Elementary properties of Complex numbers

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Introduction

Let us consider the quadratic equation x 2 + 1 = 0.

It has no real root.
Let i(iota) be the solution of the above equation, then
√
i 2 = −1 i.e. i = −1.
i is not a real number. So we define it as imaginary number.
A complex number is defined by z = x + iy , for any x, y ∈ R.
Complex analysis is theory of functions of complex numbers.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Introduction

Let us consider the quadratic equation x 2 + 1 = 0.

It has no real root.
Let i(iota) be the solution of the above equation, then
√
i 2 = −1 i.e. i = −1.
i is not a real number. So we define it as imaginary number.
A complex number is defined by z = x + iy , for any x, y ∈ R.
Complex analysis is theory of functions of complex numbers.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Introduction

Let us consider the quadratic equation x 2 + 1 = 0.

It has no real root.
Let i(iota) be the solution of the above equation, then
√
i 2 = −1 i.e. i = −1.
i is not a real number. So we define it as imaginary number.
A complex number is defined by z = x + iy , for any x, y ∈ R.
Complex analysis is theory of functions of complex numbers.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Introduction

Let us consider the quadratic equation x 2 + 1 = 0.

It has no real root.
Let i(iota) be the solution of the above equation, then
√
i 2 = −1 i.e. i = −1.
i is not a real number. So we define it as imaginary number.
A complex number is defined by z = x + iy , for any x, y ∈ R.
Complex analysis is theory of functions of complex numbers.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Introduction

Let us consider the quadratic equation x 2 + 1 = 0.

It has no real root.
Let i(iota) be the solution of the above equation, then
√
i 2 = −1 i.e. i = −1.
i is not a real number. So we define it as imaginary number.
A complex number is defined by z = x + iy , for any x, y ∈ R.
Complex analysis is theory of functions of complex numbers.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Introduction

Let us consider the quadratic equation x 2 + 1 = 0.

It has no real root.
Let i(iota) be the solution of the above equation, then
√
i 2 = −1 i.e. i = −1.
i is not a real number. So we define it as imaginary number.
A complex number is defined by z = x + iy , for any x, y ∈ R.
Complex analysis is theory of functions of complex numbers.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Application of Complex Analysis

Why do we need Complex Analysis?

Evaluation of certain integrals which are difficult to workout. Viz.
Z ∞
e x/2
x
dx = π.
−∞ 1 + e

Fourier Analysis.
Differential Equations.
Number Theory.
All major branches of Mathematics which is applicable in science and
engineering.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Application of Complex Analysis

Why do we need Complex Analysis?

Evaluation of certain integrals which are difficult to workout. Viz.
Z ∞
e x/2
x
dx = π.
−∞ 1 + e

Fourier Analysis.
Differential Equations.
Number Theory.
All major branches of Mathematics which is applicable in science and
engineering.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Application of Complex Analysis

Why do we need Complex Analysis?

Evaluation of certain integrals which are difficult to workout. Viz.
Z ∞
e x/2
x
dx = π.
−∞ 1 + e

Fourier Analysis.
Differential Equations.
Number Theory.
All major branches of Mathematics which is applicable in science and
engineering.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Application of Complex Analysis

Why do we need Complex Analysis?

Evaluation of certain integrals which are difficult to workout. Viz.
Z ∞
e x/2
x
dx = π.
−∞ 1 + e

Fourier Analysis.
Differential Equations.
Number Theory.
All major branches of Mathematics which is applicable in science and
engineering.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Complex Numbers

A complex number denoted by z is an ordered pair (x, y ) with x ∈ R,

y ∈ R.
x is called real part of z and y is called the imaginary part of z. In
symbol x = Re z, and y = Im z.
We denote i by (0, 1). If z = x + iy then the elements x and y identified
with (x, 0) and (0, y ) respectively.
Re z = Im iz and Im z = −Re iz.
By C we denote the set of all complex numbers, that is,
C = {z : z = x + iy , x ∈ R, y ∈ R}.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Complex Numbers

