The Psychology of the Person

Chapter 13 Behavioral-Social Learning

Approach
The Beginning of Behaviorism
John B. Watson (1878-1958) was a
member of the faculty at John Hopkins
University.
He started his academic work in
philosophy, but then switched to
psychology, and
In 1913 published his milestone paper:”
Psychology as the Behaviorist Views
it”
Watson’s Main Idea in His 1913 paper

Watson argued that if psychology were to

become a science, psychologists must stop their
engagement in such topics as mental processes
and states of consciousness, which were the
main topics of the earlier schools, such as
structuralism and Functionalism
Only observable behaviors can be the subject
matter of science. Emotions, thoughts, etc, were
of interest to behaviorists only if they could be
defined in terms of observable behaviors
 Watson’s main Ideas (cont-d)

Thinking , according to Watson, was

simply a variant of verbal behavior, a
“sub-vocal speech”, as evident by small
vocal-cords movements he claimed
accompanied thoughts.
Watson claimed that observed behavior
can be predicted, and eventually
controlled by scientists.
Watson was Influenced by Ivan Pavlov

At that time Watson was influenced by

Pavlov and his demonstration of classical
conditioning, and proposed a model of
learning based on Stimulus- Response
relationship, that would imply that “given
the response, the stimulus can be
predicted; given the stimuli, the response
can be predicted
Pavlov’s Work and the Principles of
classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov: (1849-1936) was a physiologist
who studied the digestive system and
experimented on dogs
He performed surgery in the cheek of the dog
and inserted there a little glass vial that served
to collect the saliva of the dog. He noticed one
day that the dog started to salivate before the
food was introduced, as a response to the
footsteps of the experimenter. This observation
brought Pavlov to try all types of stimuli
(Conditioned stimuli) that were paired with the
food (the unconditioned stimulus).
Examples of Classical Conditioning

Pavlov presents the food (Unconditioned

stimulus) to the dog ( UCS)
The dog salivates (unconditioned
response) to the sight of the food (UCR)
The bell, a neutral stimulus (conditioned
stimulus) is paired with the food (CS)
After a couple of presentations, the dog
salivates to the bell (conditioned response)
CR
 Classical Conditioning Con-d

The neutral stimulus becomes a

conditioned stimulus, and the response it
elicits is called conditioned response.
 The Original Pavlov Experiment

A class-vial is inserted on the dog’s cheek

to collect saliva elicited by food
Basic Model of classical conditoning
 The Law of Effect (Thorndike)

•  Thorndike at that time identified the

principles of operant conditioning—
behaviors that are rewarded tend to be
repeated, and those behaviors that are
punished or ignored decrease in frequency
 Modification of Behavior via Learning
Principles
The list of topics using learning principles
includes attitude change, language
acquisition, overcoming phobias and more
Behavioral accounts of personality had
gone through transitions over the years
From observable behaviors to non-
observable concepts, such as thoughts
The line between behavioral and cognitive
approaches is blurred
 Watson’s Conclusions

The work of Pavlov convinced Watson that these

leaning principles would suffice to explain almost
any human behavior.
Personality, he said was “the end product of our
habit system”. That is, over the course of our
lives we are conditioned to respond to certain
stimuli in more or less predictable ways, which
explains the consistency observed in personality
characteristics.
 Control over the environment

Watson is famous (or infamous) that given

enough control over the environment, he
can take any baby, and regardless of the
child innate abilities and features, he can
mold the child into becoming anything or
anyone that he, Watson, wanted.
(see next slide)
 Watson’s Infamous Statement

He made his infamous statement: “ Give

me a dozen healthy infants, well formed,
and my own specified world to bring them
up in, and I will guarantee to take any one
at random, and train him to become any
type of specialist I might select– doctor,
lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes,
even a beggerman and a thief” (1924).
 Little Albert
Watson was interested in the conditioning
of emotional responses, and his
“experiment” with Little Albert is well-
known.
He devised a procedure to classically-
condition in Albert fear of the little rabbit
(most of you remember this event).
 Little Albert (cont-d)

Watson’s perspective is deterministic

people can be conditioned to react
(emotionally or behaviorally) to stimuli
without their awareness
In this sense, referring to the old
philosophical question whether we have
control over out life, he seems to advocate
the position that we do not have FREE
WIILL.
 Watson’s View of Human Nature

