Kidist Hailu PDF

Addis Ababa university, College of Graduate Studies, School of Earth Science June, 2016
Addis Ababa University

School of Graduate studies
Faculty of science
Groundwater Dynamics in Tributary Streams of Muger

and Holota River Catchments
A Thesis Submitted to School of Graduate Studies of Addis Ababa University

in Partial Fulfillment of the requirements for Degree of Master of Science in
Hydrogeology
By:
Kidist Hailu
Advisor:
Tilahun Azagegn, PhD
June, 2016
Addis Ababa
MSc Thesis, Kidist Hailu, GSR/1385/07, Hydrogeology stream Page 0


School Of Earth Science
Groundwater Dynamics in Tributary Streams of Muger and

Holota River Catchments
A Thesis Submitted to School of Graduate Studies of Addis Ababa University

in Partial Fulfillment of the requirements for Degree of Master of Science in
Hydrogeology
By
Kidist Hailu
Advisor
Tilahun Azagegn, PhD
June, 2016
Addis Ababa
MSc Thesis, Kidist Hailu, GSR/1385/07, Hydrogeology stream Page i


School Of Earth Science
Groundwater Dynamics in Tributary Streams of Muger and

Holota River Catchments
By: Kidist Hailu
Approved by Board of Examiners:

____________________________ _____________________
(Chairman)
_Dr. Tilahun Azagegn__ ______________________

(Advisor)
Prof. Tenalem Ayenew_________ __________________

(Examiner)
Dr. Seifu Kebede_________ __________________

(Examiner)
MSc Thesis, Kidist Hailu, GSR/1385/07, Hydrogeology stream Page ii

Acknowledgement
Before all, I would like to praise God who made possible for me to begin and finish my
education.
I would like to thank Dr. Tilahun Azagegn, my advisor, for his unreserved advice, support
and guidance to the completion of this research and Dr. Seifu Kebede, my instructor, for his
advice, his valuable comments, guidance and kind provision of all required materials.
My appreciation and thanks is also to my instructors Professor Tenalem and Dr. Dessie for
their support in valuable knowledge of Hydrogeology and Earth Sciences.
I am also thankful to all my colleagues and friends who helped me a lot during my education
period and on my field work.
My heartfelt thanks go to my beloved family because of their advice and support I am here
today and my deepest love shall be to my husband (Yordanos) and my sons (Leul and
Maraki).
MSc Thesis, Kidist Hailu, GSR/1385/07, Hydrogeology stream Page iii

Abstract
Integrated hydogeological study using major ion hydrogeochemistry and environmental

isotope tools were employed to characterize groundwater dynamics in tributary streams of
Muger River Catchments in the north and Holota River Catchments in the south.
Hydrogeochemical study reveals that water types vary from early stage of geochemical
evolution (CaHCO3 type) to the highest level of geochemical evolution (NaHCO3) and from
low TDS to high TDS and NaHCO3 type are observed only in the downstream part of Holota
River catchment. In relation to stable isotopes, highly enriched groundwater from deep wells
were also observed in the downstream part of Holota River catchment. Radon concentration
has been observed in the main Holota River and low in tributary streams. However, Radon
concentration is low in main Muger River but high in its tributary streams that flow through
acidic rock units. The stable isotopes signature of the deep aquifer in Holota River catchment
illustrates that, the groundwater is recharged through long subsurface path relative to the
deep aquifers found in Tributary streams of Muger River catchment. Radon signature shows
that main Holota River is recharged from the groundwater at some segments whereas it is not
the case for Muger River. And finally, groundwater level map together with isotopic
signature show that groundwater divide shifts from surface water divide towards Muger
River catchment and the groundwater flow converges towards Holota River flow direction.
Key Words: Groundwater dynamics, Muger River, Holota River, Stable isotopes, Radon
MSc Thesis, Kidist Hailu, GSR/1385/07, Hydrogeology stream Page iv

