TOPIC: Remainder and Factor Theorem

Introduction
The remainder and factor theorem are two theorems that relate the zeros of a polynomial
with its linear factors. The theorem is often used to help factorize polynomials without the
use of long division. This gives us a powerful tool to factor polynomials.
However, understanding this topic, particularly polynomial long division and finding of factors
might be an uphill struggle on roller skates for a fraction of learners or perhaps a significant
majority because of the recursive algebraic operations which seems rather complicated at
face value. Certain learners find it rather challenging to make head or tail of polynomial long
division and much less circumvent polynomial factorisation.
We claim that understanding certain concepts of this topic, interpreting the remainder
theorem when the divisor is 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 and establishing the connection between factors and zeros
of a polynomial, and how this relates to the graph of a polynomial function, in particular, may come
with challenges to learners as some teachers fall short of an explanation or a better way to
help learners connect dots.
In this presentation we will endeavour to give a critique of the problems encountered by
both teachers and learners as they interact in lessons on remainder and factor theorem as
well as strive to recommend a few doses.
Definition of a polynomial

A polynomial function is a function such as a quadratic, a cubic, a quartic, and so on, involving
only non-negative integer powers of 𝑥. We can give a general definition of a polynomial and
define its degree.
A polynomial function is a function of the form
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + … … … . . +𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
where the 𝑎’s are called coefficients of a polynomial and 𝑛 is a positive integer called the
degree of a polynomial.
Although this general formula might look quite complicated, particular examples are much
simpler. For example,
𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 2
is a polynomial with degree 3, as 3 is the highest power of 𝑥 in the formula. And
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 7 + 4𝑥 5 + 1
is a polynomial of degree 7, as 7 is the highest power of 𝑥. Notice here that we don’t need
every power of 𝑥 up to 7: we only need to know the highest power to find out the degree.
The degree of a polynomial is the highest power of 𝑥 in its expression. Constant (nonzero)
polynomials, linear polynomials, quadratics, cubics and quartics are polynomials of degree 0,
1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively. The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 is also a polynomial, but we say that its
degree is ‘undefined’.

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 (a) (i) Problems encountered by learners

1. Polynomial Long Division

The prime reason learners would find polynomial long division somewhat daunting it’s
because of the recursive algebraic operations which seems rather complicated at face value.
For instance, the learner might be tasked to divide 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 8 𝑏𝑦 (𝑥 − 2).
(a) (iii) How to assist learners.
When you divide one polynomial by another, it may divide exactly, or there may be a
remainder, just as in arithmetic. First, let’s consider what happens when we divide numbers.
Example (a): Say we try to divide 13 𝑏𝑦 5. We will get the answer 2 and have a remainder of
3. We could write this as:
13 3
=2
5 5
13 3
=2+5
5

Another way of thinking about this is 13 = 2 × 5 + 3 (when you multiply throughout by 5).
Note that 13 is called the dividend, 5 is called the divisor, 2 is called the quotient and 3 is the
remainder.
Example (b), Long Division: In primary school, we all may have learnt to divide larger numbers
as follows. Let’s divide 3,763 𝑏𝑦 23.

163
23 3763
23 we multiply 23 𝑏𝑦 1 = 23.
145 37 − 23 = 14. Then bring down the 5.
138 multiply 23 𝑏𝑦 6 = 138.
76 145 − 138 = 7. Bring down 6.
69 multiply 23 𝑏𝑦 6 = 69.
7 76 − 69 = 7. This is the remainder.
7
So we conclude that 3,763 ÷ 23 = 163 + 23, or putting it another way,

3,763 = 163 × 23 + 7.
This rearrangement helps to give one method of dividing polynomials. Division of polynomials
is an extension of arithmetic division. If we divide a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) by (𝑥 − 𝑟), we obtain a
result of the form: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑞(𝑥)(𝑥 − 𝑟) + 𝑅.

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When working with polynomials, learners must remember that if you are dividing by a linear
expression, the quotient is of order one less than the dividend (e.g. for a quartic, the quotient
is cubic) and the remainder, if any, is a constant term.
Learners should be reminded that they should first understand numerical long division as it
provides them with a bridge to cross over to polynomial long division.

For instance, let’s consider an example of polynomial division.

Example 2: divide 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 8 𝑏𝑦 (𝑥 − 2).

