Joint MSc in Electrical Engineering (JMEE) Program

6878- Power Quality and Standards for Microgrids

Fault Analysis

Dr. Fouad Zaro

Electrical Engineering
Palestine Polytechnic University
2018
 FAULT STUDIES
Fault analysis is the calculation of fault
currents and voltages.
Applications
(1) Design
9 Sizing of circuit breakers and fuses
9 Design of good protective system
(2) Expansion Planning
Determine the adequacy of existing
protective gear and relaying scheme and
recommend changes if needed
(3) Industrial systems
In addition to above considerations, the
impact of voltage drop in the
performance of large induction motors

Types of Faults
The commonly occurring faults are:
1. Line-to-Ground (L-G) faults (70%)
2. Line-to-Line (L-L) faults (15%)
3. Line-to-Line-to-Ground (L-L-G) faults (10%)
4. Line-to-Line-to-Line (L-L-L) faults (2%)
5. Line-to-Line-to-Line-to-Ground (L-L-L-G) faults
(3%)
In general most faults are not balanced. This
makes per phase analysis very difficult.

1
Fault Impedance
Unless the exact situation is known faults are
usually modeled as ideal short circuits. The
terms bolted fault or solid fault are sometimes
used to describe ideal short circuits.
The assumption of bolted fault is conservative.

Information Available from a Fault Study

1. Fault current levels, for sizing breakers or
comparing to existing breakers
2. Line currents, voltages, phase angles for
rely settings and fuse selection

Machine Reactances During Short Circuit

A faulted machine (running under no load)

will have phase currents that are characterized
by
9 A decaying DC transient
9 A symmetrical AC wave whose
magnitude is initially high but decrease
to a constant magnitude after some time.
Generally the fault current is the same as that
of RL series circuit shown.

2
 t=0
Vm sin(ωt + α ) I (t )

−t
I (t ) = I m sin(ωt + α − γ ) − I m e τ
sin(α − γ )
where Im = Vm / Z, τ = L / R, γ =tan-1(ωL/R)
Subtransient
period
2.0

Transient period Steady state period

1.0
Current

0.0

-1.0

0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60

Time (s)
Phase current for a faulted machine

Machine Reactances
3 types of reactances are used to describe the
transient behavior of a faulted machine

3
x d''→ direct axis subtransient reactance
xd' → direct axis transient reactance
xd → direct axis synchronous reactance
In fault studies x d'' or xd' is used depending on
the application and type of machine

Machine Model
ra x
E I Vt
'
where x = { x d or xd } is the machine
''

reactance and E = { E '' or E ' } is the internal

emf of machine.
I and E can always be determined from Vt (e.g
via load flow) that is E = Vt − (ra + jxd ) I
'' ''

BALANCED SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Assume a balanced fault is applied at an
arbitrary bus k. This implies that we can use
per phase analysis. Also let Zbus is the bus
impedance matrix that includes machine
reactances.

4
So far as we are interested in bus k, the
network can be modeled by
k k

Z th
Vth
Network
⇒
Vth is the open circuit voltage measured at bus
k, i.e. the Thevenin voltage
Zth is the impedance measured by killing all
sources and injecting a current at bus k, i.e
Vk
Z th = = (Z bus )kk = Z kk
Ik Ik ≠0
I j =0, j≠ k

Thus,
Vth = Vk0 (pre-fault voltage), and
Zth = Zkk
A fault at bus k through fault impedance Zf can
be modeled as
k

Z kk If
+ 0
− Vk
Zf

V k0
If =
Z kk + Z f

5
Also, the short circuit can be modeled by
adding a cancellation source as shown.
k

Z kk − I f
Zf
+
1 − Vk0 Vk0 +
− 2
+
− Vk0 − 3

Applying superposition
If = { If due to sources 1&2 and kill source 3}
+ { If due to source 3 and kill sources 1&2}
− ( − V k0 ) V k0
If =0+ =
Z kk + Z f Z kk + Z f

We usually want additional information about

the network such as voltage and line currents.
Assume
0
V bus = [V10 . V k0 . V n0 ]T pre-fault voltages
then,
0 0
V bus = Z bus I bus impact of all sources except #3
The effect of source 3 acting alone causes
system voltage changes determined by
⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ − Z 1k I f ⎤
⎢ . ⎥ ⎢ . ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
∆V bus = Z bus ⎢− I f
⎥ ← k bus = ⎢ − Z kk I f ⎥
th

⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ . ⎥
⎢⎣ . ⎥⎦ ⎢ − Z nk I f ⎥
⎣ ⎦

6
By superposition, the post fault voltages are
f 0
V bus =V bus + ∆V bus

i.e.,
V1 f = V10 − Z 1 k I f
.
V k f = V k0 − Z kk I f
.
V n f = V n0 − Z nk I f
From the kth equation, since V k = Z f I f , hence
f

V k0
If =
Z kk + Z f
and
Z ik
Vi = Vi −
f 0
V k0 , i ≠ k
Z kk + Z f
If Zf = 0, i.e. solid fault then
V k0
If = V f
=0
Z kk k

and
Z ik 0
Vi f
= Vi 0
− Vk , i≠ k
Z kk

7
Example
3
j 0.1 j 0.1

1 j 0.1 2
j 0.05 j 0.025
j 0.1 j 0.05

Assume V10 = V20 = V30 = 1.0 pu and the fault

is solid one. Find the fault currents if the fault
occurs at buses 1, 2, and 3. For the fault at bus
3, find the post fault bus voltages and line
currents.
Solution
3
j 0 .1 j 0.1

1 j 0 .1 2
j 0.15 j 0.075

Form Zbus
⎡ 0 . 073 0 . 0386 0 . 0558 ⎤
Z bus = j ⎢⎢ 0 . 0386 0 . 0558 0 . 0472 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 . 0558 0 . 0472 0 . 1014 ⎥⎦
Fault at bus 1
If = 1 / Z11 = 1 / j0.073 = -j 13.7 pu
Fault at bus 2
If = 1 / Z22 = 1 / j0.0558 = -j 17.9 pu

8
Fault at bus 3
If = 1 / Z33 = 1 / j0.1014 = -j 9.86 pu
Post fault voltages for a fault at bus 3
Z 13 0 0 . 0558
V1 f = 1 . 0 − V3 = 1 − = 0 . 45 pu
Z 33 0 . 1014
Z 0 . 0472
V2f = 1 . 0 − 23 V 30 = 1 − = 0 . 535 pu
Z 33 0 . 1014
V 3 f = 0 .0
Line currents for a fault at bus 3
V1 f − V 2 f 0 . 45 − 0 . 535
I 12 = = = j 0 . 85 pu
z 12 j 0 .1
V2f − V3f 0 . 535 − 0
I 23 = = = − j 5 . 35 pu
z 23 j 0 .1
V 3 f − V1 f 0 − 0 . 45
I 31 = = = j 4 . 5 pu
z 31 j 0 .1

Comments
1. Normal prefault load currents are nearly in
phase with the voltage
2. Short circuit currents give rise to currents
lagging voltage by ≈ 90˚ (X >> R)
3. The magnitudes of short circuit currents
exceed those of load currents by a
significant factor (A factor of 10 or more is
common)
9
4. One can ignore prefault currents in some
studies
5. The fault levels depend greatly on the
'
choice of generator reactances ( x d or xd )
''

6. To include load currents we apply

superposition. For example
I 12 = I 120 + I 12f where I 120 is the current
f
determined by load flow solution and I 12
is the post fault current calculated by fault
formula.

