UNIT - I THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

1.6 ORTHOGONAL METAL CUTTING

1.6.1 Benefit of knowing and purpose of determining cutting forces
The aspects of the cutting forces concerned:

Magnitude of the cutting forces and their components.

Directions and locations of action of those forces.

Pattern of the forces: static and / or dynamic.
Knowing or determination of the cutting forces facilitate or are required for:

Estimation of cutting power consumption, which also enables selection of the power source(s)
during design of the machine tools.

Structural design of the machine - fixture - tool system.

Evaluation of role of the various machining parameters (process - VC, fo, t, tool - material and
geometry, environment - cutting fluid) on cutting forces.

Study of behaviour and machinability characterization of the work materials.

Condition monitoring of the cutting tools and machine tools.

1.6.2 Cutting force components and their significances

The single point cutting tools being used for turning, shaping, planing, slotting, boring etc. are
characterized by having only one cutting force during machining. But that force is resolved into two or
three components for ease of analysis and exploitation. Fig. 1.37 visualizes how the single cutting force
in turning is resolved into three components along the three orthogonal directions; X, Y and Z.
The resolution of the force components in turning can be more conveniently understood from
their display in 2-D as shown in Fig. 1.38.

Fig. 1.37 Cutting force R resolved into PX, PY and PZ Fig. 1.38 turning force resolved into PZ, PX and PY
The resultant cutting force, R is resolved as,
R = PZ + PXY 1.13
and PXY = PX + PY 1.14
where, PX = PXY sinφ 1.15
and PY = PXY cosφ 1.16
PZ - Tangential component taken in the direction of Zm axis.
PX - Axial component taken in the direction of longitudinal feed or Xm axis.
PY - Radial or transverse component taken along Ym axis.
In Fig. 1.37 and Fig. 1.38 the force components are shown to be acting on the tool. A similar set
of forces also act on the job at the cutting point but in opposite directions as indicated by PZ', PXY', PX'
and PY' in Fig. 1.38.

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Significance of PZ, PX and PY

PZ: Called the main or major component as it is the largest in magnitude. It is also called power
component as it being acting along and being multiplied by VC decides cutting power (PZ.VC)
consumption.

PY: May not be that large in magnitude but is responsible for causing dimensional inaccuracy and
vibration.

PX: It, even if larger than PY, is least harmful and hence least significant.

1.6.3 Merchant’s Circle Diagram and its use

In orthogonal cutting when the chip flows along the orthogonal plane, π0, the cutting force
(resultant) and its components PZ and PXY remain in the orthogonal plane. Fig. 1.39 is schematically
showing the forces acting on a piece of continuous chip coming out from the shear zone at a constant
speed. That chip is apparently in a state of equilibrium.

Fig 1.39 Development of Merchant’s Fig. 1.40 Merchant’s Circle Diagram

circle diagram with cutting forces
The forces in the chip segment are:

From job-side:
 Ps - Shear force.
 Pn - force normal to the shear force.

From the tool side:
 R1 = R (in state of equilibrium) where, R1 = F + N
N - Force normal to rake face.
F - Friction force at chip tool interface.
The resulting cutting force R or R1 can be resolved further as,
R1 = PZ + PXY where, PZ - Force along the velocity vector.
PXY - force along orthogonal plane.
The circle(s) drawn taking R or R1 as diameter is called Merchant’s circle which contains all the
force components concerned as intercepts. The two circles with their forces are combined into one circle
having all the forces contained in that as shown by the diagram called Merchant’s Circle Diagram
(MCD) in Fig. 1.40.
The significance of the forces displayed in the Merchant’s Circle Diagram is:
Ps - The shear force essentially required to produce or separate the chip from the parent body by shear.
Pn - Inherently exists along with Ps.
F - Friction force at the chip tool interface.

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UNIT - I THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

N - Force acting normal to the rake surface.

PZ = PXY – PX + PY = main force or power component acting in the direction of cutting velocity.
The magnitude of PS provides the yield shear strength of the work material under the cutting
action. The values of F and the ratio of F and N indicate the nature and degree of interaction like friction
at the chip tool interface. The force components PX, PY, PZ are generally obtained by direct
measurement. Again PZ helps in determining cutting power and specific energy requirement. The force
components are also required to design the cutting tool and the machine tool.

1.6.4 Advantageous use of Merchant’s circle diagram

Proper use of MCD enables the followings:

Easy, quick and reasonably accurate determination of several other forces from a few known
forces involved in machining.

Friction at chip tool interface and dynamic yield shear strength can be easily determined.

Equations relating the different forces are easily developed.
Some limitations of use of MCD:

Merchant’s circle diagram (MCD) is only valid for orthogonal cutting.

By the ratio, F/N, the MCD gives apparent (not actual) coefficient of friction.

It is based on single shear plane theory.

1.6.5 Development of equations for estimation of cutting forces

The two basic methods of determination of cutting forces and their characteristics are:
(a) Analytical method: Enables estimation of cutting forces.
Characteristics:

Easy, quick and inexpensive.

Very approximate and average.

Effect of several factors like cutting velocity, cutting fluid action etc. are not revealed.

Unable to depict the dynamic characteristics of the forces.
(b) Experimental methods: Direct measurement.
Characteristics:

Quite accurate and provides true picture.

Can reveal effect of variation of any parameter on the forces.

Depicts both static and dynamic parts of the forces.

Needs measuring facilities, expertise and hence expensive.
The equations for analytical estimation of the salient cutting force components are conveniently
developed using Merchant’s Circle Diagram (MCD) when it is orthogonal cutting by any single point
cutting tool like, in turning, shaping, planing, boring etc.