Table of Content
Chapter 1- Introduction .................................................................................................................1
1.1 Back Ground ......................................................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................................2
1.3 Description of the Area ......................................................................................................3
1.3.1. General ...........................................................................................................................3
1.3.2 Geology ...........................................................................................................................5
1.3.3 Hydrogeology ...................................................................................................................... 8
Chapter 2- Previous Works .........................................................................................................11
Chapter 3- Objective of the Research .........................................................................................14
3.1 General objective .............................................................................................................14
3.2. Specific Objective ...........................................................................................................14
Chapter 4- Methodology and Materials ......................................................................................15
4.1 Methodology ....................................................................................................................15
4.2 Materials ...........................................................................................................................15
Chapter 5- Result and Discussion ...............................................................................................17
5.1 Hydrogeochemistry ..........................................................................................................17
5.1.3 Total Dissolved Solid (TDS) ............................................................................................. 21
5.1.4. Sodium and Calcium ........................................................................................................ 26
5.2. Isotope Hydrology ............................................................................................................... 35
5.3 Groundwater flow ............................................................................................................53
CHAPTER 6- CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ..................................................60
6.1 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................60
6.2 Recommendation..............................................................................................................61
CHAPTER VII- REFERENCE...................................................................................................62
MSc Thesis, Kidist Hailu, GSR/1385/07, Hydrogeology stream Page v

List of Figures
Figure 1: Location map of the study area ................................................................................. 4
Figure 2: Geological map of the study area (Source: WWDSE, 2008) .................................... 7
Figure 3: Hydrogeological unit map of the study area (source: Tilahun Azagegn, 2015)...... 10
Figure 4: RAD- 7 detector setup ............................................................................................. 16
Figure 5: Ionic balance error (%) graph for hydro chemical data........................................... 19
Figure 6: Hydrochemical data availability map ...................................................................... 20
Figure 7: TDS versus EC graph of hydro chemical data ........................................................ 23
Figure 8: Spatial distribution map of TDS.............................................................................. 24
Figure 9: Sodium (a) and Calcium (b) distribution map ......................................................... 27
Figure 10: Groundwater type distribution map ....................................................................... 30
Figure 11: Stable isotope data availability map ...................................................................... 37
Figure 12: Distribution of stable isotope of water in the study area ....................................... 41
Figure 13: Distribution map of Oxygen-18 isotope ................................................................ 42
Figure 14: Distribution map of Deuterium ............................................................................. 43
Figure 15: Radon data availability map .................................................................................. 50
Figure 16: Radon distribution map ......................................................................................... 51
Figure 17: Groundwater contour map ..................................................................................... 54
Figure 18: Cross section along AB (a) and CD (b) ................................................................. 55
List of tables
Table 1: Location of field measurement water points ............................................................ 25
Table 2: Hydrochemical data .................................................................................................. 32
Table 3: Stable isotope data .................................................................................................... 45
Table 4: Radioactive isotope data ........................................................................................... 52
MSc Thesis, Kidist Hailu, GSR/1385/07, Hydrogeology stream Page vi

Acronyms
Bq/m3 Becquerels per cubic meter
Ca Calcium
DEM Digital Elevation Model
EC Electrical Conductivity
EW East West
GMWL Global Meteoric Water Line
GNIP Global Networking of Isotopes in Precipitation
GPS: Global positioning system
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
LMWL Local Meteoric Water line
m.a.s.l Meter above sea level
Na Sodium
NE North East
M Meter
Ra Radium
Rn Radon
SE South East
SWL: Static Water Level
TDS: Total Dissolved Solids
VSMOW Viena Standard Mean Oceanic Water
WWDSE: Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise
MSc Thesis, Kidist Hailu, GSR/1385/07, Hydrogeology stream Page vii

Chapter 1- Introduction
1.1 Back Ground
Though two-third of our world is covered by water, freshwater is not more than 2.7%. Out of
this, more than 77% occurs in the form of ices capes & glacier which is not suitable for
domestic consumption while the rest occurs in the form of surface water and groundwater
(Fetter, 1994).
Groundwater is a vital resource in steadily increasing demand by human. In history of water

use in the country in general in Addis Ababa in particular, groundwater is one of the major
resource supplies for domestic, industrial and agricultural consumption. In the suburbs of
Addis Ababa; Urbanization, major industries, horticulture-floriculture and animal
husbandries are extensively established and demand huge amount of water. Due to this
reason, most of the above mentioned industries and agricultures have their own boreholes.
The lithological parameter is one of several parameters that control groundwater quality.
Other factors include evaporation at the surface prior to infiltration, transpiration and wash-
down of sea spray. Water moves underground, and its salt or mineral content is determined
by all soil and rock types it passes through.
Hydrogeochemistry and environmental isotope study were used to investigate groundwater

