By

RAHUL SINHA (18 MT 0347)

KOKO KARBIA (18 MT 0337)

ONE DIMENSIONAL
CONSOLIDATION OF SOIL
Abstract:
According to Terzaghi (1943), “a decrease of water content of a saturated soil without
replacement of the water by air is called a process of consolidation.” When saturated
clayey soils—which have a low coefficient of permeability—are subjected to a
compressive stress due to a foundation loading, the pore water pressure will immediately
increase; however, because of the low permeability of the soil, there will be a time lag
between the application of load and the extrusion of the pore water and, thus, the
settlement. When a saturated soil layer is subjected to a stress increase, the pore water
pressure is increased suddenly. In sandy soils that are highly permeable, the drainage
caused by the increase in the pore water pressure is completed immediately. Pore water
drainage is accompanied by a reduction in the volume of the soil mass, which results in
settlement. Because of rapid drainage of the pore water in sandy soils, elastic settlement
and consolidation occur simultaneously.

Keywords: consolidation, excess pore water pressure, settlement, Time factor.

1. Introduction oedometer). The

schematic diagram of a consolidometer
‘Consolidation’, may be defined as the is shown below.
gradual and time-dependent process
The soil specimen is placed inside a
involving expulsion of pore water from a
metal ring with two porous stones, one
saturated soil mass, compression and
at the top of the specimen and another
stress transfer. This definition is valid for
at the bottom. The specimens are
the one-dimensional as well as the
usually 64 mm in diameter and 25 mm
general three-dimensional case. It may
thick. The load on the specimen is
be worthwhile to note that the volume of
applied through a lever
the soil mass at any time is related to
arm, and compression is measured by a
the effective stress in the soil at that
micrometer dial gauge. The specimen is
time and not to the total stress. In other
kept under
words,
water during the test. Each load usually
compressibility is a function of the
is kept for 24 hours.
effective stress. The application of a total
stress increment
merely creates a transient flow situation
and induces consolidation through
expulsion of pore
water and increases in effective stress
through a decrease in excess pore water
pressure.

2. One-Dimensional Laboratory
Consolidation Test
The one-dimensional consolidation
testing procedure was first suggested by
Terzaghi. This
test is performed in a consolidometer
(sometimes referred to as an
 Schematic diagram of a After the time–deformation plots for
consolidometer various loadings are obtained in the
laboratory, it is
After that, the load usually is doubled,
necessary to study the change in the
which doubles the pressure on the
void ratio of the specimen with pressure.
specimen, and the compression
measurement is continued. The general
shape of the plot of deformation of the
specimen against time for a given load
increment is shown below. From the plot,
we can observe three distinct
stages, which may be described as
follows:

Stage I: Initial compression, which is

caused mostly by preloading.

4.Normally Consolidated and

Over-consolidated Clays
Normally consolidated, whose present
effective overburden pressure is the
maximum pressure that the soil was
subjected to in the past.
Over-consolidated, whose present
effective overburden pressure is less
than that
which the soil experienced in the past.
The maximum effective past pressure is
called the pre-consolidation pressure.

The over-consolidation ratio (OCR) for a

soil can now be defined as

Time–deformation plot during consolidation OCR =

for a given load increment preconsolidation pressure of a specimen
present effective vertical pressure
Stage II: Primary consolidation, during
which excess pore water pressure
gradually is transferred into effective
5.General Comments on
stress because of the expulsion of pore Conventional Consolidation Test
water.
Stage III: Secondary consolidation, which Crawford (1964) has conducted several
occurs after complete dissipation of the laboratory tests on Leda clay in which
excess pore water pressure, when some the load on the specimen was doubled
deformation of the specimen takes place each time. However, the duration
because of the plastic readjustment of of each load maintained on the specimen
soil fabric. was varied. The e versus log σ’ curves
obtained from such tests are shown.
3.Void Ratio–Pressure Plots
 Effect of load duration on e versus log σ’
curve

From this plot, it may be seen that when

the
duration of load maintained on a
specimen is increased, the e versus log
σ’ curve gradually moves to the left. This Consolidation characteristics of normally
means that, for a given load per unit consolidated clay of low to medium
sensitivity
area on the specimen (σ’), the void ratio
at the end of consolidation will decrease
as time t is increased.

6.Effect of Disturbance on Void

Ratio–Pressure Relationship
A soil specimen will be remolded when it
is subjected to some degree of
disturbance. This
remolding will result in some deviation of
the e-log σ’ plot as observed in the
laboratory
from the actual behaviour in the field.
The field e-log σ’ plot can be
reconstructed from the
laboratory test results in the manner
described in this section (Terzaghi and
Peck, 1967).
Consolidation characteristics of over-
consolidated clay of low to medium
sensitivity

7.Time Rate of Consolidation

Terzaghi (1925) proposed the first theory
to consider the rate of one-dimensional
consolidation for saturated clay soils.
The mathematical derivations are based
on the following six assumptions:

1. The clay–water system is

homogeneous.
2. Saturation is complete.
3. Compressibility of water is negligible.
4. Compressibility of soil grains is
negligible (but soil grains rearrange).
5. The flow of water is in one direction
only (that is, in the direction of
The variation in the average degree of
compression).
consolidation with the nondimensional
6. Darcy’s law is valid.
time factor,
The mathematical formula expressing Tv , is given in Figure, which represents
one dimensional consolidation is given the case where uo is the same for the
by: entire
depth of the consolidating layer.

and is called coefficient of consolidation.

