Chapter 2

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

Octavio Paz (1990) states that, “Technology is neutral and sterile. Now,

technology is the nature of modern man; it is our environment and our horizon.

Of course, every work of man is a negation of nature, but at the same time, it is a

bridge between nature and us. Technology changes nature in a more radical and

decisive manner: it throws it out.” Technology has been tremendously affecting

the society in a number of ways. It is the most powerful weapon in transforming

the world of work for it has an advanced computer capability that provides the

needs of the community.

2.2. Aquaculture

The demands of people are always changing and increasing. They work

hard in order to sustain their needs. They even manage to accommodate

different livelihoods as much as they could. One of them is aquatic system.

Aquatic System is the management of fishes in a fishpond, fish tanks, aquarium

or any other method that can produce a good harvest of fishes.

To meet the ever-increasing demand for fish, aquaculture has expanded

very rapidly and is now the fastest growing food-producing industry in the
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world. FAO (2000) estimates that by 2030, over half of the fish consumed by the

world’s people will be produced by aquaculture.

According to the FAO (2000), ‘there do not seem to be any

insurmountable obstacles to the continued growth of aquaculture’. Both

aquaculture and capture fisheries cause environmental impacts, which can be

substantially reduced through further research and improved management.

However, if aquaculture is unfairly assigned a negative label through unbalanced

ecological assessments, its potential contributions to present and future food

securities could be severely compromised. This could be especially devastating

in regions where high-quality protein is needed most. Moreover, it would increase

the deficit between wild harvest rates and total demand for fish, which will

actually further devastate stocks of many marine fish species. These

consequences on both human and fish populations would seem to go against the

stated intentions and missions of many of the groups currently attacking

aquaculture.

2.3 Fish as Food

According to the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United

Nations (1997). “Fish is a vital source of food for people. It is man’s most

important single source of high-quality protein, providing ∼16% of the animal

protein consumed by the world’s population. It is a particularly important protein

source in regions where livestock is relatively scarce—fish supplies <10% of

animal protein consumed in North America and Europe, but 17% in Africa, 26%
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in Asia and 22% in China (FAO, 2000). The FAO estimates that about one billion

people world-wide rely on fish as their primary source of animal protein (FAO,

2000)”

2.4. Fish Production

In the decade 2005–2014, fish culture production grew at 5.8 percent

annually, down from the 7.2 percent achieved in the previous decade (1995–

2004). Inland finfish aquaculture, the most common type of aquaculture operation

in the world, accounted for 65 percent of the increase in fish production in the

period 2005–2014, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of

the United Nations (2014). However, in the next succeeding years, there was a

dropping of fish production. In 2015, fisheries production was reduced by 1.96

percent. The sector recorded downtrend during the first, second and fourth

quarters of the year. Positive growth was realized only during the third quarter. Of

the major species, roundscad, skipjack, milkfish and tilapia failed to exceed the

previous year’s level and registered output drop of 11.88 percent, 2.57

percent, 2.30 percent and 0.54 percent, respectively(Philippine Statistics

Authority, 2015). The country’s fisheries production to decline by 6.34 percent to

4.35 million metric tons (MMT) in 2016, from 4.69 MMT in 2015, according to the

Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA).

2.5. Water Aeration

Water aeration is the process of increasing the oxygen saturation of the

water. It is often required in water bodies that suffer from anoxic conditions,

usually caused by adjacent human activities such as sewage discharges,

agricultural run-off, or over-baiting a fishing lake. Aeration can be achieved

through the infusion of air into the bottom of the lake, lagoon or pond or by

surface agitation from a fountain or spray-like device to allow for oxygen

exchange at the surface and the release of noxious gasses such as carbon

dioxide, methane or hydrogen sulfide. Dissolved oxygen is a major contributor to

water quality. Not only do fish and other aquatic animals need it, but oxygen

breathing aerobic bacteria decompose organic matter. When oxygen

concentrations become low, anoxic conditions may develop which can decrease

the ability of the water body to support life.