A complex number denoted by z is an ordered pair (x, y ) with x ∈ R,

y ∈ R.
x is called real part of z and y is called the imaginary part of z. In
symbol x = Re z, and y = Im z.
We denote i by (0, 1). If z = x + iy then the elements x and y identified
with (x, 0) and (0, y ) respectively.
Re z = Im iz and Im z = −Re iz.
By C we denote the set of all complex numbers, that is,
C = {z : z = x + iy , x ∈ R, y ∈ R}.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Complex Numbers

A complex number denoted by z is an ordered pair (x, y ) with x ∈ R,

y ∈ R.
x is called real part of z and y is called the imaginary part of z. In
symbol x = Re z, and y = Im z.
We denote i by (0, 1). If z = x + iy then the elements x and y identified
with (x, 0) and (0, y ) respectively.
Re z = Im iz and Im z = −Re iz.
By C we denote the set of all complex numbers, that is,
C = {z : z = x + iy , x ∈ R, y ∈ R}.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Complex Numbers

A complex number denoted by z is an ordered pair (x, y ) with x ∈ R,

y ∈ R.
x is called real part of z and y is called the imaginary part of z. In
symbol x = Re z, and y = Im z.
We denote i by (0, 1). If z = x + iy then the elements x and y identified
with (x, 0) and (0, y ) respectively.
Re z = Im iz and Im z = −Re iz.
By C we denote the set of all complex numbers, that is,
C = {z : z = x + iy , x ∈ R, y ∈ R}.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Complex Numbers

A complex number denoted by z is an ordered pair (x, y ) with x ∈ R,

y ∈ R.
x is called real part of z and y is called the imaginary part of z. In
symbol x = Re z, and y = Im z.
We denote i by (0, 1). If z = x + iy then the elements x and y identified
with (x, 0) and (0, y ) respectively.
Re z = Im iz and Im z = −Re iz.
By C we denote the set of all complex numbers, that is,
C = {z : z = x + iy , x ∈ R, y ∈ R}.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Algebra of Complex Numbers
Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 be two complex numbers.
Addition and subtraction: We define

z1 ± z2 = (x1 ± x2 ) + i(y1 ± y2 ).

Multiplication: We define

z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 )(x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + x2 y1 ).

Since i = (0, 1) it follows from above that i 2 = −1.

Division: If z a nonzero complex number then we define
1 1 x − iy
= = 2 .
z x + iy x + y2
From this we get
x1 + iy1 (x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) + i(x2 y1 − x1 y2 )
= .
x2 + iy2 x2 2 + y2 2

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Algebra of Complex Numbers
Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 be two complex numbers.
Addition and subtraction: We define

z1 ± z2 = (x1 ± x2 ) + i(y1 ± y2 ).

Multiplication: We define

z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 )(x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + x2 y1 ).

Since i = (0, 1) it follows from above that i 2 = −1.

Division: If z a nonzero complex number then we define
1 1 x − iy
= = 2 .
z x + iy x + y2
From this we get
x1 + iy1 (x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) + i(x2 y1 − x1 y2 )
= .
x2 + iy2 x2 2 + y2 2

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Algebra of Complex Numbers
Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 be two complex numbers.
Addition and subtraction: We define

z1 ± z2 = (x1 ± x2 ) + i(y1 ± y2 ).

Multiplication: We define

z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 )(x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + x2 y1 ).

Since i = (0, 1) it follows from above that i 2 = −1.

Division: If z a nonzero complex number then we define
1 1 x − iy
= = 2 .
z x + iy x + y2
From this we get
x1 + iy1 (x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) + i(x2 y1 − x1 y2 )
= .
x2 + iy2 x2 2 + y2 2

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Algebra of Complex Numbers
Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 be two complex numbers.
Addition and subtraction: We define

z1 ± z2 = (x1 ± x2 ) + i(y1 ± y2 ).

Multiplication: We define

z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 )(x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + x2 y1 ).

Since i = (0, 1) it follows from above that i 2 = −1.

Division: If z a nonzero complex number then we define
1 1 x − iy
= = 2 .
z x + iy x + y2
From this we get
x1 + iy1 (x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) + i(x2 y1 − x1 y2 )
= .
x2 + iy2 x2 2 + y2 2

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Algebra of Complex Numbers
Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 be two complex numbers.
Addition and subtraction: We define

z1 ± z2 = (x1 ± x2 ) + i(y1 ± y2 ).

