&9-0(-2+'3()6)59-6)1)287*367869'896%0'32'6)8)%'-

%2('311)28%6=%'-6

CODE COMMENTARY
(a) Crosstie shall be continuous between ends
(b) There shall be a seismic hook at one end
(c) There shall be a standard hook at other end with

(d) Hooks shall engage peripheral longitudinal bars

the same longitudinal bars shall be alternated end for end,

unless crossties satisfy

Fig. R25.3.5—Crosstie.

{(IZIPSTQIRXSJVIMRJSVGIQIRX 6{(IZIPSTQIRXSJVIMRJSVGIQIRX
25.4.1 General R25.4.1 General

25.4.1.1 Calculated tension or compression in reinforce- R25.4.1.1 The development length concept is based on the
ment at each section of a member shall be developed on attainable average bond stress over the length of embedment
each side of that section by embedment length; hook, headed of the reinforcement ( ). Develop-
deformed bar, mechanical device, or a combination thereof. ment lengths are required because of the tendency of highly
stressed bars to split relatively thin sections of restraining
concrete. A single bar embedded in a mass of concrete
should not require as great a development length, although
a row of bars, even in mass concrete, can create a weakened
plane with longitudinal splitting along the plane of the bars.
In application, the development length concept requires
minimum lengths or extensions of reinforcement beyond all
points of peak stress in the reinforcement. Such peak stresses
generally occur at the points of maximum stress and points
where reinforcement is bent or terminated. From a point of
peak stress in reinforcement, some length of reinforcement
or anchorage is necessary to develop the stress. This devel-
opment length or anchorage is necessary on both sides of
such peak stress points. Often, the reinforcement continues
for a considerable distance on one side of a critical stress
point so that calculations need involve only the other side,
for example, the negative moment reinforcement continuing
through a support to the middle of the next span.

25.4.1.2 Hooks and heads shall not be used to develop R25.4.1.2 Hooks and heads are ineffective in compres-
bars in compression. sion. No data are available to demonstrate that hooks and
heads can reduce development length in compression.

25.4.1.3 Development lengths do not require a strength R25.4.1.3 The strength reduction factor is not used in
reduction factor . the development length and lap splice length equations. An
allowance for strength reduction is already included in the
expressions for determining development and splice lengths.

25.4.1.4 The values of used to calculate development R25.4.1.4 Darwin et al. (1996) shows that the force devel-
oped in a bar in development and lap splice tests increases at
a lesser rate than with increasing compressive strength.
Using

4VSZMHIHF]-,7 %QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXIz'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEPz[[[GSRGVIXISVK
0MGIRWII!9RMZIVWMX]SJ8I\EW6IZMWIH7YF%GGSYRX
2SVITVSHYGXMSRSVRIX[SVOMRKTIVQMXXIH[MXLSYXPMGIRWIJVSQ-,7 2SXJSV6IWEPI1(8
 &9-0(-2+'3()6)59-6)1)287*367869'896%0'32'6)8)%'- %2('311)28%6=%'-6  

CODE COMMENTARY

the in design, ACI Committee 318 has chosen not to

change the exponent applied to the compressive strength
used to calculate development and lap splice lengths, but
.

25.4.2 R25.4.2
in tension wires in tension

25.4.2.1 Development length d for deformed bars and R25.4.2.1 This provision gives a two-tier approach for
deformed wires in tension shall be the greater of (a) and (b): the calculation of tension development length. The user can

(Jirsa et al. 1979 d is based on two prese-

(b) 12 in. lected values of (cb + Ktr)/db, whereas d
is based on the actual (cb + Ktr)/db.
Although there is no requirement for transverse rein-
forcement along the tension development or lap splice
length, research (Azizinamini et al. 1999a,b) indicates that
in concrete with very high compressive strength, brittle
anchorage failure may occur for bars with inadequate trans-
verse reinforcement. In lap splice tests of No. 8 and No.
11 bars in concrete with an fc
psi, transverse reinforcement improved ductile anchorage
behavior.

