UK P&I CLUB

LP News
JUNE 2012

Care of wires and ropes

on board ships
Causes of damage to wires and ropes on board can be categorised into five types: abrasion, corrosion,
crushing, cutting-in and stretch.The general condition of a wire should be monitored whenever it is
in use and specific inspections should concentrate on signs of deterioration and damage

Uses on board frequently found to have the individual outer strands

flattened due to non-rotating or under-sized sheaves, or
The most common uses of wires and ropes on board contact with other strands on the drum itself.
modern vessels include:

● Accommodation ladders and gangways

● Cranes and hoists

● Elevators
● Lifeboat / rescue boat / life raft davits
Abraded wire rope, showing localised damage to individual wires
● Moorings
● Lifting strops and slings. Corrosion
Caused by unprotected wires being exposed to salt
Causes of damage to wire ropes water and the elements. The smaller the diameter of the
wire, the less effective the internal lubrication.
There are many causes of damage to wires and ropes
on board, these can be categorized into 5 types:
Crushing
Abrasion Uneven spooling on a drum can result in wires crossing.
With load on the wire, this can lead to the lower layers of
Generally due to pulleys, sheaves, rollers and/or
wire becoming crushed, reducing the effecting
fairleads being seized or otherwise damaged. This is a
breaking strain of the wire.
common form of damage to mooring wires – repeated
dragging by the stevedores over concrete knuckles and
Cutting-in
along the quay is probably the most common cause.
Insufficient internal lubrication results in internal wear, Occurs when a rope buries itself when under tension
otherwise known as fretting corrosion. Individual wires beneath poorly spooled lower layers, potentially leading
and strands rub together resulting in rust-like damage to jamming which could result in the wire kinking, being
showing between the exterior strands. Crane wires are crushed or even counter-rotation.
 a) The termination points of both moving and stationary
ropes;

b) The part of the rope which passes over the block or

over sheaves;

c) In the case of cranes performing a repetitive

operation, any part of the rope which lies over
sheave(s) while the crane is in a loaded condition;

d) That part of the rope which lies over a compensating

sheave;
Rope buried in amongst lower layers

e) Any part of the rope which may be subject to

Fatigue abrasion by external features (e.g. hatch coamings);
Fatigue is the result of frequent bending of the wire
f) Internals of the rope, for corrosion and fatigue;
under load, particularly round under-sized sheaves,
rollers, etc. and due to kinking. Fatigue is exacerbated g) Any part of the rope exposed to heat.
by poor lubrication and corrosion. Fatigue results in the
individual strands cracking and eventually failing. These should stand as guidelines for inspecting wires
associated with lifeboat / life raft / rescue boat davits,
accommodation ladders and gangways etc.

Records should be maintained detailing the changing

condition of a wire throughout its life-cycle. Details that
should be recorded include the number and location of
individual broken wires2, any flattening of the surface of
the wire, any signs of abrasion, kinking, etc. This would
Fatigue-induced wire breaks are characterised by flat ends on the
broken wires
allow for progressive monitoring of the wire, and allow
for programming additional maintenance and for
Stretch replacement wires to be purchased in good time.

More common in elevator wires, this is the result slight

Discard criteria
differences in diameter and/or elastic properties.
Compensation mechanisms are usually fitted, but it can Deterioration frequently is the result of a combination of
lead to wire slippage on the sheaves. factors, including:

● The nature and number of broken wires

Routine inspection of wire ropes
● Broken wires at the terminations
The required intervals between on board inspections
should be documented by the manufacturer and is ● Localised grouping of wire breaks
dependent upon the use, size and construction of the
wire. These intervals should be transferred to the ● The rate of increase of wire breaks
vessel’s planned maintenance system.
● The fracture of strands
The general condition of a wire should be monitored ● Reduction of rope diameter
whenever it is in use. Specific inspections should
however concentrate on signs of deterioration and ● Decreased elasticity
damage. A formal inspection should be undertaken by a
● Wear
responsible person before work commences and if
shock-loading is suspected. The time interval between ● Corrosion – internal and external
subsequent inspections can be reduced by the
competent person due to the condition of the wire. ISO ● Deformation, including ‘bird cages’, kinks, etc
4309:2004 states that for crane wire, the following ● Damage due to heat or electric arcing
points should be covered by examination:1
● Rate of increase of permanent elongation.
Although the wire rope shall be examined throughout its
length, particular care shall be taken at the following 1 Section 3.4.2.1
locations: 2 See section on Discard criteria
The competent person conducting the inspection (rotation-resistant ropes) or 10% (other ropes), the
should determine whether the deterioration has been rope should be discarded even if no broken wires are
caused by a deficiency in the crane, davit, winch or sighted.
associated equipment including rollers and fairleads,
and take appropriate measures to ensure these Decreased elasticity
deficiencies are rectified.
Under certain circumstances usually associated with a
rope’s working environment, it can sustain a
The individual extent of deterioration should be
substantial decrease in elasticity and would therefore
assessed and expressed as a percentage of the
be unsafe.
particular wire’s discard criteria. When the cumulative
Decreased elasticity is difficult to detect, but is usually
value at any position reaches 100%, the rope should be
associated with the following:
discarded. An individual wire rope’s discard criteria will
be established by the manufacturer. ● Reduction in rope diameter