Multiplication: We define

z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 )(x2 + iy2 ) = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + x2 y1 ).

Since i = (0, 1) it follows from above that i 2 = −1.

Division: If z a nonzero complex number then we define
1 1 x − iy
= = 2 .
z x + iy x + y2
From this we get
x1 + iy1 (x1 x2 + y1 y2 ) + i(x2 y1 − x1 y2 )
= .
x2 + iy2 x2 2 + y2 2

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Basic algebraic properties of Complex Numbers

Let z1 , z2 , z3 ∈ C.
Commutative and associative law for addition : z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 . and
z1 + (z2 + z3 ) = (z1 + z2 ) + z3 .
Additive identity : z + 0 = 0 + z = z ∀ z ∈ C
Additive inverse : For every z ∈ C there exists −z ∈ C such that
z + (−z) = 0 = (−z) + z.
Commutative and associative law for multiplication : z1 z2 = z2 z1 . and
z1 (z2 z3 ) = (z1 z2 )z3 .
Multiplicative identity : z · 1 = z = 1 · z ∀ z ∈ C
Multiplicative inverse : For every nonzero z ∈ C there exists
w (= z1 ) ∈ C such that zw = 1 = wz.
Distributive law : z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3 .
Note: C is a field.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Basic algebraic properties of Complex Numbers

Let z1 , z2 , z3 ∈ C.
Commutative and associative law for addition : z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 . and
z1 + (z2 + z3 ) = (z1 + z2 ) + z3 .
Additive identity : z + 0 = 0 + z = z ∀ z ∈ C
Additive inverse : For every z ∈ C there exists −z ∈ C such that
z + (−z) = 0 = (−z) + z.
Commutative and associative law for multiplication : z1 z2 = z2 z1 . and
z1 (z2 z3 ) = (z1 z2 )z3 .
Multiplicative identity : z · 1 = z = 1 · z ∀ z ∈ C
Multiplicative inverse : For every nonzero z ∈ C there exists
w (= z1 ) ∈ C such that zw = 1 = wz.
Distributive law : z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3 .
Note: C is a field.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Basic algebraic properties of Complex Numbers

Let z1 , z2 , z3 ∈ C.
Commutative and associative law for addition : z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 . and
z1 + (z2 + z3 ) = (z1 + z2 ) + z3 .
Additive identity : z + 0 = 0 + z = z ∀ z ∈ C
Additive inverse : For every z ∈ C there exists −z ∈ C such that
z + (−z) = 0 = (−z) + z.
Commutative and associative law for multiplication : z1 z2 = z2 z1 . and
z1 (z2 z3 ) = (z1 z2 )z3 .
Multiplicative identity : z · 1 = z = 1 · z ∀ z ∈ C
Multiplicative inverse : For every nonzero z ∈ C there exists
w (= z1 ) ∈ C such that zw = 1 = wz.
Distributive law : z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3 .
Note: C is a field.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Basic algebraic properties of Complex Numbers

Let z1 , z2 , z3 ∈ C.
Commutative and associative law for addition : z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 . and
z1 + (z2 + z3 ) = (z1 + z2 ) + z3 .
Additive identity : z + 0 = 0 + z = z ∀ z ∈ C
Additive inverse : For every z ∈ C there exists −z ∈ C such that
z + (−z) = 0 = (−z) + z.
Commutative and associative law for multiplication : z1 z2 = z2 z1 . and
z1 (z2 z3 ) = (z1 z2 )z3 .
Multiplicative identity : z · 1 = z = 1 · z ∀ z ∈ C
Multiplicative inverse : For every nonzero z ∈ C there exists
w (= z1 ) ∈ C such that zw = 1 = wz.
Distributive law : z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3 .
Note: C is a field.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Basic algebraic properties of Complex Numbers