25.4.2.2 For deformed bars or deformed wires, d shall be R25.4.2.2 This provision recognizes that many current
practical construction cases use spacing and cover values

8EFPI{(IZIPSTQIRXPIRKXLJSVHIJSVQIH that result in a value of (cb + Ktr)/db -

FEVWERHHIJSVQIH[MVIWMRXIRWMSR ples include a minimum clear cover of db along with either
No. 6 and minimum clear spacing of 2db, or a combination of minimum
smaller bars and No. 7 and clear spacing of db and minimum ties or stirrups. For these
Spacing and cover deformed wires larger bars frequently occurring cases, the development length for
Clear spacing of bars or wires being larger bars can be taken as d = [fy t e )]db. In the
developed or lap spliced not less
than db, clear cover at least db, and
stirrups or ties throughout d not less with past provisions and a check of a database of experi-
f ysts e
than the Code minimum db mental results maintained by indicated that for
q fc
or No. 6 deformed bars and smaller, as well as for deformed
Clear spacing of bars or wires being
developed or lap spliced at least 2db
and clear cover at least db
using s = 0.8. This is the basis for the

Other cases cover and in the absence of minimum ties or stirrups, the

concrete cover requirements of result in minimum

values of cb equal to db. Thus, for “other cases,” the values 25
are based on using (cb + Ktr)/db = 1.0
The user may easily construct simple, useful expressions.
For example, in all members with normalweight concrete (
= 1.0), uncoated reinforcement ( e = 1.0), No. 7 and larger
bottom bars ( t = 1.0) with fc
reinforcement, the expressions reduce to

d db db
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD

4VSZMHIHF]-,7 %QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXIz'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEPz[[[GSRGVIXISVK
0MGIRWII!9RMZIVWMX]SJ8I\EW6IZMWIH7YF%GGSYRX
2SVITVSHYGXMSRSVRIX[SVOMRKTIVQMXXIH[MXLSYXPMGIRWIJVSQ-,7 2SXJSV6IWEPI1(8
  &9-0(-2+'3()6)59-6)1)287*367869'896%0'32'6)8)%'- %2('311)28%6=%'-6

CODE COMMENTARY
or

d db 71d b

Thus, as long as minimum cover of db is provided along

with a minimum clear spacing of 2db, or a minimum clear
cover of db and a minimum clear spacing of db are provided
along with minimum ties or stirrups, then d = 47db. The
penalty for spacing bars closer or providing less cover is the
requirement that d = 71db.

25.4.2.3 For deformed bars or deformed wires, d shall be R25.4.2.3

calculated by: all variables controlling the development length. In Eq.
cb is a factor that represents the least of the side
cover, the concrete cover to the bar or wire (in both cases
fy measured to the center of the bar or wire), or one-half the
3 st se ss
d db center-to-center spacing of the bars or wires. Ktr is a factor
q fc cb K tr
db across potential splitting planes. t is the reinforcement

(cb + Ktr)/db shall not exceed (that is, formerly denoted as “top bar effect”). e is a coating

limit on the product t e. The reinforcement size factor s

Atr
K tr (cb + Ktr)/
sn db. When (cb + Ktr)/db

where n is the number of bars or wires being developed or expected, and an increase in cover or transverse reinforce-
lap spliced along the plane of splitting. It shall be permitted ment is unlikely to increase the anchorage capacity.
to use Ktr = 0 Many practical combinations of side cover, clear cover,
reinforcement is present.

minimum clear cover not less than 2db and minimum clear
spacing not less than 4db -
forcement would have a (cb + Ktr)/db
require a development length of only 28db for the example

Ktr included the

yield strength of transverse reinforcement. The current
expression includes only the area and spacing of the trans-
verse reinforcement and the number of wires or bars being
developed or lap spliced because tests demonstrate that
transverse reinforcement rarely yields during a bond failure
( ).
-
sion results in longer and, hence, more conservative, devel-
opment lengths.