1.6.6 Development of mathematical expressions for cutting forces

Tangential or main component, PZ
This can be very conveniently done by using Merchant’s Circle Diagram, as shown in Fig. 1.40.
From the MCD shown in Fig. 1.40,
PZ = Rcos(η – γ) 1.17
Ps = Rcos(β + η – γ) 1.18
Dividing Eqn. 1.17 by Eqn. 1.18,
PZ = Ps cos(η – γ) / cos(β + η – γ) 1.19
It was already shown that, Ps = t.f. τs / sinβ 1.20
where, τs - Dynamic yield shear strength of the work material.
Thus, PZ = t.f. τs cos(η – γ) / sinβ cos(β + η – γ) 1.21

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For brittle work materials, like grey cast iron, usually, 2β + η – γ = 900 and τs remains almost
unchanged.
Then for turning brittle material,
PZ = t.f. τs cos(900 – 2β) / sinβ cos(900 – β) 1.22
or PZ = 2 t.f. τs cotβ 1.23
Where, cotβ = rc – tanγ
rc = a2 / a1 = a2 / f sinφ
It is difficult to measure chip thickness and evaluate the values of ζ while machining brittle materials and
the value of τs is roughly estimated from
τs = 0.175 BHN 1.24
where, BHN - Brinnel’s Hardness number.
But most of the engineering materials are ductile in nature and even some semi-brittle materials
behave ductile under the cutting condition. The angle relationship reasonably accurately applicable for
ductile metals is
β + η – γ = 450 1.25
and the value of τs is obtained from,
τs = 0.186 BHN (approximate) 1.26
0.6∆
or τs = 0.74σuε (more suitable and accurate) 1.27
where, σu - Ultimate tensile strength of the work material
ε - Cutting strain, ε ≅ rc – tanγ
∆ - % elongation
Substituting Eqn. 1.25 in Eqn. 1.21,
PZ = t.f. τs(cot β + 1) 1.28
Again cotβ ≅ rc – tanγ
So, PZ = t.f.τs(rc – tanγ + 1) 1.29

Axial force, PX and transverse force, PY

From the MCD shown in Fig. 1.40,
PXY = PZ tan(η – γ) 1.30
Combining Eqn. 1.21 and Eqn. 1.30,
PXY = t.f.τs sin(η – γ) / sinβ cos(β + η – γ) 1.31
Again, using the angle relationship β + η – γ = 450, for ductile material
PXY = t.f.τs(cotβ – 1) 1.32
or PXY = t.f.τs(rc – tanγ – 1) 1.33
where, τs = 0.74σuε0.6∆ or τs = 0.186 BHN
It is already known,
PX = PXYsinφ and PY = PXYcosφ
Therefore, PX = t.f.τs(rc – tanγ – 1)sinφ 1.34
and PY = t.f.τs(rc – tanγ – 1) cosφ 1.35

Friction force, F, normal force, N and apparent coefficient of friction µa

From the MCD shown in Fig. 1.40,
F = PZ sinγ + PXY cosγ 1.36
and N = PZ cosγ – PXY sinγ 1.37
µa = F / N = PZ sinγ + PXY cosγ / PZ cosγ – PXY sinγ 1.38
or µa = PZ tanγ + PXY / PZ – PXY tanγ 1.39
Therefore, if PZ and PXY are known or determined either analytically or experimentally the values
of F, N and µa can be determined using equations only.
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UNIT - I THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

Shear force Ps and Pn

From the MCD shown in Fig. 1.40,
Ps = PZ cosβ – PXY sinβ 1.40
and Pn = PZ sinβ + PXY cosβ 1.41
From Ps, the dynamic yield shear strength of the work material, τs can be determined by using the
relation,
Ps = Asτs
where, As = t.f / sinβ = Shear area
Therefore, τs = Ps sinβ / t.f
τs = (PZ cosβ – PXY sinβ)sinβ / t.f 1.42

1.6.7 Metal cutting theories

1.6.7.1 Earnst - Merchant theory
Earnst and Merchant have developed a relationship between the shear angle β, the cutting rake
angle γ, and the angle of friction η as follows:
2β + η – γ = C where C is a machining constant for the work material dependent on the
rate of change of the shear strength of the metal with applied compressive stress, besides taking the
internal coefficient of friction into account.

1.6.7.2 Modified - Merchant theory

According to this theory the relation between the shear angle β, the cutting rake angle γ, and the
angle of friction η as follows:
  
β= -+

Shear will take place in a direction in which energy required for shearing is minimum.

Shear stress is maximum at the shear plane and it remains constant.

1.6.7.3 Lee and Shaffer’s theory

This theory analysis the process of orthogonal metal cutting by applying the theory of plasticity
for an ideal rigid plastic material. The principle assumptions are:

The work piece material ahead of the cutting tool behaves like an ideal plastic material.

The deformation of the metal occurs on a single shear plane.

This is a stress field within the produced chip which transmits the cutting force from the shear
plane to the tool face and therefore, the chip does not get hardened.

The chip separates from the parent material at the shear plane.
Based on this, they developed a slip line field for stress zone, in which no deformation would
occur even if it is stressed to its yield point. From this, they derived the following relationship.

β= -η+γ

1.6.8 Velocity relationship

The velocity relationships for orthogonal cutting are illustrated in fig. 2.7 where VC is the cutting
velocity, Vs is the velocity of shear and Vf is the velocity of chip flow up the tool face.
Vs = VC cosγ / cos(β – γ) 1.43
and Vf = sinβ / cos(β – γ) 1.44
From equation Vf = VC / rc
It can be inferred from the principle of kinematics that the relative velocity of two bodies (here
tool and the chip) is equal to the vector difference between their velocities relative to the reference body
(the workpiece). So, VC = Vs + Vf 1.45

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