3 x  11
x  2 3x  5 x  8
2

3𝑥 2 − 6 multiply (𝑥 − 3)𝑏𝑦 3𝑥 = 3𝑥 2 − 6.
11𝑥 − 8 5𝑥 − (6𝑥) = 11𝑥. Bring down −8.
11𝑥 − 22 multiply (𝑥 − 2) 𝑏𝑦 11 = 11𝑥 − 22.
14 −8 − (−22) = 14 the remainder.
An alternative method can be availed to the learners who continue to find long
division problematic. Consider the following for instance,
Divide 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 𝑏𝑦 𝑥 + 2.
As mentioned earlier, since the polynomial has a degree of 3 it implies that its
quotient when divided by a linear binomial (𝑥 + 2), will be a quadratic expression
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 which happens to have a degree of 2 and the remainder is a constant.
In terms 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑞(𝑥)(𝑥 − 𝑟) + 𝑅, we have

2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 = (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)(𝑥 + 2) + 𝑅 , expanding we obtain

2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑥(𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) + 2(𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) + 𝑅
2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 2𝑎𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑥 + 2𝑐 + 𝑅
2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + (𝑏 + 2𝑎)𝑥 2 + (𝑐 + 2𝑏)𝑥 + 2𝑐 + 𝑅

Equating coefficients of 𝑥 3  𝑎 = 2.
Equating coefficients of 𝑥 2  𝑏 + 2𝑎 = 3  𝑏 + 4 = 3  𝑏 = −1
Equating coefficients of 𝑥  𝑐 + 2𝑏 = −1  𝑐 − 2 = −1  𝑐 = 1
Equating constant terms  2𝑐 + 𝑅 = 1  2 + 𝑅 = 1  𝑅 = −1

Thence, 2𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 = (2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2) − 1.

Learners should not be put off by a negative remainder as this is quite acceptable in
polynomial divisions. Synthetic method is also another avenue to polynomial division.

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 2. Finding Factors of a Polynomial.
If one of the factors has been given, then the alternative method above might be
more practicable when finding the rest of the factors. However, if no factor has been
given the learner may be prompted to trying out a variety of linear binomials, to see if
they are factors or not by factor theorem. This definitely is time consuming.
(a)(iii) How to assist learners.

To narrow the choices down, the learner must note that for any polynomial with
degree 𝑛 ≥ 2, the polynomial has at most 𝑛 factors. Take for instance,
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 6. As 𝑓(𝑥) is of the third degree, it will have at most three
linear factors of the form 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑎, 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑏, 𝑟𝑥 + 𝑐. Then,
𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 6 = (𝑝𝑥 + 𝑎)( 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑏)( 𝑟𝑥 + 𝑐). Notice that the constant term

6 = 𝑎 × 𝑏 × 𝑐 , which implies that the possible factors of 𝑓(𝑥) come from a much
smaller set of possibilities. Since 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are factors of 6, the factors of 𝑓(𝑥) come from
𝑥 ± 1, 𝑥 ± 2, 𝑥 ± 3, 𝑥 ± 6. Hence only has to try from that set of possibilities to find
the first factor and the rest can be obtained by whichever acceptable method the
learner finds comfortable.

Problems encountered by teachers.

1. Interpretation of the remainder theory when the divisor is 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃 by the teacher.
In many of the cases that come up, some teachers of mathematics may quite alright
have taught the remainder theorem and yet when it comes to dividing by a binomial
of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏, they simply just give it to the learners that they should evaluate
𝑏
𝑓 (− 𝑎) without a logical explanation as to why.

(a) (iv) Circumvention of the problem.

Teachers should make clarity to the pupils that given the divisor (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏), the pupil
should equate the divisor to zero and then solve for 𝑥, so that
−𝑏 −𝑏
𝑥= . Consequently, the remainder is 𝑓 ( 𝑎 ).
𝑎

2. Factors, Zeros and the graph of a Polynomial.

Most teachers introduce the term” zeros” of a polynomial to the leaners without really
explaining why they are called zeros. This creates a lot of misunderstanding of concepts in
learners and they tend to use it as it is without any inquiry.

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 (a)(iv) Circumvention of the problem.

Teachers should endeavour to make learners understand that for a polynomial function 𝑝
and a number 𝑎, the remainder on division by 𝑥 − 𝑎 is the value 𝑝(𝑎) and extend this to the
idea that 𝑝(𝑎) = 0 if and only if (𝑥 − 𝑎) is a factor of the polynomial. Accordingly, 𝑥 = 𝑎 is
called the zero of a polynomial function because at 𝑥 = 𝑎 that is where the graph of the
function happens to intercept the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, that is where the functional value (𝑦 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)
is equal to zero. Recapitulating, (Zero = Root = Solution = x-intercept).

Teachers should dare not forget that if the same factor (𝑥 – 𝑎) occurs 𝑘 times, then the zero
𝑎 is called a zero with multiplicity 𝑎.
Even Multiplicity →Graph touches 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and turns around.
Odd Multiplicity →Graph crosses 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

(a) (v) Teaching aids

The graph can help learners visualise the zeros of a polynomial. With a graph,
learners are able to see at which points the function 𝑃(𝑥) is equal to zero. This can
help learners understand the concept of zeros of a polynomial.

In conclusion, it could be more practicable if teachers of mathematics had the passion

to escort and monitor their leaners through learning activities that function as
interactive conduits to get them to the next stage, because the learner obtains and
raises new understandings by presenting on their prior knowledge through the
support delivered by more capable individuals.

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