25.4.2.4 For the calculation of d R25.4.2.4 The lightweight factor for calculating devel-
opment length of deformed bars and deformed wire in
tension is the same for all types of lightweight aggregate
concrete. Research does not support the variations of this
factor in Codes prior to 1989 for all-lightweight and sand-
DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD

4VSZMHIHF]-,7 %QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXIz'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEPz[[[GSRGVIXISVK
0MGIRWII!9RMZIVWMX]SJ8I\EW6IZMWIH7YF%GGSYRX
2SVITVSHYGXMSRSVRIX[SVOMRKTIVQMXXIH[MXLSYXPMGIRWIJVSQ-,7 2SXJSV6IWEPI1(8
 &9-0(-2+'3()6)59-6)1)287*367869'896%0'32'6)8)%'- %2('311)28%6=%'-6  

CODE COMMENTARY

SJHIJSVQIHFEVWERHHIJSVQIH[MVIWMRXIRWMSR to be used when the splitting tensile strength of the light-

Value of .
factor Condition factor The epoxy factor e is based on studies (Treece and Jirsa
Lightweight concrete 1989; Johnston and Zia 1982; Mathey and Clifton 1976) of
Lightweight Lightweight concrete, where fct is In accordance the anchorage of epoxy-coated bars that show bond strength
is reduced because the coating prevents adhesion and lowers
Normalweight concrete
Epoxy-coated or zinc and epoxy
dual-coated reinforcement with clear occur. If the cover or spacing is small, a splitting failure
cover less than 3db or clear spacing can occur and the anchorage or bond strength is substan-
less than 6db tially reduced. If the cover and spacing between bars is
Epoxy
Epoxy-coated or zinc and epoxy dual- large, a splitting failure is precluded and the effect of the
e
coated reinforcement for all other 1.2
epoxy coating on anchorage strength is not as large. Studies
conditions
Uncoated or zinc-coated (galvanized)
(Orangun et al. 1977) have shown that although the cover
reinforcement or spacing may be small, the anchorage strength may be
No. 7 and larger bars
increased by adding transverse reinforcement crossing the
Size plane of splitting, and restraining the splitting crack.
No. 6 and smaller bars and deformed
s
wires Because the bond of epoxy-coated bars or zinc and epoxy
More than 12 in. of fresh con- dual-coated bars is already reduced due to the loss of adhe-
Casting crete placed below horizontal 1.3
position reinforcement concrete, an upper limit of 1.7 is established for the product
t
Other of the factors for top reinforcement casting position and
The product t e need not exceed 1.7. epoxy-coated reinforcement or zinc and epoxy dual-coated
reinforcement.
The reinforcement size factor s -
able performance of smaller-diameter reinforcement.
The reinforcement location or casting position factor t
accounts for the position of the reinforcement in freshly
placed concrete. The factor 1.3 is based on research (Jirsa
and Breen 1981; Jeanty et al. 1988). The application of the
casting position factor should be considered in determina-
tion of development lengths for inclined reinforcement.

25.4.3 R25.4.3

25.4.3.1 Development length dh for deformed bars in R25.4.3.1 Study of failures of hooked bars indicate that
tension terminating in a standard hook shall be the greater splitting of the concrete cover in the plane of the hook is
of (a) through (c): the primary cause of failure and that splitting originates at
the inside of the hook where local stress concentrations are
very high. Thus, hook development is a direct function of
f y s es cs r bar diameter db, which governs the magnitude of compres-
(a) db with e, c, r, and
q fc sive stresses on the inside of the hook. Only standard hooks

(b) 8db
(c) 6 in. The hooked bar anchorage provisions give the total
25
development length dh is measured from the critical section
to the outside end (or edge) of the hook.
The effects of bar yield strength, excess reinforcement,

-
verse ties or stirrups are based on recommendations from
and Jirsa et al. (1979).

4VSZMHIHF]-,7 %QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXIz'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEPz[[[GSRGVIXISVK
0MGIRWII!9RMZIVWMX]SJ8I\EW6IZMWIH7YF%GGSYRX
2SVITVSHYGXMSRSVRIX[SVOMRKTIVQMXXIH[MXLSYXPMGIRWIJVSQ-,7 2SXJSV6IWEPI1(8
  &9-0(-2+'3()6)59-6)1)287*367869'896%0'32'6)8)%'- %2('311)28%6=%'-6

CODE COMMENTARY
A minimum value of dh
direct pullout in cases where a hook may be located very
near the critical section.