Fault Level (Short Circuit Capacity)

For a solid fault, Zf = 0 and If = Vth / Zth
Short Circuit Capacity, SCC = Vth If = Vth2 / Zth
If Vth is in pu then
SCC ≈ 1 / Zth in pu MVA
Comments
9 SCC is a measure of voltage stiffness
9 An infinite bus has Zth = 0, i.e. SCC = ∞
9 SCC can be used to model a utility network
supplying say an industrial plant
k k

Industrial Industrial
Utility
Plant Plant
Z th = 1 SCC
⇒
10
 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Unbalanced systems can be analyzed by the
method of symmetrical components. It is
essentially a transformation matrix for
mapping the power system from abc reference
to symmetrical component reference and vice
versa.
Problem in Analysis in
abc Symmetrical
Components

Definition
An arbitrary unbalanced three-phase set of
phasors (e.g Va, Vb, Vc) can be resolved into
three symmetrical component sets, namely

1. Positive-sequence set
Vc1
120D
120 D

120D
Va1
Vb1
9 phase sequence is abc (original system)
9 |Va1| = |Vb1| = |Vc1|
9 120˚ phase shift

1
2. Negative-sequence set
Vb 2
120D
120D Va 2
120D

Vc 2
9 phase sequence is acb (opposite)
9 |Va1| = |Vb1| = |Vc1|
9 120˚ phase shift

3. Zero-sequence set
Vc 0
Vb 0
Va 0

9 |Va1| = |Vb1| = |Vc1|

9 0˚ phase shift (in phase)

The notation 0, 1, 2 are used to represent zero,

positive, and negative sequence respectively.
The seq. comp. of phasor Va are Va1, Va2, Va0
The seq. comp. of phasor Vb are Vb1, Vb2, Vb0
The seq. comp. of phasor Vc are Vc1, Vc2, Vc0
By definition
Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2
Vb = Vb0 + Vb1 + Vb2
Vc = Vc0 + Vc1 + Vc2
Similar definitions can be made of currents.
2
Let a = 1∠120 , then a = 1∠240 , a = 1∠360 = 1 , and
D 2 D 3 D

1+a+a2=0. Hence,
Vb1 = a2 Va1 Vc1 = a Va1
Vb2 = a Va2 Vc2 = a2 Va2
Vb0 = Vc0 = Va0
Hence, phase voltages can be expressed in
terms of symmetrical components of phase a
as follows
Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2
Vb = Va0 + a2 Va1 + a Va2
Vc = Va0 + a Va1 + a2 Va2
In vector-matrix notation,
[V p ] = [T ][V s ]
where
[V p ] = [Va Vb Vc ]T phase quantities
[V s ] = [Va 0 Va1 Va 2 ]T symmetrical component
quantities
⎡1 1 1⎤
[T ] = ⎢⎢1 a 2 a ⎥⎥
Transformation matrix 012→abc
⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦
also
⎡1 1 1⎤
1
[T ]−1 = ⎢⎢1 a a 2 ⎥⎥ inverse transformation matrix
3
⎢⎣1 a 2 a ⎥⎦

abc → 012
3
Example 1
Three phase system with a neutral return
In = Ia + Ib + Ic
⎡Ia ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡Ia0 ⎤
I n = [1 1 1] ⎢⎢ I b ⎥⎥ = [1 1 1] ⎢⎢1 a 2 a ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ I a1 ⎥⎥ = 3I a 0
⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I a 2 ⎥⎦
i.e. neutral currents are zero sequence currents.
Neutral current can flow only if zero sequence
currents exist.

Example 2
A balanced three phase system with
V a = V∠ α
Vb = V∠α − 120 = a 2V∠α
Vc = V∠α − 240 = aV∠α
Then,
⎡Va 0 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢V ⎥ = V∠α ⎢1 a a 2 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢a 2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢V∠α ⎥⎥
⎢ a1 ⎥ 3 ⎢
⎢⎣Va 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a 2 a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
i.e. A balanced system can contain only
positive sequence voltages and currents. A
balanced network is sometimes called a
positive sequence network.

4
Power in Terms of Symmetrical Components
S = Va Ia* + Vb Ib* + Vc Ic*
S = [V p ]T [ I p ]* = [T V s ]T [T I s ]*
= [V s ]T [T ]T [T ]*[ I s ]* = 3[V s ]T [ I s ]*
= 3(Va 0 I a 0 + Va1 I a1 + Va 2 I a 2 )

Sequence Impedances of Machines

+
Zs Ia
Ea Va
Eb
Zs Ib
Zn Z s Ec +
Ic Vb
+
V_c _ _

In
The synchronous machine generates balanced
emf’s, i.e.
⎡ Ea ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ E ⎥ = ⎢a 2 ⎥ E
⎢ b⎥ ⎢ ⎥ a
⎢⎣ Ec ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ a ⎥⎦

Applying KVL to each phase

Va = Ea – Zs Ia – Zn In
Vb = Eb – Zs Ib – Zn In
Vc = Ec – Zs Ic – Zn In
5
For, In = Ia + Ib + Ic we can write in matrix
form
⎡Va ⎤ ⎡ Ea ⎤ ⎡ Z s + Z n Zn Zn ⎤⎡Ia ⎤
⎢V ⎥ = ⎢ E ⎥ − ⎢ Z Zs + Zn Z n ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ I b ⎥⎥
⎢ b⎥ ⎢ b⎥ ⎢ n