Watson’s view of human behavior can be

described as being reductionist- - in the
sense that complex behavioral patterns
could be reduced to simple Stimulus-
response connections, that were formed
on the basis of classical (Pavlovian)
conditioning – which is learning by
association
 Watson’s Legacy

Watson’s main legacy is seen in the shift

from subjective introspection into a system
of explanation that advocated the operational
definition of variables- that is- any variable
studied needs to be defined in terms of
specific operations that can be used to
measure it and to quantify it. In addition, his
idea that learning is the core of psychology
has become quite prevalent.
 History

German scientists working at the Universities of

Leipzig and of Heidelberg became interested in
the connection between events or stimuli in the
physical world, and their perception in the mind.
They were the first to use laboratory
experiments, and indeed the first lab in
experimental psychology was established by
Wundt in 1879 at the University of Leipzig
(Germany).
 History (cont-d)

The field of psychophysics was engaged in

understanding how the physical properties of
stimuli in the external world (e.g. the intensity of
light, or the pitch of a sound) are related to our
sensory experience
This field was seeking for laws that would
describe the relationship between the objective
physical world and the subjective inner
experience of the human mind.
 Wundt and the School of Voluntarism

Wundt’s school of thought has come to be

known as Voluntarism
He was interested in describing the
immediate conscious experience of a
person, using systematic introspection.
Wundt described consciousness as
composed of sensations, affect (feelings),
and ideas (the thinking mind).
Skinner and Radical Behaviorism
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990)
published in 1938 his view of learning. He
maintained that the Pavlovian classical
conditioning paradigm could not explain all
behavior
Skinner suggested that type R
conditioning, operant conditioning, is
better able to explain behavior
 Skinner cont-d)
l  Skinner in the 1930’s introduced radical
behaviorism, stating that all behavior can be
explained on the basis of operant conditioning
principles.
l  He did not deny the existence of inner causes
of our behavior, but challenged the extent we
can observe them.
l  Very much like Freud, he said that people
often are not aware of the causes of their
behaviors. They are manipulated by operant
conditioning of which they are not always
cognizant.
 Operant Conditioning

The basis for operant conditioning is a behavior

emitted by the organism, sometimes at random
The consequences of that behavior determine
whether it will be repeated in the future (under
similar conditions)
A consequence that increases the frequency of
behavior is called a reinforcement, one that
decreases the likelihood of the behavior is called
a punishment.
Changing behaviors via rewards and
punishment
 Positive Reinforcement
Rewarding behavior increases its frequency
 Punishment

Introducing unpleasant stimulus

(punishment) decreases the behavior
 Negative Reinforcement
The elimination of unpleasant stimulus rewards the
behavior
She nags him (unpleasant) until he cleans
the dishes and then she stops.
 Operant Conditioning (cont-d)

The other side of operant conditioning is

the reduction of unwanted behavior
The most efficient method is to cease
reinforcement and thereby allow the
behavior to extinguish
Though it seems quite simple, we seldom
can abide by this idea- especially when we
give attention to undesirable behaviors.
 Con-d

Negative Reinforcement: When behavior

is reinforced by the elimination of a
negative stimulus. For example, you are
in the mall and your child nags and
screams, wanting a toy
You buy the toy, the child stops screaming
Your behavior was “negatively reinforced”
 Effects of Punishment

Though punishment worked quite well with animals in the lab,

studies show that the effectiveness of punishment is limited for
several reasons.
First, punishment does not teach the desired behavior.
Second, to be effective punishment must be delivered immediately
and consistently
In addition, through a process of classical conditioning, negative
feelings that accompany the punishment may be associated with the
person (often the parent) delivering the punishment.
What’s more, punishment teaches the child to behave aggressively.
The negative emotions associated with punishment may interfere
with learning appropriate responses. At the mist, punishment can
temporarily suppress behavior.
 Shaping

In many situation we want to use

reinforcement to increase desirable
behavior, but the behavior is not emitted
by the subject
We use shaping, or the method of
successive approximations
We reward small increments toward the
final (desirable) behavior
 Skinner and Utopia