25.4.3.2 For the calculation of dh R25.4.3.2 Unlike straight bar development, no distinction
c and is made for casting position.
r The epoxy factor e is based on tests (Hamad et al. 1993)
that indicate the development length for hooked bars should

when reinforcement is epoxy coated.

SJLSSOIHFEVWMRXIRWMSR r is based on tests

Value
( ) that indicate closely spaced ties
of at or near the bend portion of a hooked bar are most effec-
factor Condition factor

Lightweight Lightweight concrete -

Normalweight concrete
tion factor r

Epoxy-coated or zinc and epoxy dual-

coated reinforcement
1.2 ties or stirrups perpendicular to the bar being developed,
Epoxy
spaced along the development length dh of the hook. Figure
e Uncoated or zinc-coated (galvanized)
reinforcement
bar being developed along the length of the tail extension of
For No. 11 bar and smaller hooks with side

Cover in a beam-column joint.

c

Other

bars
(1) enclosed along dh within ties or stir-
rups perpendicular to dh at s db, or
(2) enclosed along the bar extension
beyond hook including the bend within ties
reinforcement or stirrups perpendicular to ext at s db
r

smaller bars enclosed along dh within ties

or stirrups perpendicular to dh at s db

Other Fig. R25.4.3.2a—Ties or stirrups placed perpendicular to

db of the
outside of the bend. length dh.
db is the nominal diameter of the hooked bar.

Fig. R25.4.3.2b—Ties or stirrups placed parallel to the bar

-
sion of the hook plus bend.

4VSZMHIHF]-,7 %QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXIz'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEPz[[[GSRGVIXISVK
0MGIRWII!9RMZIVWMX]SJ8I\EW6IZMWIH7YF%GGSYRX
2SVITVSHYGXMSRSVRIX[SVOMRKTIVQMXXIH[MXLSYXPMGIRWIJVSQ-,7 2SXJSV6IWEPI1(8
 &9-0(-2+'3()6)59-6)1)287*367869'896%0'32'6)8)%'- %2('311)28%6=%'-6  

CODE COMMENTARY
25.4.3.3 For bars being developed by a standard hook at R25.4.3.3 Bar hooks are especially susceptible to a
discontinuous ends of members with both side cover and top concrete splitting failure if both side cover (perpendicular to
(or bottom) cover to hook less than 2-1/2 in., (a) through (c) plane of hook) and top or bottom cover (in plane of hook) are

(a) The hook shall be enclosed along dh within ties or stir- ties or stirrups is essential, especially if full bar strength is to
rups perpendicular to dh at s db be developed by a hooked bar with such small cover. Cases

the hook within 2db of the outside of the bend at ends of simply-supported beams, at the free end of canti-
(c) r dh in accordance levers, and at ends of members framing into a joint where
members do not extend beyond the joint. In contrast, if the
where db is the nominal diameter of the hooked bar. calculated bar stress is so low that the hook is not needed for
bar anchorage, ties or stirrups are not necessary. This provi-
sion does not apply for hooked bars at discontinuous ends

sides and perpendicular to the plane of the hook.

Fig. R25.4.3.3

25.4.4 R25.4.4

25.4.4.1 Use of heads to develop deformed bars in tension R25.4.4.1 As used in this section, development describes
cases in which the force in the bar is transferred to the
concrete through a combination of a bearing force at the
(a) Bar shall conform to head and bond forces along the bar. In contrast, Chapter 17
(b) Bar fy anchorage provisions describe cases in which the force in
(c) Bar size shall not exceed No. 11 the bar is transferred through bearing to the concrete at the
(d) Net bearing area of head Abrg shall be at least 4Ab head alone. Headed bars are limited to those types that meet
(e) Concrete shall be normalweight the requirements of Class HA heads in because
(f) Clear cover for bar shall be at least 2db a wide variety of methods are used to attach heads to bars,
(g) Clear spacing between bars shall be at least 4db -

obstructions or interruptions of the bar deformations were

not evaluated in the tests used to formulate the provisions in 25

to those types that meet the criteria in for Class HA

heads.
The provisions for headed deformed bars were formu-
lated with due consideration of the provisions for anchorage
in Chapter 17 and the bearing strength provisions of 22.8
( , ). Chapter 17 contains provi-
sions for headed anchors related to the individual failure
modes of concrete breakout, side-face blowout, and pullout.