⎢⎣Vc ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Ec ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z n Zn Z s + Z n ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦
i.e. machine terminal voltages are related to
stator emf’s in compact form as follows
[V p ] = [ E p ] − [ Z p ][ I p ]
Transforming to symmetrical components
[T ][V s ] = [T ][ E s ] − [ Z p ][T ][ I s ]
Hence,
[V s ] = [ E s ] − [T ]−1[ Z p ][T ][ I s ]
[V s ] = [ E s ] − [ Z s ][ I s ]
where
⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ Z s + Z n Zn Z n ⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤
1⎢
[ Z s ] = ⎢1 a a 2 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ Z n Zs + Zn Z n ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢1 a 2 a ⎥⎥
3
⎢⎣1 a 2 a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z n Zn Z s + Z n ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦
⎡ Z s + 3Z n 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ Z 0 0 0 ⎤
= ⎢⎢ 0 Z s 0 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ 0 Z1 0 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 Z s ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 Z 2 ⎥⎦
⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡0⎤
1
[ E s ] = [T ]−1[ E p ] = ⎢⎢1 a a 2 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢a 2 ⎥⎥ Ea = ⎢⎢ Ea ⎥⎥
3
⎢⎣1 a 2 a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦

6
⎡Va 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ Z 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎡I a0 ⎤
⎢V ⎥ = ⎢ E ⎥ − ⎢ 0 Z1 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ I a1 ⎥⎥
⎢ a1 ⎥ ⎢ a ⎥ ⎢
⎢⎣Va 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 Z 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I a 2 ⎥⎦
Thus,
Va0 = 0 – Z0 Ia0
Va1 = Ea – Z1 Ia1
Va2 = 0 – Z2 Ia2
Note: the equations are decoupled

Comments
1. There is zero coupling among the sequence
component systems
2. Only the positive sequence system has an
induced emf
3. The sequence impedance are all different
4. Since Ea is measured with respect to
neutral, Va0, Va1, and Va2 are also w.r.t.
neutral. In practice, phase voltages are
measured w.r.t. ground. If machine is
grounded through an impedance Zn, then
Vn = – Zn In = – Zn (3Ia0) = – (3Zn) Ia0
5. Machine sequence impedances are
obtained from tests supplied by the
'
''
x
manufacturer Z1 = { d or d }, Z2 ≈ x d
x ''

6. Generator sequence networks are as shown

7
 +
Ia0
+ + Z0 Va 0
Z1 I a1 Ia2
Z2
Va1 Va 2 _ n
Ea _
n n 3Z n
_

Sequence Impedances of Transmission Lines

Ia
a
Ib
b

Ic
c
In
n

Series voltage drop across line w.r.t. neutral

ground
[ ∆V p ] = [ Z p ][ I p ]
where [∆V p ] = [∆Van ∆Vbn ∆Vcn ] , and [ Z p ] is
T

the transmission line series impedance matrix.

If line is transposed then [ Z p ] has the form

⎡Zs Zm Zm ⎤
[ Z p ] = ⎢⎢ Z m Zs Z m ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ Z m Zm Z s ⎥⎦

8
Transforming to symmetrical components,
[T ][∆V s ] = [ Z p ][T ][ I s ]

Hence,
[ ∆V s ] = [T ]−1[ Z p ][T ][ I s ]
[ ∆V s ] = [ Z s ][ I s ]

where
⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ Z s Z m Z m ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤
1
[ Z s ] = ⎢⎢1 a a 2 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ Z m Z s Z m ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢1 a 2 a ⎥⎥
3
⎢⎣1 a 2 a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z m Z m Z s ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦
⎡Z s + 2Z m 0 0 ⎤ ⎡Z 0 0 0⎤
= ⎢⎢ 0 Zs − Zm 0 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ 0 Z1 0 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 Z s − Z m ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 Z 2 ⎥⎦
Note: Z1 = Z2

Comments
1. The matrix [ Z s ] is diagonal
2. Positive sequence impedance and negative
sequence impedance are equal
3. Z0 is much larger than Z1 and Z2
4. Z1 = Z2 = per phase reactance of line
5. Z0 is determined empirically

9
Sequence Impedances of Y and ∆ Loads

1. Grounded Y

ZY Zn
ZY
n
ZY

In = Ia + Ib + Ic = 3 Ia0

⎡Va ⎤ ⎡Van ⎤ ⎡Vn ⎤ ⎡Ia ⎤ ⎡1⎤

⎢V ⎥ = ⎢V ⎥ + ⎢V ⎥ = Z ⎢ I ⎥ + 3Z I ⎢1⎥
⎢ b ⎥ ⎢ bn ⎥ ⎢ n ⎥ Y ⎢ b⎥ n a0 ⎢ ⎥

⎢⎣Vc ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Vcn ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Vn ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1⎥⎦

⎡1⎤
[V p ] = Z Y [ I p ] + 3Z n I a 0 ⎢⎢1⎥⎥
⎢⎣1⎥⎦
Transforming to symmetrical components,
⎡1⎤
[T ][V s ] = Z Y [T ][ I s ] + 3Z n I a 0 ⎢⎢1⎥⎥
⎢⎣1⎥⎦
Hence,

10
 ⎡1⎤
[V s ] = Z Y [ I s ] + 3Z n I ao [T ]−1 ⎢⎢1⎥⎥
⎢⎣1⎥⎦
⎡Va 0 ⎤ ⎡Ia0 ⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡ ZY + 3Z n 0 0 ⎤ ⎡Ia0 ⎤
⎢V ⎥ = Z ⎢ I ⎥ + 3Z I ⎢0⎥ = ⎢ 0 ZY 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ I a1 ⎥⎥
⎢ a1 ⎥ Y ⎢ a1 ⎥ n a0 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢
⎢⎣Va 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 ZY ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I a 2 ⎥⎦
⎡Z 0 0 0 ⎤ ⎡I a0 ⎤
= ⎢⎢ 0 Z1 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ I a1 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 Z 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I a 2 ⎥⎦
Note: Z1 = Z2 = ZY and Z0 = ZY + 3 Zn
+
Ia0
I a1
+ Ia2
+
Z Y Va 0
ZY
Z Y Va1 Va 2 _ n
_
n n 3Z n
_

2. Ungrounded Y
ZY
ZY
n
ZY

Same as grounded Y except Zn = ∞. Hence,

Note: Z1 = Z2 = ZY and Z0 = ∞

11
 +
Ia0
I a1
+ Ia2
+ Z Y Va 0
ZY
Z Y Va1 Va 2 _ n
_
n n
_

3. ∆-Connection
Z∆ Z∆

Z∆

Obviously, a ∆-connection can not provide a

path through neutral. Therefore, the line
currents flowing into ∆-connection cannot
contain any zero sequence components.
Sometimes single-phase circulating currents
can be produced in the ∆-connected
transformers and generators by either
induction or zero sequence generated voltages.
Transforming ∆-Y, ZY = Z∆ / 3