2.6. Aeration Device

One of the major devices that are use in aeration is an air pump. Air pump

is use to force air, through mechanical means, from the atmosphere into the

aquatic system. By forcing air into the water, it can create water motion with the

rising of air bubbles, and will provide oxygen to the water that the fish needs.

With the use of an air pump, it greatly increase the CO2 and O2 gas exchange,

keeping dissolved concentration of these gasses at safe levels. Other aeration is

also being use such as a solenoid valve. In which the solenoid valve is where the

intake of freshwater and exit of used water.

2.7. Water Oxygenation

Fish, like humans, need oxygen to fuel their metabolic processes, and like

us, they will die if deprived of it for long. However, the similarities end there,

because they live in water. According to Dr. George Muha (2007), “Water itself is

composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, the oxygen in the water

molecule itself is not the oxygen the fish are breathing. That’s because the

oxygen in water molecules is already tied up making water. Instead, the oxygen

that fish are breathing is essentially the same atmospheric oxygen we humans

breathe; it’s just that when it comes into contact with water, it dissolves into it.”

2.8. Dissolved Oxygen

Dissolved oxygen is considered as one of the most important aspect of

aquaculture. (PHILMINAQ) It is needed by fish to respire and perform metabolic

activities. Thus low levels of dissolved oxygen are often linked to fish kill

incidents. On the other hand, optimum levels can result to good growth, thus

result to high production yield. The amount of oxygen consumption varies,

depending on the size, feeding rate, activity level and species. Table 3 shows the

level of dissolved oxygen in a particular kind of fish.

For all species of cultured fishes while growing, they need optimum range

of dissolved oxygen level. Below shows the optimum range:

0 to 2 ppm - small fish may survive a short exposure, but lethal if exposure

is prolonged. Lethal to larger fish.

2 to 5 ppm – most fish survive, but growth is slower if prolonged; may be

stressful; aeration devices are often used below 3ppm.

5 ppm to saturation – the desirable range for all.

Source: Zweig, Morton and Stewart, NACA

Table 3: Levels of dissolved oxygen for some aquaculture species

2.9. Oxygen consumption by Fish

The different fish species have become adapted to different living

conditions during their evolution. Generally all those fish species which live in fast

flowing and oxygen rich streams need high quantities of oxygen, and only a small

decrease of dissolved oxygen can cause losses. At the same time the species

which became accustomed to slow motion of the water or stagnant water need

less oxygen and are able to tolerate short periods of oxygen deficiency.

Some fish species are also known, mainly in the tropics, to utilize the

oxygen of the atmosphere by cutaneous respiration, intestinal and swim-bladder

respiration or by a respiratory organ similar to lungs.

Oxygen consumption by fish is generally given in mg/body weight and

kg/hour. Standard oxygen consumption means the quantity of oxygen consumed

by the fish without swimming and feeding (quantity of oxygen necessary for

subsistence). Standard oxygen consumption is not dependent on oxygen

concentration of the water but it is significantly influenced by water temperature.

Increase of toxic effect of different toxic materials cannot be neglected in

water bodies with low oxygen supply. The low oxygen content disadvantageously

influences both the food intake and the utilization of food. Investigations have

shown that lower than 25% oxygen concentration occurring before sunrise has a

disadvantageous effect on fish-growing.

Keeping the dissolved oxygen content of the tank water nearly at the

concentration level makes it possible not only to avoid mass losses of fish but

ensures better conversion rates and higher yields in intensive culture.

2.10 Water Temperature

Temperature is a measure of the average energy (kinetic) of water

molecules. Water molecules become increasingly agitated as the temperature

rises, and the more they bounce around, the harder it is for gases to dissolve in

them and the easier it is for the oxygen that’s in there to get bounced out (Laura

Muha, 2007). Water temperature has been defined as the “abiotic master factor”

by JR Brett due to its effect on aquatic organisms. It is an important factor to

consider when assessing water quality. In addition to its own effects, temperature

influences several other parameters and can alter the physical and chemical

properties of water such as Metabolic rates and photosynthesis production,

Dissolved oxygen and other dissolved gas concentrations and pH.