Skinner’s position was deterministic- he

maintained that the perception of
personal freedom in an illusion, and that
our behavior is controlled by
environmental factors, through processes
of operant conditioning often unbeknownst
to us. His position in regard to the ancient
question was that there was no free will.
 Current Status of Skinner’s Radical
Behaviorism
Skinner’s form of behaviorism is considered
today as radical and as inappropriate to explain
the complexity of our behavior
It rejects the usefulness of examining our
feelings and inner thoughts, and it ignores
completely the role of heredity in human
behavioral mechanisms
It has also been claimed that human beings are
more complex that the laboratory animals used
in behavioral research. We humans are capable
to consider alternative courses of action, looking
at long-term goals.
 The Over-Justification Effect

An interesting finding that emerged in social

psychology regarding reinforcement is, that
when you pay (reinforce) people to do
something that they anyhow enjoy doing, the
reward decreases the frequency of the
behavior. This is called the over-justification
effect
Explanation: We perceive our behavior as
motivated by the reward, not by our inherent
interest!
 Social-Learning Theory

Around the 1960’s psychology transitioned

toward social-learning theory
The main concept was that not only does the
environment affect our behavior, but that our
behavior determines the type of environment we
find ourselves in.
Social-Learning theorists also claimed that
people provide their own inner reinforcers, in the
absence of external ones
 Rotter’ s social learning theory
Rotter argued that the causes of human
behavior are much more complicated than
conditioning principles.
Rotter introduced several “unobservable”
concepts to account for human behavior and
personality
In any situation we have different options for
behavior.
The key to predicting what we will do in a given
situation depends on the behavioral potential
for each option—it is the likelihood of a given
behavior occurring in a given situation.
 Rotter’s Social-Learning (cont-d)

The strength of the behavior potential

depends on expectancy—which is the
probability that the behavioral option will
result in a given reinforcer, and
reinforcement value—the degree to
which we prefer one reinforcer over
another. If you do not like candy, offering
you candy after you have done something
that is desirable will NOT affect you.
 Rotter (cont-d)
Expectancies- What are they?
Rotter introduced the term “expectancy” to
suggest that we decide to behave in a given
manner if we expect our behavior to bring the
desired result and if we value the result- if it is
important to us.
For example: Whether we decide to study all
night long before a test depends on our
expectancy (belief) that such behavior will give
us good results
 Behavioral Potential depends on…

The extent to which we expect our

behavior to bring a reward
The extent to which we care about this
reward
How do we form expectancies about
the potential result of our behavior?
The idea is that we are going to emit (display) a
given behavior when we EXPECT is to bring us
rewards
We form expectancies usually on the basis of
past experience of being rewarded
What about situations that we encounter for the
first time?
We rely of generalized expectations
Rotter refers to those as Locus of Control
 “Generalized expectations” and
Locus of Control (LOC)
These are beliefs we hold about how often our
actions typically lead to rewards or punishments
“Locus of Control” is a concept introduced by
Rotter, referring to the extent to which we
believe that what happens to us is the result of
our own actions or attributes (Internal LOC), or
the results of forces outside of our control
(External LOC)
LOC is found to be related to emotional well-
being vs. depression
 LOC beyond Rotter

Was found as important for emotional well-

being and achievement motivation
 Cognitive elements: Social-
Cognitive theory:
Bandura (1970’s) rejected the traditional
behaviorist views of personality that
presented humans as passive recipients of
environmental stimuli.
Bandura argued that there were both
internal and external determinants of
behavior, and introduced the concept of
reciprocal determinism.
 Bandura (cont-d)

Albert Bandura (1925-) illustrates the transition

from traditional behavioral views to incorporate
internal variables
For him, we are not passive recipients of
rewards and punishment from the environment
Bandura argues that there are both external and
internal determinants of behavior- and these two
sets interact in a mode that he labeled as
reciprocal determinism.
Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism

That is, external factors and internal factors,

such as beliefs, thoughts and expectations, are
parts of a system of interacting influences.
Not only can the environment affect behavior,
but our behavior affects the environment.
Bandura draws a distinction between potential
environment, which is the same to everyone in
a situation, and the actual environment, the
one we create with our behavior.
 Reciprocal Determinism

Constant movement back and forth

 Self-Efficacy

One of Bandura’s most important concepts is

self-efficacy
The term refers to the extent to which one
believes that he/she can bring about a certain
therapeutic outcome
Whether people make an effort to cope with
problems and how long they persist in their
efforts to change are determined by whether
they believe that that are capable to achieve the
change, that is, their perception of self-efficacy
 Self-Efficacy

Seems simple, right?