Let z1 , z2 , z3 ∈ C.
Commutative and associative law for addition : z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 . and
z1 + (z2 + z3 ) = (z1 + z2 ) + z3 .
Additive identity : z + 0 = 0 + z = z ∀ z ∈ C
Additive inverse : For every z ∈ C there exists −z ∈ C such that
z + (−z) = 0 = (−z) + z.
Commutative and associative law for multiplication : z1 z2 = z2 z1 . and
z1 (z2 z3 ) = (z1 z2 )z3 .
Multiplicative identity : z · 1 = z = 1 · z ∀ z ∈ C
Multiplicative inverse : For every nonzero z ∈ C there exists
w (= z1 ) ∈ C such that zw = 1 = wz.
Distributive law : z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3 .
Note: C is a field.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Conjugate of a Complex Number

If z = x + iy is a complex number then its conjugate is defined by z̄ = x − iy .

Conjugation has the following properties which follows easily from the
definition. Let z1 , z2 ∈ C then,
Re z = 21 (z + z̄) and Im z = 1
2i
(z − z̄).
z1 + z2 = z¯1 + z¯2 .
z1 z2 = z¯1 z¯2
Note: If α ∈ R then αz = αz̄).
z̄¯ = z
Re z = Re z̄ and Im z = −Im z̄.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Conjugate of a Complex Number

If z = x + iy is a complex number then its conjugate is defined by z̄ = x − iy .

Conjugation has the following properties which follows easily from the
definition. Let z1 , z2 ∈ C then,
Re z = 21 (z + z̄) and Im z = 1
2i
(z − z̄).
z1 + z2 = z¯1 + z¯2 .
z1 z2 = z¯1 z¯2
Note: If α ∈ R then αz = αz̄).
z̄¯ = z
Re z = Re z̄ and Im z = −Im z̄.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Conjugate of a Complex Number

If z = x + iy is a complex number then its conjugate is defined by z̄ = x − iy .

Conjugation has the following properties which follows easily from the
definition. Let z1 , z2 ∈ C then,
Re z = 21 (z + z̄) and Im z = 1
2i
(z − z̄).
z1 + z2 = z¯1 + z¯2 .
z1 z2 = z¯1 z¯2
Note: If α ∈ R then αz = αz̄).
z̄¯ = z
Re z = Re z̄ and Im z = −Im z̄.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Conjugate of a Complex Number

If z = x + iy is a complex number then its conjugate is defined by z̄ = x − iy .

Conjugation has the following properties which follows easily from the
definition. Let z1 , z2 ∈ C then,
Re z = 21 (z + z̄) and Im z = 1
2i
(z − z̄).
z1 + z2 = z¯1 + z¯2 .
z1 z2 = z¯1 z¯2
Note: If α ∈ R then αz = αz̄).
z̄¯ = z
Re z = Re z̄ and Im z = −Im z̄.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Conjugate of a Complex Number

If z = x + iy is a complex number then its conjugate is defined by z̄ = x − iy .

Conjugation has the following properties which follows easily from the
definition. Let z1 , z2 ∈ C then,
Re z = 21 (z + z̄) and Im z = 1
2i
(z − z̄).
z1 + z2 = z¯1 + z¯2 .
z1 z2 = z¯1 z¯2
Note: If α ∈ R then αz = αz̄).
z̄¯ = z
Re z = Re z̄ and Im z = −Im z̄.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Conjugate of a Complex Number

If z = x + iy is a complex number then its conjugate is defined by z̄ = x − iy .

Conjugation has the following properties which follows easily from the
definition. Let z1 , z2 ∈ C then,
Re z = 21 (z + z̄) and Im z = 1
2i
(z − z̄).
z1 + z2 = z¯1 + z¯2 .
z1 z2 = z¯1 z¯2
Note: If α ∈ R then αz = αz̄).
z̄¯ = z
Re z = Re z̄ and Im z = −Im z̄.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Modulus of a Complex Number

The modulus or absolute value of a complex number z = x + iy is a non

negative real number denoted by |z| and defined by
p
|z| = x 2 + y 2 .

Note that if z = x + iy then |z| is the Euclidean distance of the point (x, y )
from the origin (0, 0).
Exercise: Verify the following properties.
zz̄ = |z|2 .
|x| = |Re z| ≤ |z| and |y | = |Im z| ≤ |z|
 
 z1  |z1 |
|z̄| = |z|, |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 | and   = (z2 6= 0).
z2 |z2 |
|z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |(Triangle inequality).
||z1 | − |z2 || ≤ |z1 − z2 |

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Modulus of a Complex Number

The modulus or absolute value of a complex number z = x + iy is a non

negative real number denoted by |z| and defined by
p
|z| = x 2 + y 2 .