flow system, surface water ground water interaction and to estimate the groundwater
residence time. Isotope methods when introduced in to catchment hydrology is a
complementary tool to conventional hydrologic methods for addressing questions of where
water goes when it rains, what pathways it takes to the stream and how long water resides in
the catchment.
Chemical composition of water samples collected from surface water and groundwater is
valuable in identification of mixing, sources, groundwater flow path and the similarity and
difference of subsurface waters.
Inter-basin groundwater transfer between Abay River Basin and Awash River Basin was very
crucial issue and different professional researchers have been undertaking several researches
and investigations. Although, different researchers quantify the amount of groundwater

coming from Abay River Basin towards Awash River Basin is extremely variable. The mean
annual recharge of the Ada’a-Becho aquifers system is estimated to be 687 Mm3 with 70% of
recharge contributed by Upper Abay River Basin (WWDSE, 2008), A regional groundwater
flow model for the Upper Awash groundwater basin gives a total volumetric annual inflow of
nearly 590Mm3 into the system of the Upper Awash groundwater basin. Out of the total
recharge to the Upper Awash groundwater basin, nearly 26% (153Mm3) is an inflow from
the Blue Nile basin through horizontal exchange (Tilahun Azagegn, 2015). The annual out
flow from Abay River Basin towards Upper Awash River Basin is 25Mm3 (M. Rhazac,
2015).
This research will give detail understanding on the previous researches which were done on
the inter-basin groundwater transfer between Abay Basin and Awash basin by using
hydrogeochemistry and isotopic evidence with large scale investigation. (Tributary streams
of Muger River Catchment and Holota River Catchment).
The investigation will be approached through the integrated work of hydrogeochemistry and
environmental isotope evidences by weekly and spatial monitoring of groundwater and
surface water in the study area.
1.2 Statement of the Problem

Several researches have been carried out by different researchers about inter-basin ground
water flow between the Abay River basin and Awash River basin. some address ground
water flow direction in the upper Awash River Basin coincide with surface water flow path
whereas, some researches point out that there is an inter basin groundwater flow from Abay
River basin towards Awash River basin. It is for this reason that, this work has been carried
out between Abay River basin and Awash River basin with large scale investigation by
taking the catchments, tributary streams of Muger River Catchment from Abay River Basin
and Holota River Catchment from Awash River Basin using geochemical (major ions) and
environmental approaches.

1.3 Description of the Area
1.3.1. General
The study area is fall in part of Abay River basin and in part of Upper Awash River basin and
found from 40km up to 100 kms radius from Addis Ababa to Holota River Catchment and
Tributary streams of Muger River Catchment respectively. The study area confined within an
approximate coordinate of 432518-466751UTME and 985925-1047929UTMN and covers
total area of 1080 km2, out of which about 553km2 falls in Abay River Basin (Tributary
streams of Mugger river catchment) and the remaining 527 km2 falls in upper Awash River
Basin (Holota River Catchment).
According to 20 years record of data collected from National Metrological agency, the mean
annual rainfall in the study area is 986.13 mm. The annual maximum and minimum
precipitation during this period varies from 1661.98 mm to 641.81 mm. The rainfall pattern
in the study area generally is bi-modal nature with high rainfall in July and in August.
Minimum and maximum monthly temperature of the study area varies from 15.26 oC in April
to 18.07 oC in December.
The topography of the study area is varied. Based on the map developed from DEM (Digital
Elevation Model) the area has an overall elevation difference that ranges between 1500
m.a.s.l up to 3300 m.a.s.l. The topography of tributary streams of Muger River Catchment
has rolling topography and the elevation difference ranges between 1500 m.a.s.l up to 3234
m.a.s.l, whereas Holota River Catchment of the study area has almost flat topography except
the high elevation of Wochecha mountain, the elevation difference ranges between 2052
m.a.s.l up to 3300 m.a.s.l.
Drainage pattern depends on the topography and geology of the study area. Both river
catchments have dendritic drainage pattern. In Holota River catchment there are different
contributing streams join together in to Holota River and then flows towards the main river
Awash. In another side, different tributary streams join Muger River then flows towards the
main River Abay.