4VSZMHIHF]-,7 %QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXIz'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEPz[[[GSRGVIXISVK
0MGIRWII!9RMZIVWMX]SJ8I\EW6IZMWIH7YF%GGSYRX
2SVITVSHYGXMSRSVRIX[SVOMRKTIVQMXXIH[MXLSYXPMGIRWIJVSQ-,7 2SXJSV6IWEPI1(8
  &9-0(-2+'3()6)59-6)1)287*367869'896%0'32'6)8)%'- %2('311)28%6=%'-6

CODE COMMENTARY
These failure modes were considered in the formulation of

fy, maximum bar size of No. 11, and normalweight concrete

are based on the available data from tests (Thompson et al.
, ).
For bars in tension, heads allow the bars to be devel-
oped in a shorter length than required for standard hooks

head size, clear cover, and clear spacing are based on the
lower limits of these parameters used in the tests to establish
the expression for dt

measured to the bar, not to the head. The head is consid-

ered to be part of the bar for the purposes of satisfying the
, and aggregate size
requirements of . To avoid congestion, it may
be desirable to stagger the heads. Headed bars with Abrg <
4Ab have been used in practice, but their performance is not

they should be used only with designs that are supported by

the design of studs or headed stud assemblies used for shear

reinforcement.

25.4.4.2 Development length dt for headed deformed bars R25.4.4.2 The provisions for developing headed deformed
in tension shall be the greatest of (a) through (c): bars give the length of bar, dt, measured from the critical
section to the bearing face of the head, as shown in Fig.

(a) , with e The upper limit on the value of fc

calculating dt is based on the concrete strengths used in
of fc -
(b) 8db verse reinforcement has been shown to be largely ineffec-
(c) 6 in. tive in improving the anchorage of headed deformed bars

development length, such as those allowed for standard

reinforcing bars. Transverse reinforcement, however, helps

limit splitting cracks in the vicinity of the head and for that
reason is recommended.
Where longitudinal headed deformed bars from a beam
or a slab terminate at a supporting member, such as the

supporting member, allowing for cover and avoidance of

interference with column reinforcement, even though the
resulting anchorage length exceeds dt. Extending the bar to
the far side of the column core helps to transfer compressive

to form in such a connection and improves the performance

of the joint.
Where closely spaced headed bars are used, the potential
for concrete breakout failure exists. For joints as shown in

can be precluded by providing anchorage length equal

to or greater than d/1.5 ( ), as shown

4VSZMHIHF]-,7 %QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXIz'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEPz[[[GSRGVIXISVK
0MGIRWII!9RMZIVWMX]SJ8I\EW6IZMWIH7YF%GGSYRX
2SVITVSHYGXMSRSVRIX[SVOMRKTIVQMXXIH[MXLSYXPMGIRWIJVSQ-,7 2SXJSV6IWEPI1(8
 &9-0(-2+'3()6)59-6)1)287*367869'896%0'32'6)8)%'- %2('311)28%6=%'-6  

CODE COMMENTARY

form of hoops and ties to establish a load path in accor-

dance with strut-and-tie modeling principles, as shown in

in accordance with Chapter 23. Note that the strut-and-tie

on a vertical strut from a column extending above the joint.

Beam-column joints at roof-level and portal frames are
vulnerable to joint failure and should be properly detailed to
restrain diagonal cracking through the joint and breakout of
the bars through the top surface.
For cases where concrete breakout is not prevented,

considered in accordance with the provisions of Chapter 17.

Fig. R25.4.4.2a

25

Fig. R25.4.4.2b
dt.