Nature and number of broken wires ● Elongation of the rope lay length4

The number of broken wires allowed for any given wire ● Lack of clearance between individual wires and
rope would depend on designed use / function of the strands due to compression
wire. For example, a single layer 6x19 wire core rope
● Appearance of fine brown powdery residue
should be discarded if 3 or more wires are seen to be
between the strands
broken over a length equivalent to 6 diameters, and a
single layer 6x36 wire core rope should be discarded if ● Increased stiffness
9 or more wires are seen to be broken.
External wear
6x19 wires are general purpose wires, used on
sheaves, reels, hoists, etc. and 6x36 wires are Is shown by abrasion of the crown, or outer wires and
commonly used as lifeboat falls, on davits and cranes. is the result of rubbing under load. This is particularly
Broken wires at terminations are indicative of high evident on moving ropes and appears as flattened
stress loadings at the termination, sometimes surfaces on the outer wires.
associated with incorrect fitting of the termination.
Wear is promoted by a lack of or incorrect lubrication,
Where broken wires are grouped very close together, and by the presence of dust or grit. Wear reduces the
the wire should be discarded. If this grouping occurs in actual rope diameter.
a length less than 6 x diameter or is concentrated in any
one strand, it may be necessary to discard the rope External and internal corrosion
even if the number of breaks is less than the maximum Corrosion is prolific in the marine environment, and
number allowed for that size / type of rope. diminishes the breaking strength of the rope by
reducing the cross-sectional area of the individual
The rate of increase in the number of broken wires may wires, which increases the likelihood of fatigue,
be used to pre-plan the replacement of that wire. cracking and reduces the elasticity of the rope.
Fatigue is the predominant cause of broken wires, this
number will progressively increase over time. External wire corrosion is easily detected.
Any fractured strands should immediately warrant the
wire unusable and as such should be discarded. Internal corrosion is invariably the result of insufficient
internal lubrication. General indications of internal
Reduction of rope diameter corrosion include the appearance of fine brown
Deterioration of the core is a common cause of powdery residue between the strands, where the rope
reduction of a rope’s diameter, and can be caused by: bends around sheaves there is usually a reduction in
diameter. In stationary wires there is sometimes an
● Internal wear and wire indentation increase in wire diameter due to the build-up of rust,
and wire breaks between or within the strands. Severe
● Internal wear due to wire bending
internal corrosion renders the rope unusable.
● Deterioration of a fibre core
3 Designated diameter of the rope, can be found on the certificate
● Fractured internal layers in a rotation-resistant rope
4 The distance, measured along the rope, required for the outer wire
If these factors cause the rope’s diameter to decrease of a spiral-laid rope and the strands of a stranded rope to make one
by more than 3% of the rope’s nominal diameter3 complete turn (or helix) about the axis of the rope
Inspection and maintenance Another method we have seen for cleaning wires
(except mooring wires as they tend to be too big) is for
Mooring wires are frequently left exposed to the
the wire to be removed completely from its spool and
elements, which on the forward mooring deck is
placed in a container of kerosene or similar. This
generally wind and salt water, whereas down aft the
dissolves the old grease, right into the core of the wire.
wires may be exposed to sea spray and funnel
When new grease is applied to the outside of the wire,
emissions. These are corrosive environments where
the remaining kerosene draws fresh lubricant into the
poorly protected or lubricated wires will deteriorate.
wire.
Crane wires, lifeboat falls etc. are also left exposed to
the elements and suffer accordingly.
Lubricants applied to wire ropes provide a dual form of
protection such that individual wires are protected from
Ideally, wires should be removed from their drums for a
each other and the whole wire is protected from the
thorough inspection, care being taken that broken wires
corrosive action of sea water. In order to understand
don’t snag and cause injury to those personnel handling
the importance of lubrication, it is necessary to
the wires.
understand that a wire, when in use, is a dynamically
complex mechanical unit comprising of a number of
Once the inspection is complete, wires should be
moving parts. As a wire passes over a sheave or round
cleaned and lubricated. One of the most common
a roller it is subjected to corrosion, bending, tension
methods we have seen of greasing wires is either by the
and compressive stresses as it equalises the effects of
use of a rag covered in grease or with brushes dipped in
the load imparted upon it. The lubricant added to the
grease and smeared over the wire. This is an ineffective
wire during the manufacturing process allows this
method, as the wire isn’t cleaned of the old grease,
equalisation process to occur with the minimum of
there is no grease penetrating to the core of the wire
abrasion / deterioration to the individual wires in a
etc., new grease is merely spread over the surface of
strand. It should therefore be apparent that applying a
the old grease, salt, soot and other contaminants. This
coating of grease to an old contaminated layer of
layer of grease only serves to make a mess of anything
grease serves little purpose as it cannot penetrate the
that comes into contact with the wire.
wire.