+
I
+ Ia2
Z ∆ a1 Z∆ I a0
+
Va1 Va 2 Z∆ Va 0
3 3 _
_ n n_
n

12
Sequence Impedances of Transformers

1. Positive & Negative Sequence Impedances

Since the transformer is a static device, the

impedance will not change if the phase
sequence is changed from abc to acb.
Therefore,
Z1 = Z2 = transformer leakage impedance

Phase Shift

A Y-∆ transformer introduces a phase shift

between the primary and secondary terminals.
The phase shift is different for positive and
negative sequence voltages and currents.
Vab Vb 2
Vc1
30D Va 2
− 30D
Va1
Vb1 Vc 2 Vab

Rule: If a transformer imparts a phase shift of

α degrees to the positive sequence
voltages and currents then it will impart

13
 a phase shift of –α degrees to the
positive sequence voltages and currents.
The value of α depends on the connection. The
American standard sets α to be 30˚ between
the HV side (line-to-neutral voltages) and the
LV side (line-to-neutral voltages) regardless of
whether transformer is Y-∆ or ∆-Y.
This must be reflected in the fault calculations
since it affects both the magnitude as well as
the angle of the phase components of fault
contributions for unsymmetrical faults.

2. Zero Sequence Impedance

This depends on:

(a) Winding type (∆ or Y)
(b) Neutral grounding
(c) What terminal we look into

Note: If the magnetizing current is neglected,

no current flows in the primary unless current
flows in the secondary
There are 5 possible connections of a
transformer as follows.

14
Case A: Y-Y Bank, Both Neutrals Grounded

ZN Zn

Since both neutrals are grounded, there is a

path for the zero sequence current to flow in
the primary and secondary. Hence, the
transformer exhibits the equivalent leakage
impedance per phase.

Z0
Pri Sec

Here Z0 = Zl + 3ZN + 3Zn

Where,
Zl = the transformer leakage impedance
ZN = the neutral impedance of primary side
Zn = the neutral impedance of secondary side

The same impedance is seen from both sides.

15
Case B: Y-Y Bank, One Neutral Grounded

From the primary side, neutral currents can

flow. However the secondary acts as open
circuit. Therefore, only the transformer
magnetization impedance Zm will be measured.
From the secondary side, no zero sequence
current can be injected. Hence, with Zm ≈ ∞

Pri Zm Sec Pri Sec

→
Same conclusion can be obtained by replacing
either ZN or Zn by ∞

Case C: Y-∆ Bank, Neutral Grounded

ZN

16
From the grounded Y side, zero sequence
currents can flow since they have a path to
ground and the corresponding induced currents
can circulate in ∆-connected winding.
Therefore, only the transformer leakage
impedance Zl and the neutral impedance ZN
will be measured.
From the secondary side, no zero sequence
current can be injected and the secondary acts
as open circuit. Hence,

Z0
Pri Sec

Here Z0 = Zl + 3ZN

Case D: Y-∆ Bank, Neutral Ungrounded

17
This case is a special case where the neutral
impedance ZN = ∞. Therefore, no zero
sequence currents can flow in the transformer
windings. Hence,

Pri Sec

Case E: ∆ -∆ Bank

In this configuration, zero sequence currents

can circulate in ∆-connected windings.
However, no currents can leave ∆ terminals.
Therefore, the transformer acts as open circuit
from both sides. Hence,

Z0
Pri Sec

18
 Zero Sequence Equivalent Circuit of 3-Φ
Transformer Banks

Zero Sequence
Case Symbol Connection Diagram
Equivalent Circuit

Z0
ZN Zn

1 Pri Sec
Z 0 = Z l + 3Z N + 3Z n

2 Pri Sec

Z0
ZN

3 Pri
Z0 = Zl + 3Z N
Sec

4 Pri Sec

Z0
5 Pri Sec

19
FAULT ANALYSIS OF UNBALANCED LOW
ORDER SYSTEMS

Small-sized networks are often analyzed

without computer by using simple network
reduction schemes as follows.

1. Single Line-To-Ground Fault

Single phase fault through impedance (phase
a).
Ia
a

b Zf If

Fault Conditions
Va = Zf If Ib = Ic= 0 If = Ia
Hence,
⎡Ia0 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡Ia ⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤ ⎡I f ⎤
1 1
I s = ⎢⎢ I a1 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢1 a a 2 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ I b ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢1 a a 2 ⎥⎥ ⎢0⎥
⎢ ⎥
3 3
⎢⎣ I a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a 2 ⎥ ⎢
a ⎦ ⎣ Ic ⎦ ⎥ ⎢⎣1 a 2 a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
Ia0 = Ia1 = Ia2 = If / 3
Va0 = – Z0 Ia0
Va1 = Vf0 – Z1 Ia1
Va2 = – Z2 Ia2

1
 Where Z0, Z1, and Z2 are Thevenin
impedances of the sequence circuits at the
fault location
Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2 = Vf0 – (Z0+Z1+Z2) Ia0
Va = Zf If = 3 Zf Ia0 = Vf0 – (Z0+Z1+Z2) Ia0
Hence,
V f0
I a 0 = I a1 = I a 2 =
Z 1 + Z 2 + Z 0 + 3Z f
Therefore, sequence networks are
connected as shown
+ + +
Z1 I a1 Ia2 I a0
Va1 Z2 V Z 0 Va 0
0 a2
Vf _ _ _

3Z f

2. Line-To-Line Fault
L-L fault through impedance (phases b & c).
a
Ib
b If
Zf
c
Ic

2
Fault Conditions
Vb – Vc = Zf If Ib = – Ic= If Ia = 0
Hence,
⎡Ia0 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡Ia ⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
1 1 ⎢ ⎥
I s = ⎢⎢ I a1 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢1 a a 2 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ I b ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢1 a a 2 ⎥⎥ ⎢ I f ⎥
3 3
⎢⎣ I a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a 2 a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a 2 a ⎥⎦ ⎢− I f ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Ia0 = 0, Ia1 = (a – a2)If / 3, Ia2 = (a2 – a)If / 3
i.e. Ia1 = – Ia2
Vb – Vc = (a2 – a)(Va1 – Va2) = Zf If
Va1 = Vf0 – Z1 Ia1
Va2 = – Z2 Ia2
Substitute Va1, Va2, Ia1 = – Ia2
3Zf Ia1/(a – a2) = (a2 – a)[Vf0 – (Z1+Z2) Ia1]
Solving for Ia1 results in
V f0
I a1 = − I a 2 =
Z1 + Z 2 + Z f
Therefore, sequence networks are
connected as shown