Figure 1: Location map of the study area

1.3.2 Geology
According to WWDSE, 2008, various geological units ranging from Mesozoic sedimentary
succession and Tertiary age groups of acidic and basic volcanic rocks are described. The main rock
units in tributary streams of Muger River Catchment are consists of Ambaradam sandstones which
is in the age of Mesozoic sedimentary rock, Blue Nile basalt, Amba aiba basalt, Alaji rhyolite and
tarmabner basalt which has the age of teritiary volcanic rock. Whereas, Holota River Catchment
consists of central volcanoes unit of trachyte and rhyolite, Addis Ababa ignimbrite and Tarmaber
basalt which are in the age of teriatiary volcanic rock. Brief descriptions of geologic units in the
study area are described below from oldest to youngest;
Amba Aradam Sandstone
The Amba Aradam sandstone is widely known as upper sandstone is outcropped in the northern part
of the study area within the tributary streams of Muger river catchment and conformably overlying
the Antalo limestone. It is consisting of shale and marl at the bottom and quart sand stone at the top.
The sandstone is grayish to pinkish white in color and fine to coarse grained in texture. The age of
the Amba Aradam sandstone is probably of Late Cretaceous and represents a regressive facies of
Cretaceous sea (Kazmin, 1975).
Blue Nile Basalt
This unit is thick basaltic flows and outcrops in the Northern part of tributary streams of mugger
river catchment. It is alkaline basalt with columnar joints of wider spacing forming vertical cliff. In
hand specimen it is massive and dark in color. According to Kazmin (1975), the age of this unit is
Paleocene-Oligocene (69-23 Ma).
Amba Aiba Basalt
This unit is exposed overlying the Blue Nile Basalt in part of tributary streams of mugger river
catchment. It is flood basalts in thick flow with closely spaced columnar joint. In hand specimen it
is aphanitic in texture and dark grey color. The age of this unit is Oligocene-Miocene (36-18 Ma).

Alaji Rhyolite
This unit is exposed in part of tributary streams of mugger river catchment. It is consisting of
rhyolites, ignimbrites and subordinate trachytes. Obsidian bearing rhyolites are common in the
project area. It is grayish to pinkish brown in color. The obsidian composition at Segnogebeya area
gives rise to the dark gray color. The age of this rock unit is Miocene, 33-15Ma (Kazmin, 1979).
Tarma Ber Basalt

The Tarma Ber Basalt which is the dominant unit exposed in central part of the study area (in both
Tributary streams of Muger River catchment and Holota River catchment). It is consisting of mainly
scoraceous lava flows and at places it is columnar olivine bearing basalt as pockets within the
scoraceous components. It is highly weathered, fractured and pinkish to grayish in color. The age of
this unit is Miocene, 27-5Ma.
Addis Ababa Ignimbrite
This Ignimbrite is outcropped in the South western part of Holota River catchment. It is composed
of welded tuff (ignimbrite) and non welded pyroclastics fall (Ash and tuff). It is grayish to white
color and when welded it exhibits fiamme textures, elongated rock fragments of various color. The
age of this unit is 5.11-3.26 Ma (Morton et al 1979).
Trachyte
The Central Volcanoes units are mainly trachytic lavas exposed at Wochecha, Southeastern part of
the study area (in Holeta river catchment) forming an elevated ridges or mountain picks. It is
grayish color fine to medium grained trachyte with subordinate ash falls and ignimbrite. The age of
this unit is 4.6-3.7 Ma (Chernet et al 1998).
Rhyolites
The central volcano unit of rhyolite is exposed in the northern part of the study area (in Holota
River catchment). In fresh hand specimen it is grayish pink and reddish brown to yellowish grey
color when weathered. Data on the ages of the rhyolites are not available; however from the cross-
cutting relationship they can be younger than the adjacent ignimbrite.

Figure 2: Geological map of the study area (Source: WWDSE, 2008)

1.3.3 Hydrogeology
According to Tilahun Azagegn, 2015, various regional aquifer units and groundwater flow
barriers have been identified in the study area and describes below:
Upper Coarse grained Sandstone aquifer
This aquifer unit is found in the northern part of tributary streams of Muger River catchment.
It dominantly composed of cemented, coarse grained sand and layers of conglomerates, with
thin lenses of mudstone and shale. The sandstones and conglomerates have high primary
porosity. This aquifer unit receives direct recharge from precipitation or from flood water
draining the surrounding volcanic highlands. This unit is overlain by impermeable mudstone,
forms cliff where direct recharge to the aquifer system is low.
Trap series Basalt and Trachyte aquifer