The above equation is the basic

differential equation of Terzaghi’s
consolidation theory and can be solved
with the following boundary conditions:

The general solution for the above set of Variation of Uz with Tv and z/Hdr
boundary conditions has been obtained
on the
basis of separation of variables and
Fourier Series expansion and is as
follows:

In particular, if ui is considered constant

with respect to depth, this equation
reduces to:

Variation of average degree of consolidation

with time factor, Tv (uo constant with depth)

The values of the time factor and their

where M = (/2) (2m + 1) corresponding average degrees of
Introducing the time factor the above consolidation for the case presented in
equation, we have above figure may also be approximated
by the following simple relationship:

Where T is Time factor.

Introducing the consolidation ratio, Uz, 8.Calculation of Settlement for One-
we have:
Dimensional Primary Consolidation
For normally consolidated clay, we can
calculate the primary consolidation by:

For over-consolidated soil when:

Variation of e with log t under a given load

For over-consolidated soil when: increment,
and definition of secondary compression
index

as shown above. From the figure, the

secondary compression index can be
Where,
defined as:
σo= average effective pressure on the
clay layer before the construction of
C α =∆ e /(log ⁡t 1 /t 2)
the foundation where
∆σ’av= average increase in effective
Cα = compression index secondary
pressure on the clay layer caused by the
construction of the foundation ∆e = change in void ratio and t1, t2
σ'c=pre-consolidation pressure are time.
eo=initial void ratio of the clay layer The secondary consolidation settlement
Cc=compression index is given by:
Cs=swelling index Cα H c
Hc=thickness of the clay layer
S c =( )( log ⁡t 1 /t 2)
1+e p
where
9. Calculation of Settlement for One- e p =void ratio at the end of primary
Dimensional Secondary consolidation
Hc=thickness of clay layer
Consolidation
At the end of primary consolidation (i.e.,
after the complete dissipation of excess
10.Determination of Coefficient of
pore Consolidation
water pressure) some settlement is For a given load increment on a
observed that is due to the plastic specimen, two graphical methods
adjustment of soil commonly are used for determining cv
fabrics. This stage of consolidation is from laboratory one-dimensional
called secondary consolidation. A plot of consolidation tests. The first is the
deformation against the logarithm of logarithm-of-time method proposed by
time during secondary consolidation is Casagrande and Fadum (1940), and the
practically linear other is the square-root-of-time method
given by Taylor (1942).

Logarithm-of-Time Method
Step 1: Extend the straight-line portions
of primary and secondary consolidations
to intersect at A. The ordinate of A is
represented by d100—that is, the
deformation at the end of 100% primary
consolidation.
Step 2: The initial curved portion of the
plot of deformation versus log t is
approximated to be a parabola on the
natural scale. Select times t1 and t2 on the
curved portion such that t2 = 4t1. Let the
difference of specimen deformation
during time (t2 t1) be equal to x.
Step 3: Draw a horizontal line DE such
that the vertical distance BD is equal to
x.
The deformation corresponding to the
line DE is d0 (that is, deformation at 0%
consolidation).
Step 4: The ordinate of point F on the
consolidation curve represents the
deformation at 50% primary
consolidation, and its abscissa
represents the corresponding time (t50).
Step 5: For 50% average degree of
consolidation, Tv = 0.197.
H dr in is determined in a manner similar
to that in the logarithm-of-time method.

11. Summary and General

Comments
This chapter discussed theories relating
to the settlement of foundations.
Following is a
summary of the topics covered.
 Consolidation is a time-dependent
process of settlement of the
saturated clay layer(s)
located below the groundwater
table.
Logarithm-of-time method  Primary consolidation settlement
for determining coefficient of consolidation can be calculated.
 Secondary consolidation
settlement can be estimated.
where Hdr average longest drainage
 The degree of consolidation at
path during consolidation.
any time after load application is
Square-Root-of-Time Method
a function of the
In the square-root-of-time method, a plot
nondimensional time factor Tv.
of deformation against the square root of
 The coefficient of consolidation
time is
for a given loading range can be
made for the incremental loading. Other
obtained by using
graphic constructions required are as
logarithm-of-time, square-root-of-
follows:
time.
Step 1: Draw a line AB through the early
 The partial differential equation
portion of the curve.
for expressing one dimensional
Step 2: Draw a line AC such that. The
consolidation mathematically is
abscissa of point D, which is the
shown.
intersection of AC and the consolidation
 Boundary condition and final
curve, gives the square root of
solution with graphs are also
time for 90% consolidation.
shown.
Step 3: For 90% consolidation, T90 =
 Effect of time of loading on σ-
0.848
log(e) is discussed.
 Effect of disturbance on void ratio
– pressure relationship is
discussed.

References:

 “Principles of Geotechnical
Engineering” by Braja M. Das
and Khaled Sobhan.
 “Geotechnical Engineering”
by C.Venkatramaiah.
 “Principles and practise of soil
mechanics and foundation
engineering” by V.N.S. Murthy.
 “Soil Mechanics and
foundation engineering” by
Dr. K.R. Arora.

By
RAHUL SINHA (18 MT 0347)
KOKO KARBIA (18 MT 0337)