Note that if z = x + iy then |z| is the Euclidean distance of the point (x, y )
from the origin (0, 0).
Exercise: Verify the following properties.
zz̄ = |z|2 .
|x| = |Re z| ≤ |z| and |y | = |Im z| ≤ |z|
 
 z1  |z1 |
|z̄| = |z|, |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 | and   = (z2 6= 0).
z2 |z2 |
|z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |(Triangle inequality).
||z1 | − |z2 || ≤ |z1 − z2 |

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Modulus of a Complex Number

The modulus or absolute value of a complex number z = x + iy is a non

negative real number denoted by |z| and defined by
p
|z| = x 2 + y 2 .

Note that if z = x + iy then |z| is the Euclidean distance of the point (x, y )
from the origin (0, 0).
Exercise: Verify the following properties.
zz̄ = |z|2 .
|x| = |Re z| ≤ |z| and |y | = |Im z| ≤ |z|
 
 z1  |z1 |
|z̄| = |z|, |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 | and   = (z2 6= 0).
z2 |z2 |
|z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |(Triangle inequality).
||z1 | − |z2 || ≤ |z1 − z2 |

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Modulus of a Complex Number

The modulus or absolute value of a complex number z = x + iy is a non

negative real number denoted by |z| and defined by
p
|z| = x 2 + y 2 .

Note that if z = x + iy then |z| is the Euclidean distance of the point (x, y )
from the origin (0, 0).
Exercise: Verify the following properties.
zz̄ = |z|2 .
|x| = |Re z| ≤ |z| and |y | = |Im z| ≤ |z|
 
 z1  |z1 |
|z̄| = |z|, |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 | and   = (z2 6= 0).
z2 |z2 |
|z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |(Triangle inequality).
||z1 | − |z2 || ≤ |z1 − z2 |

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Graphical representation of Complex Numbers

Graphical representation of Complex Numbers

We can represent the complex number z = x + iy by a position vector in
the XY −plane whose tail is at the origin and head is at the point (x, y ).
When XY −plane is used for displaying complex numbers, it is called
Argand plane or Complex plane or z plane.
The X -axis is called as the real axis where as the Y -axis is called as the
imaginary axis.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Graphical representation of Complex Numbers

Graphical representation of Complex Numbers

We can represent the complex number z = x + iy by a position vector in
the XY −plane whose tail is at the origin and head is at the point (x, y ).
When XY −plane is used for displaying complex numbers, it is called
Argand plane or Complex plane or z plane.
The X -axis is called as the real axis where as the Y -axis is called as the
imaginary axis.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Graphical representation of Complex Numbers

Graphical representation of Complex Numbers

We can represent the complex number z = x + iy by a position vector in
the XY −plane whose tail is at the origin and head is at the point (x, y ).
When XY −plane is used for displaying complex numbers, it is called
Argand plane or Complex plane or z plane.
The X -axis is called as the real axis where as the Y -axis is called as the
imaginary axis.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Graphical representation of Complex Numbers

Graphical representation of Complex Numbers

We can represent the complex number z = x + iy by a position vector in
the XY −plane whose tail is at the origin and head is at the point (x, y ).
When XY −plane is used for displaying complex numbers, it is called
Argand plane or Complex plane or z plane.
The X -axis is called as the real axis where as the Y -axis is called as the
imaginary axis.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Graphical representation of Complex Numbers

Graph the complex

numbers:
1. 3 + 4i (3,4)

2. 2 - 3i (2,-3)

3. -4 + 2i (-4,2)

4. 3 (which is really 3 + 0i) (3,0)

5. 4i (which is really 0 + 4i) (0,4)

The complex number

is represented by the
point or by the vector
from the origin to the
point.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Graphical representation of Complex Numbers

Add 3 + 4i and -4 + 2i
graphically.