+ +
Z1 I a1 Ia2
Va1 Z2 V
0 a2
Vf _ _

Zf

3
3. Line-To-Line-To-Ground Fault
L-L-G fault through impedance (phases b &
c to ground).
a
Ib
b
If
c
Ic Zf

Fault Conditions
Vb = Vc = Zf If Ib + Ic= If Ia = 0
Since Ia + Ib + Ic= 3 Ia0 , If = 3 Ia0
i.e., Vb = Vc = 3 Zf Ia0
⎡Va 0 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡Va ⎤ ⎡1 1 1⎤ ⎡0⎤
1 1
V s = ⎢⎢Va1 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢1 a a 2 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢Vb ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢1 a a 2 ⎥⎥ ⎢V ⎥
⎢ b⎥
3 3
⎢⎣Va 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a 2 a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Vc ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a 2 a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Vb ⎥⎦
Hence, Va1 = Va2
Also Va + Vb + Vc = 3 Va0
Va0 + Va1 + Va2 + 2(3 Zf Ia0) = 3 Va0
Solving for Va1 results in
Va1 = Va0 – 3 Zf Ia0
Hence, Va1 = Va2 = Va0 – 3 Zf Ia0
and, Ia0 + Ia1 + Ia2 = 0 (Ia = 0)
Therefore, sequence networks are
connected as shown

4
 + + +
Z1 I a1 Ia2 I a0
Va1 Z2 V Z 0 Va 0
0 a2
Vf _ _ _

3Z f

From the connection, the sequence currents

can be written as
V f0
I a1 =
⎛ Z 2 ( Z 0 + 3Z f ) ⎞
Z1 + ⎜ ⎟
⎜ Z + Z + 3Z ⎟
⎝ 2 0 f ⎠

⎛ Z 0 + 3Z f ⎞
Ia2 = − I a1 ⎜ ⎟
⎜ Z + Z + 3Z ⎟
⎝ 2 0 f ⎠

⎛ Z2 ⎞
Ia0 = − I a1 ⎜ ⎟
⎜ Z + Z + 3Z ⎟
⎝ 2 0 f ⎠

General Steps
The procedure to handle the unsymmetrical
faults is as follows: -

(a) Represent the network by the 3 sequence

networks
(b) Reduce the sequence networks to their
Thevenin equivalents at the point of fault

5
(c) Relate the sequence currents or voltages
by the conditions of the fault
(d) Connect sequence networks by the
conditioned established by (c)
(e) Solve for the sequence components of
fault currents and voltages at the faulted
bus k
(f) Determine the voltage at other buses
during the fault as follows
V0,i = – Z0,ik Ia0
V1,i = Vi0 – Z1,ik Ia1 , Vi0 is the prefault
voltage at bus i
V2,i = – Z2,ik Ia2
Then,
⎡Va ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡Va 0 ⎤
V p = ⎢⎢Vb ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢1 a 2 a ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢Va1 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣Vc ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Va 2 ⎥⎦

(g) Determine the voltage at other buses

during the fault as follows
I0,ij = (V0,i – V0,j ) / z0,ik
I1,ij = (V1,i – V1,j ) / z1,ik
I2,ij = (V2,i – V2,j ) / z2,ik
Then,
⎡ I a ,ij ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ I 0,ij ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ I b ,ij ⎥ = ⎢1 a
2
a ⎥⎥ ⎢ I1,ij ⎥
⎢ I c ,ij ⎥ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I 2,ij ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦

6
Example
3

1 2

T1 T2

G1 G2

Item MVAbase KVbase X1 X2 X0 Xn

G1 100 20 0.15 0.15 0.05 0.25/3
G2 100 20 0.15 0.15 0.05 0.25/3
T1 100 20/220 0.10 0.10 0.10 ---
T2 100 20/220 0.10 0.10 0.10 ---
L12 100 220 0.125 0.125 0.30 ---
L13 100 220 0.15 0.15 0.35 ---
L23 100 220 0.25 0.25 0.7125 ---

Find the fault current, bus voltages, and line

currents during fault for the following faults
a) Balanced three-phase fault
b) L-G c) L-L d) L-L-G
All faults occur at bus # 3 with a fault
impedance Zf = j 0.1 pu

7
Solution

Form Z1,bus =Z2,bus

3
j 0.15 j 0.25

1 j 0.125 2
j 0.25 j 0.25

+ve

⎡ 0 . 1450 0 . 1050 0 . 1300 ⎤

Z 1 , bus = Z 2 , bus = j ⎢⎢ 0 . 1050 0 . 1450 0 . 1200 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 . 1300 0 . 1200 0 . 2200 ⎥⎦

Form Z0,bus
3
j 0.35 j 0.7125

1 j 0.3 2

j 0 .1 j 0 .1
j 0.05
j 0.05

j 0.25 j 0.25
zero

⎡0.1820 0.0545 0.1400⎤

Z 0,bus = j ⎢⎢0.0545 0.0864 0.0650⎥⎥
⎢⎣0.1400 0.065 0.3500⎥⎦

8
a) Balanced three-phase fault at bus # 3
with a fault impedance Zf = j 0.1 pu
Fault current
⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡
⎡Ia0 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎤
⎢I ⎥ = ⎢ 1 1 ⎥ ⎢− j 3.125⎥
⎥=⎢ ⎥ =
⎢ ⎥ ⎢Z + Z ⎥
a1
j 0.22 + j 0.1⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ I a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 1, 33 f ⎢ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
⎣ 0 ⎥
⎦ ⎢
⎣ 0 ⎥
⎦
⎤ ⎡3.125∠ − 90 ⎤
D
⎡ I a ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ 0
⎢ I ⎥ = ⎢1 a 2 a ⎥ ⎢− j 3.125⎥ = ⎢ 3.125∠150D ⎥
⎢ b⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2
0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 3.125∠30 ⎥⎦ D

Bus voltages
V1 = 1 – Z1,13 If = 1 – j 0.13 (– j 3.125) = 0.59375
V2 = 1 – Z1,23 If = 1 – j 0.12 (– j 3.125) = 0.62500
V3 = 1 – Z1,33 If = 1 – j 0.22 (– j 3.125) = 0.31250

Line currents
V − V1 0.62500 − 0.59375
I 21 = 2 = = 0.2500∠ − 90 D
z1, 21 j 0.125
V1 − V3 0.59375 − 0.31250
I13 = = = 0.1875∠ − 90D
z1,13 j 0.15
V2 − V3 0.62500 − 0.31250
I 23 = = = 0.1250∠ − 90D
z1, 23 j 0.25