There are proprietary wire rope cleaners/lubricators

When inspecting wires, thought should also be given to
available, many of which consist of a sleeve clamped
all sheaves, rollers, fairleads etc. that the wire utilises.
around the wire, into which compressed air forces
All should be inspected and their efficient operation
grease or a specialised oil. Some of these cleaners
confirmed. Rough surfaces on rollers and fairleads
have rotary collar brushes that follow the grooves of the
should be ground smooth, rollers should all rotate
wire, others have rubber collars; all scrape off the old
freely.
grease before injecting fresh lubricant into the wire as
the wire is slowly pulled through the sleeve. The collars
When the inspection is complete and the wire has been
are interchangeable, so different sizes can be used for
properly greased, care should be taken to ensure that
different size wires. These can generally be used in situ,
the wire is re-spooled correctly, with suitable tension to
with adaptable flexible mountings, so can be used on
ensure that there are no loose or riding turns, and that
cranes, davits, winches, etc. There are also a number of
when next used under load, the wire cannot bury itself
fixed systems available whereby the lubricating unit is
on the spool.
permanently rigged on the crane or other appliance.
Should a wire be found to require replacing, it is
essential that the specifications of the new wire are at
least equal to those of the wire being replaced. The
certificate for the new wire should replace that of the
wire being discarded in the Cargo Gear Register or
similar, depending on the wires intended use, and all
the vessel’s PMS updated accordingly.
Courtesy www.Corelub.com

Spare wires should be stowed under cover, away from

the elements and chemicals. Wires should be removed
from a coil by rolling the coil, not laying the coil flat and
pulling the end – this introduces twists into the wire.
When stored on a reel, the reel should either be placed
Example of a portable wire cleaning/lubrication system found on on a turntable, or a shaft placed through the centre of
many vessels the reel and the wire pulled as the reel rotates. Reels
should not be rolled, nor should the reel be placed on many oils at normal temperatures, although it swells
the deck and the wire just pulled off the static reel. when in contact with certain organic solvents.

Records should be maintained of all inspections, Exposure, including airborne sprays, should be
maintenance and renewals. avoided wherever possible. If contamination is
suspected, the rope should be washed out in cold
water. If there is any doubt, the rope should be
discarded.

Polyester ropes show signs of chemical attack by local

weakening or softening of the rope such that surface
fibres can be plucked or rubbed off in a powdery form
in more extreme cases. Hot solutions of strong alkalis
progressively dissolve the fibres causing gradual loss
in mass and a corresponding loss in strength.
Resistance to acids is generally good. No acidic
solutions should be allowed to dry on a rope. If any
such contamination is suspected, the rope should be
washed out in cold water. If there is any doubt, the rope
Incorrect method of unreeling a wire, this method induces twists,
should be discarded. Resistance to hydrocarbon oils
which could lead to kinks in the wire
and common organic solvents is good although it may
swell in contact with certain chlorinated solvents.
Attack by concentrated phenols is severe and should
be avoided.

Polypropylene ropes are unaffected at normal

temperatures by alkalis and acids, but are attacked by
some organic solvents such as white spirit, xylene and
meta-cresol. Rope contact with wet paint, coal tar or
paint-stripping preparations should be avoided.