4VSZMHIHF]-,7 %QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXIz'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEPz[[[GSRGVIXISVK
0MGIRWII!9RMZIVWMX]SJ8I\EW6IZMWIH7YF%GGSYRX
2SVITVSHYGXMSRSVRIX[SVOMRKTIVQMXXIH[MXLSYXPMGIRWIJVSQ-,7 2SXJSV6IWEPI1(8
  &9-0(-2+'3()6)59-6)1)287*367869'896%0'32'6)8)%'- %2('311)28%6=%'-6

CODE COMMENTARY

Fig. R25.4.4.2c––Breakout failure precluded in joint by

keeping anchorage length greater than or equal to d

Fig. R25.4.4.2d—Breakout failure precluded in joint by

4VSZMHIHF]-,7 %QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXIz'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEPz[[[GSRGVIXISVK
0MGIRWII!9RMZIVWMX]SJ8I\EW6IZMWIH7YF%GGSYRX
2SVITVSHYGXMSRSVRIX[SVOMRKTIVQMXXIH[MXLSYXPMGIRWIJVSQ-,7 2SXJSV6IWEPI1(8
 &9-0(-2+'3()6)59-6)1)287*367869'896%0'32'6)8)%'- %2('311)28%6=%'-6  

CODE COMMENTARY

Fig. R25.4.4.2e

25.4.4.3 e R25.4.4.3 A 1.2 factor is conservatively used for epoxy-

coated headed deformed reinforcing bars, the same value
for uncoated or zinc-coated (galvanized) bars. used for epoxy-coated standard hooks.

25.4.5 R25.4.5
bars in tension bars in tension

25.4.5.1 Any mechanical attachment or device capable of R25.4.5.1 Anchorage of deformed bars through the use
developing fy of deformed bars shall be permitted, provided of mechanical devices within concrete that do not meet the
requirements in , or are not developed in accordance

consist of a combination of mechanical anchorage plus addi- the head and bar system to develop or anchor the desired
tional embedment length of the deformed bars between the force in the bar, as described in this provision.
critical section and the mechanical attachment or device.

25.4.6 - R25.4.6 -

25.4.6.1 Development length d for welded deformed wire R25.4.6.1 for welded deformed wire rein-
reinforcement in tension measured from the critical section forcement requires the same strength of the weld as required
to the end of wire shall be the greater of (a) and (b), where for welded plain wire reinforcement. Some of the develop- 25
wires in the direction of the development length shall all be ment is assigned to welds and some assigned to the length
deformed D31 or smaller. of deformed wire.

(b) 8 in.

4VSZMHIHF]-,7 %QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXIz'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEPz[[[GSRGVIXISVK
0MGIRWII!9RMZIVWMX]SJ8I\EW6IZMWIH7YF%GGSYRX
2SVITVSHYGXMSRSVRIX[SVOMRKTIVQMXXIH[MXLSYXPMGIRWIJVSQ-,7 2SXJSV6IWEPI1(8
  &9-0(-2+'3()6)59-6)1)287*367869'896%0'32'6)8)%'- %2('311)28%6=%'-6

CODE COMMENTARY
25.4.6.2 For welded deformed wire reinforcement, d R25.4.6.2 The welded deformed wire reinforcement
factor w is applied to the deformed wire development
deformed wire reinforcement factor w
- Tests ( ) have indicated that epoxy-
e = 1.0 coated welded deformed wire reinforcement has essentially
the same development and splice strengths as uncoated
welded deformed wire reinforcement because the cross
wires provide the primary anchorage for the wire. There-
fore, e
of epoxy-coated welded deformed wire reinforcement with
cross wires within the splice or development length.

25.4.6.3 For welded deformed wire reinforcement with at R25.4.6.3

least one cross wire within d that is at least 2 in. from the requirements for welded deformed wire reinforcement with
critical section, w shall be the greater of (a) and (b), and one cross wire within the development length.

(a)

b
(b)

Fig. R25.4.6.3
where s is the spacing between the wires to be developed.

25.4.6.4 For welded deformed wire reinforcement with no

cross wires within d or with a single cross wire less than
2 in. from the critical section, w

25.4.6.5 Where any plain wires, or deformed wires larger R25.4.6.5 Deformed wire larger than D31 is treated as
than D31, are present in the welded deformed wire rein-
forcement in the direction of the development length, the
).