9
b) Single line-to-ground fault at bus # 3 with
a fault impedance Zf = j 0.1 pu
Fault current
V30
I a 0 = I a1 = I a 2 =
Z1,33 + Z 2,33 + Z 0,33 + 3Z f
1
= = − j 0.9174
j 0.22 + j 0.22 + j 0.35 + j 3 × 0.1
⎡ I a ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡− j 0.9174⎤ ⎡2.7523∠ − 90D ⎤
⎢ I ⎥ = ⎢1 a 2 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ b⎥ ⎢ a ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢− j 0.9174⎥⎥ = ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− j 0.9174⎥⎦ ⎢⎣
2
0 ⎥
⎦

Bus voltages
Bus # 1
⎡V0,1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 − Z 0,13 I a 0 ⎤ ⎡0 − j 0.14(− j 0.9174)⎤ ⎡− 0.1284⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
V
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
1, 1 = V1 − Z 1,13 I a1 ⎥ = ⎢1 − j 0.13(− j 0.9174) ⎥ = ⎢ 0.8807 ⎥
⎢⎣V2,1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 − Z 2,13 I a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 − j 0.13(− j 0.9174) ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − 0.1193⎥⎦
⎡Va ,1 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡− 0.1284⎤ ⎡ 0.6330∠0D ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥
⎢Vb,1 ⎥ = ⎢1 a
2
a ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ 0.8807 ⎥⎥ = ⎢1.0046∠ − 120.45D ⎥
⎢⎣Vc ,1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − 0.1193⎥⎦ ⎢1.0046∠ + 120.45D ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Bus # 2
⎡V0, 2 ⎤ ⎡ 0 − Z 0, 23 I a 0 ⎤ ⎡0 − j 0.065(− j 0.9174)⎤ ⎡− 0.0596⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢V1, 2 ⎥ = ⎢V2 − Z1, 23 I a1 ⎥ = ⎢ 1 − j 0.12(− j 0.9174) ⎥ = ⎢ 0.8899 ⎥
⎢⎣V2, 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 − Z 2, 23 I a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 − j 0.12(− j 0.9174) ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − 0.1101⎥⎦
⎡Va , 2 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡− 0.0596⎤ ⎡ 0.7207∠0D ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
V = 1 a 2
a ⎥ ⎢ 0.8899 ⎥ = 0.9757∠ − 117.43D ⎥
⎢
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
b , 2 ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣Vc , 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − 0.1101⎥⎦ ⎢0.9757∠ + 117.43D ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Bus # 3
10
⎡V0,3 ⎤ ⎡ 0 − Z 0,33 I a 0 ⎤ ⎡0 − j 0.35(− j 0.9174) ⎤ ⎡ − 0.3211⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢V1,3 ⎥ = ⎢V3 − Z1,33 I a1 ⎥ = ⎢1 − j 0.22(− j 0.9174) ⎥ = ⎢ 0.7982 ⎥
⎢⎣V2,3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 − Z 2,33 I a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 − j 0.22(− j 0.9174)⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− 0.2018⎥⎦
⎡Va ,3 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ − 0.3211⎤ ⎡ 0.2752∠0D ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
V = 1 a 2
a ⎥ ⎢ 0.7982 ⎥ = 1.0647∠ − 125.56D ⎥
⎢
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
b , 3 ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣Vc ,3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− 0.2018⎥⎦ ⎢1.0647∠ + 125.56D ⎥
⎣ ⎦

Line currents
Line 2-1
⎡ I 0, 21 ⎤ ⎡(V0, 2 − V0,1 ) z0, 21 ⎤ ⎡ (−0.0596 + 0.1284) j 0.3 ⎤ ⎡0.2294∠ − 90D ⎤
⎢
I
⎥ ⎢
= (V − V ) z
⎥ ⎢
= ( 0 .8899 − 0 . 8807 ) j 0. 125 ⎥ = ⎢0.0734∠ − 90D ⎥
⎢ 1, 21 ⎥ ⎢ 1, 2 1,1 1, 21 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ I 2, 21 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣(V2, 2 − V2,1 ) z2, 21 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣(−0.1101 + 0.1193) j 0.125⎥⎦ 0.0734∠ − 90 D⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ I a , 21 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡0.2294∠ − 90 ⎤ ⎡ 0.3761∠ − 90 ⎤D D

⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ I b , 21 ⎥ = ⎢1 a
2
a ⎥⎥ ⎢0.0734∠ − 90 D ⎥ = ⎢0.1560∠ − 90 D ⎥
⎢⎣ I c , 21 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢0.0734∠ − 90 D ⎥ ⎢0.1560∠ − 90 D ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Line 1-3
⎡ I 0,13 ⎤ ⎡(V0,1 − V0,3 ) z 0,13 ⎤ ⎡(−0.1284 + 0.3211) j 0.35⎤ ⎡0.5505∠ − 90 D ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ D⎥
⎢ I1,13 ⎥ = ⎢ (V1,1 − V1,3 ) z1,13 ⎥ = ⎢ (0.8807 − 0.7982) j 0.15 ⎥ = ⎢0.5505∠ − 90 ⎥
⎢⎣ I 2,13 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣(V2,1 − V2,3 ) z 2,13 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣(−0.1193 + 0.2018) j 0.15⎥⎦ ⎢0.5505∠ − 90 D ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ I a ,13 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡0.5505∠ − 90 ⎤ ⎡1.6514∠ − 90 ⎤
D D

⎢
I
⎥ ⎢
= 1 a 2
a ⎥ ⎢0.5505∠ − 90 D ⎥ = ⎢ 0
⎥
⎢ b ,13 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2 ⎢ D⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ I c ,13 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a ⎥⎦ 0.5505∠ − 90 0
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Line 2-3
⎡ I 0, 23 ⎤ ⎡(V0, 2 − V0,3 ) z 0, 23 ⎤ ⎡(−0.0596 + 0.3211) j 0.7125⎤ ⎡0.3670∠ − 90 D ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ D⎥
⎢ I1, 23 ⎥ = ⎢ (V1, 2 − V1,3 ) z1, 23 ⎥ = ⎢ (0.8899 − 0.7982) j 0.25 ⎥ = ⎢0.3670∠ − 90 ⎥
⎢⎣ I 2, 23 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣(V2, 2 − V2,3 ) z 2, 23 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ (−0.1101 + 0.2018) j 0.25 ⎥⎦ ⎢0.3670∠ − 90 D ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ I a , 23 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡0.3670∠ − 90 ⎤ ⎡1.1009∠ − 90 ⎤
D D

⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ I b , 23 ⎥ = ⎢1 a
2
a ⎥⎥ ⎢0.3670∠ − 90 D ⎥ = ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢⎣ I c , 23 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢0.3670∠ − 90 D ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

11
c) Line-to-line fault at bus # 3 with a fault
impedance Zf = j 0.1 pu
Fault current
V30 1
I a1 = − I a 2 = = = − j1.8519
Z1,33 + Z 2,33 + Z f j 0.22 + j 0.22 + j 0.1

Ia0 = 0
⎡ I a ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ I ⎥ = ⎢1 a 2 a ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢− j1.8519⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢− 3.2075⎥⎥
⎢ b⎥ ⎢
⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− j1.8519⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 3.2075 ⎥⎦

Bus voltages
Bus # 1
⎡V0,1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 − Z 0,13 I a 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ 0.7593⎥
V
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
1,1 = V 1 − Z 1,13 I a1 =
⎥ ⎢ 1 − j 0 .13 ( − j1 . 8519 ) ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣V2,1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 − Z 2,13 I a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 − j 0.13(− j1.8519)⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0.2407 ⎥⎦
⎡Va ,1 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ 1.0∠0D ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
V = 1 a 2
a ⎥ ⎢ 0.7593⎥ = 0.672∠ − 138.07 D ⎥
⎢
⎢ b ,1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢
⎢⎣Vc ,1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0.2407 ⎥⎦ 0.672∠ + 138.07
2 D⎥
⎣ ⎦
Bus # 2
⎡V0, 2 ⎤ ⎡ 0 − Z 0, 23 I a 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢V1, 2 ⎥ = ⎢V2 − Z1, 23 I a1 ⎥ = ⎢1 − j 0.12(− j1.8519) ⎥ = ⎢0.7778⎥
⎢⎣V2, 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 − Z 2, 23 I a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 − j 0.12(− j1.8519)⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0.2222⎥⎦

⎡Va , 2 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ 1.0∠0D ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥
V
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
b , 2 = 1 a 2
a ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢0.7778⎥⎥ = ⎢0.6939∠ − 136.10D ⎥
⎢⎣Vc , 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0.2222⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0.6939∠ + 136.10D ⎥⎦

12
Bus # 3
⎡V0,3 ⎤ ⎡ 0 − Z 0,33 I a 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢V1,3 ⎥ = ⎢V3 − Z1,33 I a1 ⎥ = ⎢1 − j 0.22(− j1.8519) ⎥ = ⎢0.5926⎥
⎢⎣V2,3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 − Z 2,33 I a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 − j 0.22(− j1.8519)⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0.4074⎥⎦
⎡Va ,3 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ 1.0∠0 D ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥
⎢Vb ,3 ⎥ = ⎢1 a
2
a ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢0.5926⎥⎥ = ⎢0.5251∠ − 162.21D ⎥
⎢⎣Vc ,3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0.4074⎥⎦ ⎢0.5251∠ + 162.21D ⎥
⎣ ⎦

Line currents
Line 2-1
⎡ I 0, 21 ⎤ ⎡(V0, 2 − V0,1 ) z 0, 21 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ D⎥
⎢ I1, 21 ⎥ = ⎢ (V1, 2 − V1,1 ) z1, 21 ⎥ = ⎢ (0.7778 − 0.7593) j 0.125 ⎥ = ⎢0.148∠ − 90 ⎥
⎢⎣ I 2, 21 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣(V2, 2 − V2,1 ) z 2, 21 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣(0.2222 − 0.2407) j 0.125⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0.148∠ + 90 D ⎥⎦
⎡ I a , 21 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
⎢ I b , 21 ⎥ = ⎢1 a
2 ⎥ ⎢ D⎥
a ⎥ ⎢0.148∠ − 90 ⎥ = ⎢− 0.2566⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ I c , 21 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0.148∠ + 90 D ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0.2566 ⎥⎦

Line 1-3
⎡ I 0,13 ⎤ ⎡(V0,1 − V0,3 ) z 0,13 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ D⎥
⎢ I 1,13 ⎥ = ⎢ (V1,1 − V1,3 ) z1,13 ⎥ = ⎢ (0.7593 − 0.5926) j 0.15⎥ = ⎢1.1111∠ − 90 ⎥
⎢⎣ I 2,13 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣(V2,1 − V2,3 ) z 2,13 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣(0.2407 − 0.4074) j 0.15⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1.1111∠ + 90 D ⎥⎦
⎡ I a ,13 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
⎢ I b ,13 ⎥ = ⎢1 a
2
a ⎥ ⎢1.1111∠ − 90 ⎥ = ⎢⎢− 1.9245⎥⎥
⎥ ⎢ D⎥

⎢⎣ I c ,13 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1.1111∠ + 90 D ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1.9245 ⎥⎦

Line 2-3
⎡ I 0, 23 ⎤ ⎡(V0, 2 − V0,3 ) z 0, 23 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ D⎥
⎢ I1, 23 ⎥ = ⎢ (V1, 2 − V1,3 ) z1, 23 ⎥ = ⎢(0.7778 − 0.5926) j 0.25⎥ = ⎢0.7407∠ − 90 ⎥
⎢⎣ I 2, 23 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣(V2, 2 − V2,3 ) z 2, 23 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣(0.2222 − 0.4074) j 0.25⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0.7407∠ + 90 D ⎥⎦
⎡ I a ,13 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
⎢ I b ,13 ⎥ = ⎢1 a
2 ⎥ ⎢
a ⎥ ⎢0.7407∠ − 90 D ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢− 1.283⎥⎥
⎢⎣ I c ,13 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0.7407∠ + 90 D ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1.283 ⎥⎦

13
d) Double line-to-ground fault at bus # 3
with a fault impedance Zf = j 0.1 pu
Fault current
V30 1
I a1 = = = − j 2.6017
⎛ Z 2,33 ( Z 0,33 + 3Z f ) ⎞ j 0.22 + j 0.22( j 0.35 + j 0.3)
Z1,33 + ⎜ ⎟
j 0.22 + j 0.35 + j 0.3
⎜ Z + Z + 3Z ⎟
⎝ 2,33 0 , 33 f ⎠

⎛ Z 0,33 + 3Z f ⎞ j 0.35 + j 0.3

I a 2 = − I a1 ⎜ ⎟ = j 2.6017 × = j1.9438
⎜ Z + Z + 3Z ⎟ j 0 . 22 + j 0 . 35 + j 0 .3
⎝ 2 , 33 0 , 33 f ⎠
⎛ Z 2,33 ⎞ j 0.22
I a 0 = − I a1 ⎜ ⎟ = j 2.6017 × = j 0.6579
⎜ Z + Z + 3Z ⎟ j 0.22 + j 0.35 + j 0.3
⎝ 2,33 0 , 33 f ⎠