Considered alone, water temperature can affect the metabolic rates and

biological activity of aquatic organisms. The metabolic rate of fish doubles for

every rise of 10°C (FAO). Therefore, temperature has a direct effect on important

factors such as growth, oxygen demand, food requirements and food conversion

efficiency. The higher the temperature, the greater the requirement for oxygen

and food and the faster the growth rate as seen in Fig. 1. Temperature partly

determines the concentration of oxygen in water. The solubility of oxygen

decreases with increasing temperature, and so concentrations are usually lower

in summer. Temperature also has a crucial role in stimulating fish gonad

maturation and spawning activity.

Figure 1. The metabolic rates of aquatic organisms increase as the water

temperature increases.

2.11. pH / Acidity Level

pH shows the quantity of hydrogen ions (H+) in the water. The scale for

measuring the degree of acidity is called the pH scale, which ranges from 1 to

14. At 25 0C or 77 0F, pH of 7.0 will be considered neutral, i.e. neither acidic nor

basic, while values below 7.0 are considered acidic, and above 7.0 are basic.

The pH of surface waters is important to aquatic life because pH affects

the ability of fish and other aquatic organisms to regulate basic life-sustaining

processes, primarily the exchanges of respiratory gasses and salts with the water

in which they live. Failure to adequately regulate these processes can result in

numerous sub-lethal effects (e.g., diminished growth rates) and even mortality in
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cases when ambient pH exceeds the range physiologically tolerated by aquatic

organisms.

Alkalinity is the measure of the capacity of water to neutralize or buffer

acids using carbonate, bicarbonate ions, and in rare cases, by hydroxide, thus

protecting the organisms from major fluctuations in pH. High alkaline, aka basic

water, can affect your fishes’ gills while acidic aquarium can result in the

production of excess mucous by your fish. This is due to an increase of toxic

elements promoted by acidic aquarium water. Other observable symptom include

fish gasping (when fish will rise to the top of the water and gasp), hyperplasia

(thickening of skin and gills), and eye damage. As with high alkaline, fish death

can occur (Algone, 2014).To prevent this in Table 5 and 6 show the

recommended alkaline values for aquaculture production.

Table 5. Recommended Alkaline Levels for Aquaculture Production

Table 6. Recommended Alkaline Levels in Natural System

2.13. Automation

In order to provide a more improvised aeration, we must take into account

of the sufficient and consistent level of dissolved oxygen to fishes for them to

have a comfortable temperature and acidity level. It would be more convenient if

we are going to make it automated. In order to make it automated, it will use a

microcontroller which is an Arduino with some transducers and sensors.

2.13.1 Transducers

A transducer is defined as a substance or a device that converts (or

transfers) an input energy into a different output energy but they do not quantify

the conversions. In general terms, the transduction process involves the

transformation of one form of energy into another form. This process consists of

sensing with specificity the input energy from the measurand by means of a

"sensing element" and then transforming it into another form by a "transduction

element." The sensor-transduction element combination shown in figure below

will henceforth be referred to as the "transducer". Measurand relates to the

quantity, property, or state that the transducer seeks to translate into an electrical

output.
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2.13.2 Sensor

One type of feedback frequently needed by industrial-control systems is

the position of one or more components of the operation being controlled.

Sensors are devices used to provide information on the presence or absence of

an object. They detect and respond to some type of input from the physical

environment. The specific input could be light, heat, motion, moisture, pressure,

or any one of a great number of other environmental phenomena. The output is

generally a signal that is converted to human-readable display at the sensor

location or transmitted electronically over a network for reading or further

processing.

2.13.3 Arduino as Microcontroller

One good and reliable example of microcontroller is Arduino. It is an

open-source electronics platform based on easy-to-use hardware and software.

Arduino boards are able to read inputs - light on a sensor, a finger on a button, or

a Twitter message - and turn it into an output - activating a motor, turning on an

LED, publishing something online. You can tell your board what to do by sending

a set of instructions to the microcontroller on the board. To do so you use the

Arduino programming language (based on Wiring), and the Arduino Software

(IDE), based on Processing.