 Self-Regulation

l  Bandura also argues that most behavior is

performed in the absence of external
reinforcement and punishment.
l  Most of our daily actions are controlled by self-
regulation.
l  We often work toward self-imposed goals with
inner rewards. The rewards come from feelings
of accomplishment and self-wroth, that
Bandura labeled- self-efficacy.
 Observational Learning

l  Bandura argued that learning is not

limited to classical or operant
conditioning.
l  We can also learn by observing other
people, or by reading about other
people’s actions.
l  Many behaviors are too complex to be
learned through the slow process of
reinforcement and punishment.
 Learning vs. Performance

l  Bandura draws an important distinction

between learning and performance.
l  Behavior learned through observational
methods needs not be performed.
l  The performance is dependent on the
expectations of rewards or punishment.
 Application: Behavior Modification
Operant Conditioning
Despite all the criticism, Skinner’s ideas have
been successfully translated into therapeutic
procedures labeled behavior modification
The focus is on changing few, well-defined and
maladaptive behaviors and habits
The procedures were used quite effectively in
the case of autistic children.
Lovaas in UCLA used techniques based on
operant conditioning, especially shaping through
successive approximations (rewarding small
increments toward the final goal) to teach
language and social skills to Autistic Children
 Application
Classical Conditioning
Systematic desensitization is a technique
used in treating phobias, where images or
real-life encounters of the feared object or
situations are gradually introduced, while
the person is in a state of relaxation
In Aversion Training therapists try to rid
clients of problem behaviors while by
pairing aversive stimuli with the behavior
Assessment: behavioral observations

Direct observation: In order to change behavior

(for example- to reduce a child’s temper
tantrum), we need first to assess the problematic
behavior- how often it occurs, what are the
conditions that precede it, what are the
consequences of the behavior)- this stage is
called baseline
Next- offer the treatment/intervention
Last- observe the behavior again, to assess any
changes that can be seen as the result of the
treatment/intervention.
 Assessment: Self-Monitoring

This technique asks the client in a

behavior-modification program (for
example, wants to quit smoking), to
engage in self-monitoring, in order to
obtain a base-line for the target behavior
(quit smoking)
For example- how often one smokes,
under what circumstances
 Self-Monitoring (cont-d)

Weakness of this method: In most cases

clients have distorted ideas as to how
often the behavior (e.g. smoking) occurs
Therefore, therapists ask clients to keep
records as to how often the behavior
occurs, under what situations, etc
Watching your own behavior can be
therapeutic in itself!
However, sometimes people cheat!
 Observations by Others

Some clients are unwilling or unable to

provide accurate information about
themselves (e.g. children)
Parents and teachers can often record the
frequency of a child’s problem behavior
Children sometimes act differently in the
presence of the therapist than at home
That is why it is good to use several
observes in different settings
 Current Status

Though the behavioral perspective is regarded

as to simplified to explain the complexity of
human behavior, strategies derived from this
approach are quite effective in psychotherapy
Behavior modification interventions are based on
behavioral principles, both classical and operant
conditioning
Observational learning is also used in
psychotherapy.
 Strengths

Foundations in research- need to define the

variables and to measure them, rather than use
general terms such as “self-actualization” or
“unconscious”
Behavioral principles are translated into
therapeutic procedures (Behavior Modification)
that use objective criteria when wanting to
change behavior
Behavior modification procedures are suitable
for children or severely delayed persons
 Limitations
Skinner’s form of behaviorism is considered
today as radical and as inappropriate to explain
the complexity of our behavior
It rejects the usefulness of examining our
feelings and inner thoughts, and it ignores
completely the role of heredity in human
behavioral mechanisms
It has also been claimed that human beings are
more complex that the laboratory animals used
in behavioral research. We humans are capable
to consider alternative courses of action, looking
at long-term goals.