25.4.6.6 Zinc-coated (galvanized) welded deformed wire

25.4.7 R25.4.7
in tension in tension

25.4.7.1 Development length d for welded plain wire R25.4.7.1 for welded plain wire reinforce-
reinforcement in tension measured from the critical section ment requires the same strength of the weld as required for
to the outermost cross wire shall be the greater of (a) and (b) welded deformed wire reinforcement. All of the development
and shall require a minimum of two cross wires within d. is assigned to the welded cross wires; consequently, welded
plain wire reinforcement requires at least two cross wires.

(b) 6 in.

25.4.7.2 d shall be the greater of (a) and (b): R25.4.7.2 -

ments for welded plain wire reinforcement with development
(a) spacing of cross wires + 2 in. primarily dependent on the location of cross wires.
For welded plain wire reinforcement made with small
wires, an embedment of at least two cross wires 2 in. or more
beyond the point of critical section is adequate to develop

4VSZMHIHF]-,7 %QIVMGER'SRGVIXI-RWXMXYXIz'ST]VMKLXIH1EXIVMEPz[[[GSRGVIXISVK
0MGIRWII!9RMZIVWMX]SJ8I\EW6IZMWIH7YF%GGSYRX
2SVITVSHYGXMSRSVRIX[SVOMRKTIVQMXXIH[MXLSYXPMGIRWIJVSQ-,7 2SXJSV6IWEPI1(8
 &9-0(-2+'3()6)59-6)1)287*367869'896%0'32'6)8)%'- %2('311)28%6=%'-6  

CODE COMMENTARY
the full yield strength of the anchored wires. However, for
y b
(b) , where s is the spacing between the welded plain wire reinforcement made with larger closely
c spaced wires, a longer embedment is required with the
wires to be developed, and

Fig. R25.4.7.2

25.4.8 R25.4.8
tension in tension—Development requirements for pretensioned
strand are intended to provide bond integrity for the strength
of the member. Provisions are based on tests performed on
normalweight concrete members with a minimum cover of
2 in. These tests may not represent the behavior of strand in
no-slump concrete. Concrete placement operations should
ensure consolidation of concrete around the strand with
complete contact between the steel and concrete.
The bond of strand is a function of a number of factors,

steel, the stress in the steel, the depth of concrete beneath

the strand, and the method used to transfer the force in the
strand to the concrete. For bonded applications, quality

strand is capable of adequate bond (Rose and Russell 1997;

Logan 1997). The precast concrete manufacturer may rely

has bond characteristics that comply with this section.

This section does not apply to plain wires, to end-
anchored tendons, or to unstressed strand. The develop-
ment length for plain wire could be considerably greater
due to the absence of mechanical interlock. Flexural bond

Unstressed prestressing steel is sometimes used as integrity

reinforcement in precast concrete structures; however, there
are limited data available regarding the bond length required
to ensure development of the yield strength of the reinforce-
ment (Salmons and McCrate 1977).

25.4.8.1 Development length d of pretensioned seven- R25.4.8.1 25

wire strands in tension shall be in accordance with (a) and transfer length of the strand, that is, the distance over which
(b): the strand should be bonded to the concrete to develop the
effective prestress in the prestressing steel, fse. The second
term represents the additional length over which the strand
se ps se
(a) d b b should be bonded so that the stress in the prestressing steel at
nominal strength of the member, fps, may develop.
Exploratory tests ( ) that studied
(b) If bonding of a strand does not extend to end of the effect of debonded strand (bond not permitted to extend
member, and design includes tension at service loads to the ends of members) on performance of pretensioned

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CODE COMMENTARY
in the precompressed tension zone, d calculated by Eq. girders indicated that the performance of these girders with

-
sioned girders with strand fully bonded to ends of girders.
Accordingly, twice the development length is required for
strand not bonded through to the end of a member. Subse-
quent tests (Rabbat et al. 1979) indicated that in preten-
sioned members designed for zero tension in the concrete
under service load conditions (refer to ), the develop-
ment length for debonded strands need not be increased by a
factor of 2. For analysis of sections with debonded strands at
locations where strand is not fully developed, the procedure
outlined in 21.2.3 is provided.