Graph the two complex

numbers 3 + 4i and -4 +
2i as vectors.

Create a parallelogram
using these two vectors
as adjacent sides.

The sum of 3 + 4i and -4

+ 2i is represented by the
diagonal of the
parallelogram (read
from the origin).

This new (diagonal)

vector is called the
resultant vector.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Graphical representation of Complex Numbers

Subtract 3 + 4i from -2 + 2i

Subtraction is the process

of adding the additive
inverse.
(-2 + 2i) - (3 + 4i)
= (-2 + 2i) + (-3 - 4i)
= (-5 - 2i)

Graph the two complex

numbers as vectors.

Graph the additive inverse

of the number being
subtracted.

Create a parallelogram
using the first number and
the additive inverse. The
answer is the vector
forming the diagonal of the
parallelogram.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Polar representation of Complex Numbers

Consider the unit circle on the complex plane. Any point on the unit
circle is represented by (cos ϕ, sin ϕ), ϕ ∈ [0, 2π].
z
Any non zero z ∈ C, the point lies on the unit circle and therefore we
|z|
z
write = cos ϕ + i sin ϕ. i.e. z = |z|(cos ϕ + i sin ϕ).
|z|
The symbol e iϕ is defined by means of Euler’s formula as

e iϕ = cos ϕ + i sin ϕ.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Polar representation of Complex Numbers

Consider the unit circle on the complex plane. Any point on the unit
circle is represented by (cos ϕ, sin ϕ), ϕ ∈ [0, 2π].
z
Any non zero z ∈ C, the point lies on the unit circle and therefore we
|z|
z
write = cos ϕ + i sin ϕ. i.e. z = |z|(cos ϕ + i sin ϕ).
|z|
The symbol e iϕ is defined by means of Euler’s formula as

e iϕ = cos ϕ + i sin ϕ.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Polar representation of Complex Numbers

Consider the unit circle on the complex plane. Any point on the unit
circle is represented by (cos ϕ, sin ϕ), ϕ ∈ [0, 2π].
z
Any non zero z ∈ C, the point lies on the unit circle and therefore we
|z|
z
write = cos ϕ + i sin ϕ. i.e. z = |z|(cos ϕ + i sin ϕ).
|z|
The symbol e iϕ is defined by means of Euler’s formula as

e iϕ = cos ϕ + i sin ϕ.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Polar representation of Complex Numbers

Any non z = x + iy can be uniquely specified by its magnitude(length

from origin) and direction(the angle it makes with positive X −axis).
p
Let r = |z| = x 2 + y 2 and θ be the angle made by the line from origin
to the point (x, y ) with the positive X −axis.
From the above figure x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ and θ = tan−1 ( yx ).

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Polar representation of Complex Numbers

Any non z = x + iy can be uniquely specified by its magnitude(length

from origin) and direction(the angle it makes with positive X −axis).
p
Let r = |z| = x 2 + y 2 and θ be the angle made by the line from origin
to the point (x, y ) with the positive X −axis.
From the above figure x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ and θ = tan−1 ( yx ).

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Polar representation of Complex Numbers

Any non z = x + iy can be uniquely specified by its magnitude(length

from origin) and direction(the angle it makes with positive X −axis).
p
Let r = |z| = x 2 + y 2 and θ be the angle made by the line from origin
to the point (x, y ) with the positive X −axis.
From the above figure x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ and θ = tan−1 ( yx ).

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Polar representation of a Complex Number

If z 6= 0 then arg(z) = {θ : z = re iθ }.
Note that arg(z) is a multi-valued function.

arg(z) = {θ + 2nπ : z = re iθ , n ∈ Z}.

The value of arg(z) lies in (−π, π] is called the principal value of arg(z),
denoted by Arg(z). For example, arg i = 2kπ + π2 , k ∈ Z, where as
Arg i = π2 .
Let z1 = r1 e iθ1 , z2 = r2 e iθ2 then z1 z2 = r1 r2 e i(θ1 +θ2 ) .
If z1 6= 0 and z2 6= 0, arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ).
As |e iθ | = 1, ∀ θ ∈ R, it follows that |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Polar representation of a Complex Number

If z 6= 0 then arg(z) = {θ : z = re iθ }.
Note that arg(z) is a multi-valued function.

arg(z) = {θ + 2nπ : z = re iθ , n ∈ Z}.

