generating function for the sequence an is the infinite series
∞
X
G(x) := a n xn
n=0

Definition 12. Divisibility

We say d divides n and write d | n whenever

∃ k ∈ N : dk = n

If d does not divide n, we write d 6 | n

5
Definition 13. Common divisor
For any integers a, b there always exists at least one integer n such that n | a ∧
n | b. We call this integers common divisors.
Definition 14. GCD
We call the greatest common divisor of a, b gcd. We denote it gcd(a, b). If
gcd(a, b) = 1 we say a, b are relatively prime.

2 Integer Representations and Operations

Theorem 14. Every integer can be represented as a unique sum of power of 2

Proof. Convert number to binary format. Done.