Cuts
Cuts, contusions or careless use may cause internal as
well as external damage. Indications include local
loosening or rupturing of yarns and/or strands.
Correct method for unreeling a wire rope, either using a turntable
(vertical) or centre spindle (horizontal) External wear
External wear due to dragging over rough surfaces is
very common, resulting in surface chafing or
Causes of damage to man-made or
filamentation. In severe cases, the outer strands
natural fibre ropes become so worn that they become flattened and the
Any form of rope is liable to wear and mechanical outer yarns are severed. Generally speaking, some
damage and can be weakened by various means, degree of external wear is inevitable and can be
including chemical, heat and light. Regular inspection is harmless depending on the severity. Many man-made
essential to ensure that ropes are serviceable before ropes have high abrasion-resistance levels.
use.
Heat
Chemicals and solvents
Heat may in certain cases cause fusing of the yarns and
There are a wide variety of potential chemical strands. Rope should never be dried adjacent to a heat
contaminants to be found on board modern ships. source as some man-made fibres may be damaged
with no obvious warning. Surging of polypropylene
Nylon ropes show signs of chemical attack by local ropes when under tension during mooring operations
weakening or softening of the rope, such that surface for example can cause sufficient frictional heat at the
fibres can be plucked or rubbed off in a powdery form in points of contact resulting in the fusing of the surface
more extreme cases. Solutions of mineral acids cause yarns. This effect can be reduced by using more turns
rapid weakening. Nylon is unaffected by alkalis and around the drum end or capstan.
Internal wear Routine inspection of ropes
Internal wear is caused by repeated flexing of the rope, The smaller the diameter of the rope, the more serious
particularly when wet, and by particles of grit etc. that the effect of the weakness; consideration should
may have been picked up and worked their way into the therefore be given to the relationship between surface
rope. This may be indicated by excessive looseness of and cross-sectional areas when examining ropes.
the strands and yarns, or the presence of powdered The rope should be examined on all sides, and the lay
fibres. opened / strands untwisted to inspect the condition of
the inner strands and yarns.
Local abrasion
Local abrasion as opposed to general external wear may Apart from a visual inspection by the crew prior to
be caused by the passage of the rope over /round sharp berthing and when alongside, mooring ropes should
edges when under tension and may result in serious loss be periodically inspected as part of the vessel’s
of strength. While slight localised damage may be planned maintenance system. These inspections
considered harmless, serious reduction in the cross- should include general and localised wear, and
sectional area of a strand, or a lesser degree of abrasion splices.
to a number of strands in the same area warrant
consideration for rejection of the rope. Protection in way We would not recommend the use of short splices to
of areas prone to abrasion should be considered. re-join a mooring rope that has had a damaged length
removed, as these are of a lesser strength than the
Mildew rope itself.

Mildew does not attack nylon, polyester or When inspecting ropes, the entire mooring system
polypropylene ropes. However, it is recommended that should be considered, including rollers, fairleads,
no ropes are left flaked or coiled on deck longer than is bitts, drum ends, etc. Any rough or rusted surfaces
necessary. Ropes facing prolonged storage on deck should be ground smooth, rollers should freely rotate
should be stowed on gratings, pallets etc, to allow for and there shouldn’t be too much paint on drum ends
drainage and ventilation and covered to protect them and bitts as this detaches and gets embedded into the
from the elements. rope increasing the likelihood of internal wear and the
subsequent loss in strength of the rope.
Repeated loading Consideration should be given to areas of frequent
Nylon and polypropylene ropes have good resistance to abrasion i.e. the eye on a mooring rope, lengths of
damage caused by repeated loading, but permanent lifeboat painter that rub against railings, etc.
elongation may occur as these ropes have poor elastic
memory, particularly polypropylene. As a consequence, Discard criteria
once they have been over-stretched, the available
It is difficult to define a standard for acceptance and
remaining ‘spring’ is reduced.
rejection, as a lot depends on the intended use of the
rope and its likely loadings. In practice, the
Ultra violet degradation
assessment should be based on the general condition
Man-made fibre ropes, in particular polypropylene, of the rope. If there is any doubt as to the serviceability
suffer from UV degradation, where the outer, exposed or safety of a rope, it should be withdrawn from
strands lose any colour, go brittle and powdery. service.

Acknowledgements: Unreeling drawings and rope damage

photos courtesy of Witherby’s and Bridon International

UK P&I CLUB For further information please contact:

IS MANAGED Loss Prevention Department, Thomas Miller P&I Ltd
BY THOMAS Tel: +44 20 7204 2307. Fax +44 20 7283 6517
MILLER Email: Karl.Lumbers@thomasmiller.com