The unit is found in the tributary streams of Muger River catchment. It comprises columnar
basalts, weathered basalts, trachytes, ignimbrites and rhyolites. The aquifer unit outcrops and
forms flat to gentle topography and receive direct recharge from precipitation. Groundwater
circulation is shallow along stream courses but relatively deep at ridges.
Scoriaceous Basalt aquifer

This aquifer unit is found in upstream of both Holota River catchment and tributary streams
of Muger River catchment. The aquifer unit is composed dominantly of scoria, scoriaceous
basalt and boulders of basalt with very thin layers of trachytes, rhyolites, and palaeosols.
Depth to ground water in this unit is shallow except at volcanic peaks. This unit is
characterized by high primary porosity and secondary porosity.
Rift Basalt and Ignimbrite aquifer

This unit if found in Holeta river catchment. The Rift Basalt and Ignimbrite aquifer unit is
composed of vesicular basalts with high primary porosity and ignimbrites with lower primary
porosity. Receive direct recharge from precipitation. Groundwater circulation in this unit is
generally shallow.

Pyroclastic deposit aquifer

This unit is found in the south western part of Holota River catchment. This aquifer unit
comprises the pyroclastic rocks within the Trap series volcanic from the plateau, and the
volcanic ash and tuff deposits from the rift. Hydraulic conductivity of the unit is low,
dominantly attributed to the low secondary porosity. It receives direct recharge from
precipitation but with very slow infiltration rate.
Groundwater flow barriers

Unless the trachyte and rhyolite domes are affected by fractures and faults, they form
groundwater flow barriers. The NW-SE trending fault affected the dome and causes for
groundwater flow towards downstream of Holota River catchment.

Figure 3: Hydrogeological unit map of the study area (source: Tilahun Azagegn, 2015)

Chapter 2- Previous Works

Several researches and investigations have been undertaking in the area. Those are;
Andarge Yitbarek (2009). Hydrogeological and hydrochemical framework of complex

volcanic system in the Upper Awash River basin, Central Ethiopia: with special emphasis on
inter-basins groundwater transfer between Blue Nile and Awash rivers. This work, from
available data identified two aquifer systems (Upper basalt and Lower basalt aquifers).
Ketema Wogari (2006). Water resource potential evaluation of Holota River Catchment,
central Oromia, West Shewa.
The research found that from direct and indirect investigation of the study area, the area
revealed that it has enormous potential of surface water and subsurface water. The work
estimated that the annual recharge to ground water from rainfall is about 24% of the mean
annual rainfall of the catchment, in other words, the annual recharge to ground water is
estimated to be about 160Mm3/year
Mola Demile et.al (2005). Groundwater recharge in the Akaki catchment, central Ethiopia:
evidence from environmental isotopes (d18O, d2H and 3H) and chloride mass balance.
The research showed recharge patterns, possible flow paths and the relative age of
groundwater in the Akaki catchment, by using stable environmental isotopes d18O and d2H
and radioactive 3H coupled with conservative chloride measurements.
The work showed that, the stable and radioactive isotope measurements further revealed that
groundwater in the Akaki catchment is compartmentalized into zones and it appears that a
complete mixing following the flow paths is lacking and commensurate with lithologic
complexity.
Seifu Kebede et.al (2007). Ground water origin and flow along selected transects in
Ethiopian rift volcanic aquifer.
The most important factor that controls the groundwater flow continuity between the high
rainfall region in the plateau and the rift floor aquifers is the geological architecture of the
interface zone.

Seifu Kebede et.al (2010). Ground waters of the Central Ethiopian Rift: diagnostic trends in
trace elements, d18O and major elements.
From geochemical trend, it shows a continuity of groundwater flow from the western
highlands to the rift valley floor following the regional groundwater flow path. And it
summarized, regional flows are not evident in the volcanic aquifers of the region because of
faulting, heterogeneity in permeability and dissection of aquifers, and groundwater levels and
their development is largely unknown, in the studied region, Central Ethiopian Rift, there is a
clear regional trend in groundwater flow and geochemistry. The fact that this region falls at
the intersection between an E–W running fault zone and the NNE–SSW running fault zone
may be responsible for the flow of groundwater’s from the highlands to the rift floor.
Tenalem Ayenew.et.al (2007). Environmental isotopes and hydrochemical study applied to

surface water and groundwater interaction in the Awash River basin
The dominant source of recharge to the rift aquifers comes from shallow groundwater inflow
from the adjacent highlands.
However, the presence of variable groundwater chemistry, depth and groundwater
occurrence in the region suggests complex groundwater dynamics, often governed by the
intensity and attitude of the rift faults and the volcanic stratigraphy and its relation with the
various water bodies.
Tilahun Azagegn (2008), Hydrogeochemical characterization of aquifer systems in Upper