⎡ I a ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ j 0.6579 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ I ⎥ = ⎢1 a 2 a ⎥ ⎢− j 2.6017 ⎥ = ⎢4.0538∠165.93D ⎥
⎢ b⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ j1.9438 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 4.0538∠14.07 D ⎥⎦
The total fault current is given by
I f = I b + I c = 4.0583∠165.93D + 4.0583∠14.07 D = 1.9732∠90 D

Bus voltages
Bus # 1
⎡V0,1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 − Z 0,13 I a 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 − j 0.14( j 0.6579) ⎤ ⎡ 0.0921⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢V1,1 ⎥ = ⎢V1 − Z1,13 I a1 ⎥ = ⎢1 − j 0.13(− j 2.6017)⎥ = ⎢0.6618⎥
⎢⎣V2,1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 − Z 2,13 I a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 − j 0.13( j1.9438) ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0.2527⎥⎦
⎡Va ,1 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ 0.0921⎤ ⎡ 1.0066∠0D ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥
⎢Vb ,1 ⎥ = ⎢1 a
2
a ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢0.6618⎥⎥ = ⎢0.5088∠ − 135.86D ⎥
⎢⎣Vc ,1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0.2527 ⎥⎦ ⎢0.5088∠ + 135.86D ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Bus # 2
⎡V0, 2 ⎤ ⎡ 0 − Z 0, 23 I a 0 ⎤ ⎡0 − j 0.065( j 0.6579)⎤ ⎡0.0428⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢V1, 2 ⎥ = ⎢V2 − Z1, 23 I a1 ⎥ = ⎢1 − j 0.12(− j 2.6017) ⎥ = ⎢0.6878⎥
⎢⎣V2, 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 − Z 2, 23 I a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 − j 0.12( j1.9438) ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0.2333⎥⎦
⎡Va , 2 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡0.0428⎤ ⎡ 0.9638∠0D ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥
⎢Vb , 2 ⎥ = ⎢1 a
2
a ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢0.6878⎥⎥ = ⎢0.5740∠ − 136.70D ⎥
⎢⎣Vc , 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0.2333⎥⎦ ⎢0.5740∠ + 136.70D ⎥
⎣ ⎦

14
Bus # 3
⎡V0,3 ⎤ ⎡ 0 − Z 0,33 I a 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 − j 0.35( j 0.6579) ⎤ ⎡0.2303⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢V1,3 ⎥ = ⎢V3 − Z1,33 I a1 ⎥ = ⎢1 − j 0.22(− j 2.6017)⎥ = ⎢0.4276⎥
⎢⎣V2,3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 − Z 2,33 I a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 − j 0.22( j1.9438) ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0.4276⎥⎦
⎡Va ,3 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡0.2303⎤ ⎡ 1.0855∠0D ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥
⎢Vb ,3 ⎥ = ⎢1 a
2
a ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢0.4276⎥⎥ = ⎢0.1974∠ − 180D ⎥
⎢⎣Vc ,3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0.4276⎥⎦ ⎢0.1974∠ + 180D ⎥
⎣ ⎦

Line currents
Line 2-1
⎡ I 0, 21 ⎤ ⎡(V0, 2 − V0,1 ) z 0, 21 ⎤ ⎡ (0.0428 − 0.0921) j 0.3 ⎤ ⎡0.1645∠ + 90 D ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ D⎥
⎢ I1, 21 ⎥ = ⎢ (V1, 2 − V1,1 ) z1, 21 ⎥ = ⎢(0.6878 − 0.6618) j 0.125⎥ = ⎢ 0.2081∠ − 90 ⎥
⎢⎣ I 2, 21 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣(V2, 2 − V2,1 ) z 2, 21 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣(0.2333 − 0.2527) j 0.125⎥⎦ ⎢0.1555∠ + 90 D ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ I a , 21 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡0.1645∠ + 90 D ⎤ ⎡ 0.1118∠ + 90 D ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ I b , 21 ⎥ = ⎢1 a
2
a ⎥⎥ ⎢ 0.2081∠ − 90 D ⎥ = ⎢0.3682∠148.79 D ⎥
⎢⎣ I c , 21 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢0.1555∠ + 90 D ⎥ ⎢ 0.3682∠31.21D ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Line 1-3
⎡ I 0,13 ⎤ ⎡(V0,1 − V0,3 ) z 0,13 ⎤ ⎡ (0.0921 − 0.2303) j 0.35 ⎤ ⎡0.3947∠ + 90 D ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ D⎥
⎢ I1,13 ⎥ = ⎢ (V1,1 − V1,3 ) z1,13 ⎥ = ⎢(0.6618 − 0.4276) j 0.15⎥ = ⎢1.5610∠ − 90 ⎥
⎢⎣ I 2,13 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣(V2,1 − V2,3 ) z 2,13 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣(0.2527 − 0.4276) j 0.15⎥⎦ ⎢1.1663∠ + 90 D ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ I a ,13 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡0.3947∠ + 90 ⎤ ⎡ D
0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ D⎥
⎢ I b ,13 ⎥ = ⎢1 a a ⎥ ⎢1.5610∠ − 90 ⎥ = ⎢2.435∠165.93 ⎥
2 D

⎢⎣ I c ,13 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢1.1663∠ + 90 D ⎥ ⎢⎣ 2.435∠14.07 D ⎥⎦

⎣ ⎦
Line 2-3
⎡ I 0, 23 ⎤ ⎡(V0, 2 − V0,3 ) z 0, 23 ⎤ ⎡(0.0428 − 0.2303) j 0.7125⎤ ⎡0.2632∠ + 90 D ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ D⎥
⎢ I 1, 23 ⎥ = ⎢ (V1, 2 − V1,3 ) z1, 23 ⎥ = ⎢ (0.6878 − 0.4276) j 0.25 ⎥ = ⎢1.0407∠ − 90 ⎥
⎢⎣ I 2, 23 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣(V2, 2 − V2,3 ) z 2, 23 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ (0.2333 − 0.4276) j 0.25 ⎥⎦ ⎢0.7775∠ + 90 D ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ I a , 23 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡0.2632∠ + 90 D ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ D⎥ ⎢ D⎥
⎢ I b , 23 ⎥ = ⎢1 a a ⎥ ⎢1.0407∠ − 90 ⎥ = ⎢1.6233∠165.93 ⎥
2

⎢⎣ I c , 23 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢0.7775∠ + 90 D ⎥ ⎢⎣ 1.6233∠14.07 D ⎥⎦

⎣ ⎦

15