The value of arg(z) lies in (−π, π] is called the principal value of arg(z),
denoted by Arg(z). For example, arg i = 2kπ + π2 , k ∈ Z, where as
Arg i = π2 .
Let z1 = r1 e iθ1 , z2 = r2 e iθ2 then z1 z2 = r1 r2 e i(θ1 +θ2 ) .
If z1 6= 0 and z2 6= 0, arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ).
As |e iθ | = 1, ∀ θ ∈ R, it follows that |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Polar representation of a Complex Number

If z 6= 0 then arg(z) = {θ : z = re iθ }.
Note that arg(z) is a multi-valued function.

arg(z) = {θ + 2nπ : z = re iθ , n ∈ Z}.

The value of arg(z) lies in (−π, π] is called the principal value of arg(z),
denoted by Arg(z). For example, arg i = 2kπ + π2 , k ∈ Z, where as
Arg i = π2 .
Let z1 = r1 e iθ1 , z2 = r2 e iθ2 then z1 z2 = r1 r2 e i(θ1 +θ2 ) .
If z1 6= 0 and z2 6= 0, arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ).
As |e iθ | = 1, ∀ θ ∈ R, it follows that |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Polar representation of a Complex Number

If z 6= 0 then arg(z) = {θ : z = re iθ }.
Note that arg(z) is a multi-valued function.

arg(z) = {θ + 2nπ : z = re iθ , n ∈ Z}.

The value of arg(z) lies in (−π, π] is called the principal value of arg(z),
denoted by Arg(z). For example, arg i = 2kπ + π2 , k ∈ Z, where as
Arg i = π2 .
Let z1 = r1 e iθ1 , z2 = r2 e iθ2 then z1 z2 = r1 r2 e i(θ1 +θ2 ) .
If z1 6= 0 and z2 6= 0, arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ).
As |e iθ | = 1, ∀ θ ∈ R, it follows that |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Polar representation of a Complex Number

If z 6= 0 then arg(z) = {θ : z = re iθ }.
Note that arg(z) is a multi-valued function.

arg(z) = {θ + 2nπ : z = re iθ , n ∈ Z}.

The value of arg(z) lies in (−π, π] is called the principal value of arg(z),
denoted by Arg(z). For example, arg i = 2kπ + π2 , k ∈ Z, where as
Arg i = π2 .
Let z1 = r1 e iθ1 , z2 = r2 e iθ2 then z1 z2 = r1 r2 e i(θ1 +θ2 ) .
If z1 6= 0 and z2 6= 0, arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ).
As |e iθ | = 1, ∀ θ ∈ R, it follows that |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Polar representation of a Complex Number

If z 6= 0 then arg(z) = {θ : z = re iθ }.
Note that arg(z) is a multi-valued function.

arg(z) = {θ + 2nπ : z = re iθ , n ∈ Z}.

The value of arg(z) lies in (−π, π] is called the principal value of arg(z),
denoted by Arg(z). For example, arg i = 2kπ + π2 , k ∈ Z, where as
Arg i = π2 .
Let z1 = r1 e iθ1 , z2 = r2 e iθ2 then z1 z2 = r1 r2 e i(θ1 +θ2 ) .
If z1 6= 0 and z2 6= 0, arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ).
As |e iθ | = 1, ∀ θ ∈ R, it follows that |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

Polar representation of a Complex Number

If z 6= 0 then arg(z) = {θ : z = re iθ }.
Note that arg(z) is a multi-valued function.

arg(z) = {θ + 2nπ : z = re iθ , n ∈ Z}.

The value of arg(z) lies in (−π, π] is called the principal value of arg(z),
denoted by Arg(z). For example, arg i = 2kπ + π2 , k ∈ Z, where as
Arg i = π2 .
Let z1 = r1 e iθ1 , z2 = r2 e iθ2 then z1 z2 = r1 r2 e i(θ1 +θ2 ) .
If z1 6= 0 and z2 6= 0, arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ).
As |e iθ | = 1, ∀ θ ∈ R, it follows that |z1 z2 | = |z1 ||z2 |.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

De Moiver’s formula

De Moiver’s formula:

z n = [r (cos θ + i sin θ)]n = r n (cos nθ + i sin nθ).