Awash and adjacent Abay plateau using geochemical modeling and isotope hydrology.
From geochemical data, stable isotope data and tritium data, the work addressed schematic
conceptual models for spatial geochemical variations, evolution and recharge area zonation
for shallow and deep aquifer systems.
The regional groundwater flow system of the area is controlled by the structural and
stratigraphic relationship of rock formations which constitute confining beds, traps and
aquifer systems in the study area. Recharge area for the aquifer systems of a given river basin
can either be within the same basin and/or as inter-basin groundwater flow from adjacent
basins.

Tilahun Azagegn (2015), Groundwater Dynamics in the Left Bank Catchments of the
Middle Blue Nile and the Upper Awash River Basins, Central Ethiopia.
From the data of δ18O and δD signature collected from shallow aquifer systems in all the
sub-basins shows that the aquifer system is locally recharged from modern precipitations. On
the other hand, the highly depleted waters from deep wells in the Upper Awash and Guder
sub-basins including those located very close to and along the water divide between the Blue
Nile and the Upper Awash basin supports the inter-basin groundwater flow determined from
the evidence-based litho-structural model.
WWDSE (2008). Evaluation of ground water resource potential of Ada’a and Becho plains
The investigation result showed that, comparison between δ18O and δD content of the ground
waters of the Upper Awash basin with the rainfall shows for the shallow aquifers recharge
takes place from modern rains. The same line of evidence also shows recharge takes place
principally from summer rains and that the spring rains have minor importance in recharging
the aquifers in the Upper Awash basin.
Deep ground waters are depleted in δ18O and δD and are highly depleted with respect to the
modern day rainfall. These ground waters must therefore represent relatively older and
regional ground waters. Recharge to these aquifers must have taken place at higher altitude.
However shallow ground waters in the highland are more enriched than deep ground waters
in their δ18O and δD contents. This suggests the recharge to the above mentioned δ18O and
δD depleted aquifers must have taken place under colder climatic conditions and/or at higher
altitude.

Chapter 3- Objective of the Research
3.1 General objective

General objective of this thesis is to provide detail information on the ground water dynamics
in tributary streams of Muger River Catchment and Holota River Catchment and to provide
surface water and ground water interaction characteristics with large scale using geochemical
and environmental isotope techniques.
3.2. Specific Objective
The specific objectives of the thesis are:-
Determine geochemistry (major ions) of ground water and surface water in the study
area
Isotopic signature characterization of surface water and ground water and to
investigate groundwater connection to modern day infiltration from rainfall.
Identify groundwater discharge zones from measurements of 222Rn

Determine ground water flow condition from water level measurement

Chapter 4- Methodology and Materials

4.1 Methodology
To understand the inter basin groundwater transfer between the two river catchments,
different methodologies have been applied:
Review of previous works which includes geological, hydrological, hydrogeological

studies, published and unpublished academic thesis conducted in the study area, journals
18
that are related to the study area and the methodology to be applied (222Rn, 2H and O)
Measuring in-situ field parameters of water samples like electrical conductivity and
temperature, Radon -222 (222Rn) in different parts of the study area, laboratory chemical
analysis for chemical parameters, environmental isotopes, measurements
4.2 Materials
Different materials were used for the research work like;
• Geological map, hydro geological map and DEM (digital elevation model)
• Software’s ;
Arc-GIS 10.2,
Global Mapper 15,
Microsoft Office, (MS-word, MS-excel), Aquachem 3.5
• GARMIN GPS- Vista (hand GPS).
• Bottles for collection of representative water samples.
• EC meter (for measurement of temperature and electrical conductivity).
• RAD-7 with its accessories, such as desiccants /drying unit (for extracting the
humidity from the gas loop before interring to the RAD-7 machine), water pump (for
pumping water from the water body into the extraction module.
The portable radon-in-gas monitor RAD-7 (Durridge Company, Inc.)
was used for measuring radon in the atmosphere and in water (Burnett
and Dulaiova, 2003). The RAD-7 setup allows radon extraction from a
continuously running water pump stream into a closed gas loop which
is pumped through the RAD-7 detection chamber. Radon extraction is

accomplished by spraying the water into a closed air tight plastic

cylinder that is part of the closed gas loop.
The following diagram shows the set up of RAD-7 detector
Figure 4: RAD- 7 detector setup
The research work was executed by using all the above methodologies and materials in such
a way that they are implemented in an appropriate manner.