25.4.8.2 Seven-wire strand shall be bonded at least d

25.4.8.3 Embedment less than d shall be permitted at a R25.4.8.3

section of a member, provided the design strand stress at that between steel stress and the distance over which the strand
section does not exceed values obtained from the bilinear
idealized variation of strand stress may be used for analyzing
sections within the development region (Martin and Korkosz
; ). The expressions for transfer length
and for the additional bonded length necessary to develop an
increase in stress of (fps – fse) are based on tests of members

for which the maximum value of fps Kaar

; ; Kaar et al. 1963).

Fig. R25.4.8.3—Idealized bilinear relationship between

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CODE COMMENTARY
25.4.9 R25.4.9

25.4.9.1 Development length dc for deformed bars and R25.4.9.1

deformed wires in compression shall be the greater of (a) is not present for bars and wires in compression, and usually
and (b) -
-
sion than for tension.
(b) 8 in.

2
25.4.9.2 dc shall be the greater of (a) and (b), using the R25.4.9.2 /lb.
The term is provided in the expression for development

fy compression development in lightweight concrete but that

r
(a) db splitting is more likely in lightweight concrete.
fc

fy rdb

25.4.9.3 For the calculation of dc R25.4.9.3

r shall percent when the reinforcement is enclosed within closely
spaced spirals, ties, or hoops.

FEVWERH[MVIWMRGSQTVIWWMSR
Value of
factor Condition factor
Lightweight concrete
Lightweight Lightweight concrete, if fct is In accordance

Normalweight concrete
Reinforcement enclosed within (1),

(1) a spiral
(2) a circular continuously wound tie
with db
reinforcement
r
on center

Other

25.4.10 R25.4.10

25.4.10.1 R25.4.10.1 A reduction in development length is permitted

in limited circumstances if excess reinforcement is provided. 25
(As,required)/
(As,provided) -

25.4.10.2 A reduction of development length in accor- R25.4.10.2 The excess reinforcement factor (As,required/
As,provided), applicable to deformed bars without heads, is not
applicable for headed bars where force is transferred through

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CODE COMMENTARY
(a) At noncontinuous supports a combination of bearing at the head and bond along the bar.
(b) At locations where anchorage or development for fy is Concrete breakout due to bearing at the head was considered
required
(c) Where bars are required to be continuous breakout strength of a headed bar is a function of the embed-
(d) For headed and mechanically anchored deformed ), a
reinforcement reduction in development length with the application of
(e) In seismic-force-resisting systems in structures the excess reinforcement factor could result in a potential
assigned to Seismic Design Categories D, E, or F concrete breakout failure.

resisting-system, loads greater than those anticipated in

design may cause reversal of moment at supports; some
positive reinforcement should be fully developed into
the support. This anchorage is required to ensure ductile
response in the event of serious overstress, such as from
-
ment at lower stresses.
The reduction factor based on area is not to be used in
those cases where anchorage development for full fy is
required. For example, the excess reinforcement factor does
not apply for development of shrinkage and temperature
reinforcement according to or for development of
reinforcement provided according to , 8.8.1.6, 9.7.7,
and 9.8.1.6.

{7TPMGIW 6{7TPMGIW
25.5.1 General R25.5.1 Lap splice lengths of longitudinal reinforcement
in columns should be calculated in accordance with ,
, and this section.

25.5.1.1 Lap splices shall not be permitted for bars larger R25.5.1.1 Because of lack of adequate experimental data

in tension, lap splicing of these bar sizes is prohibited except

25.5.1.2 For contact lap splices, minimum clear spacing

between the contact lap splice and adjacent splices or bars
shall be in accordance with the requirements for individual

25.5.1.3 R25.5.1.3 If individual bars in noncontact lap splices

transverse center-to-center spacing of spliced bars shall not are too widely spaced, an unreinforced section is created.

and 6 in. slope) is considered a minimum precaution. The 6 in.

maximum spacing is added because most research available
on the lap splicing of deformed bars was conducted with
reinforcement within this spacing.

25.5.1.4 Reduction of development length in accordance R25.5.1.4 The development length d used to obtain lap
length should be based on fy -
lengths.
As
should not be used.

25.5.1.5 Lap splices of bundled bars shall be in accor-

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