Problem: Given a nonzero complex number z0 and a natural number

n ∈ N. Find all distinct complex numbers w such that z0 = w n .
1
If w satisfies the above then |w | = |z0 | n . So, if z0 = |z0 |(cos θ + i sin θ)
we try to find α such that
1
|z0 |(cos θ + i sin θ) = [|z0 | n (cos α + i sin α)]n .

By De Moiver’s formula cos θ = cos nα and sin θ = sin nα, that is,
nα = θ + 2kπ ⇒ α = θn + 2kπn
. The distinct values of w is given by
1 θ+2kπ θ+2kπ
|z0 | n (cos n
+ i sin n
), for, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

De Moiver’s formula

De Moiver’s formula:

z n = [r (cos θ + i sin θ)]n = r n (cos nθ + i sin nθ).

Problem: Given a nonzero complex number z0 and a natural number

n ∈ N. Find all distinct complex numbers w such that z0 = w n .
1
If w satisfies the above then |w | = |z0 | n . So, if z0 = |z0 |(cos θ + i sin θ)
we try to find α such that
1
|z0 |(cos θ + i sin θ) = [|z0 | n (cos α + i sin α)]n .

By De Moiver’s formula cos θ = cos nα and sin θ = sin nα, that is,
nα = θ + 2kπ ⇒ α = θn + 2kπn
. The distinct values of w is given by
1 θ+2kπ θ+2kπ
|z0 | n (cos n
+ i sin n
), for, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

De Moiver’s formula

De Moiver’s formula:

z n = [r (cos θ + i sin θ)]n = r n (cos nθ + i sin nθ).

Problem: Given a nonzero complex number z0 and a natural number

n ∈ N. Find all distinct complex numbers w such that z0 = w n .
1
If w satisfies the above then |w | = |z0 | n . So, if z0 = |z0 |(cos θ + i sin θ)
we try to find α such that
1
|z0 |(cos θ + i sin θ) = [|z0 | n (cos α + i sin α)]n .

By De Moiver’s formula cos θ = cos nα and sin θ = sin nα, that is,
nα = θ + 2kπ ⇒ α = θn + 2kπn
. The distinct values of w is given by
1 θ+2kπ θ+2kπ
|z0 | n (cos n
+ i sin n
), for, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

De Moiver’s formula

De Moiver’s formula:

z n = [r (cos θ + i sin θ)]n = r n (cos nθ + i sin nθ).

Problem: Given a nonzero complex number z0 and a natural number

n ∈ N. Find all distinct complex numbers w such that z0 = w n .
1
If w satisfies the above then |w | = |z0 | n . So, if z0 = |z0 |(cos θ + i sin θ)
we try to find α such that
1
|z0 |(cos θ + i sin θ) = [|z0 | n (cos α + i sin α)]n .

By De Moiver’s formula cos θ = cos nα and sin θ = sin nα, that is,
nα = θ + 2kπ ⇒ α = θn + 2kπn
. The distinct values of w is given by
1 θ+2kπ θ+2kπ
|z0 | n (cos n
+ i sin n
), for, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis

De Moiver’s formula

De Moiver’s formula:

z n = [r (cos θ + i sin θ)]n = r n (cos nθ + i sin nθ).

Problem: Given a nonzero complex number z0 and a natural number

n ∈ N. Find all distinct complex numbers w such that z0 = w n .
1
If w satisfies the above then |w | = |z0 | n . So, if z0 = |z0 |(cos θ + i sin θ)
we try to find α such that
1
|z0 |(cos θ + i sin θ) = [|z0 | n (cos α + i sin α)]n .

By De Moiver’s formula cos θ = cos nα and sin θ = sin nα, that is,
nα = θ + 2kπ ⇒ α = θn + 2kπn
. The distinct values of w is given by
1 θ+2kπ θ+2kπ
|z0 | n (cos n
+ i sin n
), for, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n − 1.

Lecture 1 Complex Analysis