Chapter 5- Result and Discussion
5.1 Hydrogeochemistry
5.1.1. General
Water is replenished by precipitation. Amount and rate of rainfall, runoff and evaporation are
important factors in the control of water composition. Solutes contained in groundwater
represent the net effect of a serious of antecedent chemical reactions that have dissolved
material from another phase, have altered previously dissolved components, or have
eliminated them from solution by precipitation or other processes. The processes to which
solutes are taken up or precipitated and the amounts present in solution are controlled by
different factors, like, climate, geological activities, and biochemical effects. Composition of
atmospheric precipitation, sources of solutes in the atmosphere and anthropogenic activities
(Hem, 1985). There are also several factors that control groundwater chemistry like,
mineralogy of the geologic units, structural set up, geomorphology, residence time and
interaction with surface water bodies (Freeze and Cherry, 1979).
Chemical composition of groundwater and surface water is used to construct groundwater

flow path and groundwater interaction between the host rocks. Accordingly, this section of
the research work deals with the major geochemical processes, the changes undergoes along
the flow path and the factors that are responsible for the changes.
5.1.2. Data availability, quality and analysis method
Water samples were collected for chemical analysis from different representative points of
the study area during field work (Figure 6). Existing chemical data of boreholes, springs and
rivers in the study area from previous studies and organizations were collected. During the
field work in-situ measurement of:
- Electrical conductivity
- Temperature and
- Radon was made.

Water samples were collected and analyzed for the following parameters: pH, EC, TDS,NH4+
Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+, total Fe, Cl-, F-, NO2-, NO3-, CO3-2, HCO3- , SO42-, PO4-4, total
hardness and alkalinity.
Water samples were analyzed by the following methods:
• titration methods: Ca+2, Mg+2, alkalinity, hardness, CO3-2, HCO3- and Cl--
• flame bottom method for Na+ and K+;
• gravimetric method for TDS;
• direct measurement for EC and pH;
• sulfamer method for SO4-2;
• Phosphobar method for PO4-4;
• ferrobar method for total Fe;
• Standness method for F-;
• cadmium reduction method for NO3- and
• Deionization method for NO2- (NEERI, 2014).
Many organic compounds and some inorganic compounds exist in solution in water as
uncharged molecules but most inorganic solids dissociate when they go in to solution in
water. The closely knit structure of the solid is broken in to positively charged cations and
negatively charged anions that are separated by solvent molecules. On macro scale, the
positive and negative charges must be in balance (Hem, 1985).
The collected Hydro chemical data has to be checked according to the principle of electro
neutrality; the sum of cations in meq/l should nearly be equal to the sum of anions in meq/l
for the chemical data to be reliable for further geochemical characterization and
interpretation (Freeze and Cherry, 1979).
There must be an overall balance between cations and anions in solution to maintain
electrical neutrality (Hem, 1985). In a given volume of water sample that has been analyzed
for inorganic constituents, the sum of all the cations (meq/l) nearly equal to the sum of all the
anions (meq/l). If the analysis reveals the presence of cations and anions in solution, an
equation for the electro neutrality condition may be written as:

Electro neutrality = sum of cations – sum of anions x 100

Sum of cations + sum of anions
When the results of a water analysis are close in to the above equation, it should prove to be
close to equality. If the two sides of this equation differ by more than a few percent, either
the analysis is erroneous or one or more significant ions were omitted from the analysis.
Thus, after charge balance (electro neutrality) calculation, those hydro chemical analysis
results with charge balance error less than 5% is regarded as acceptable (Fetter, 2001). In this
study, all of the data’s falls in the acceptable range (Figure 5).
6.00
4.00
Charger balance error
2.00
(%)
0.00
BH1
BH4
BH10
BH14
BH17
BH21
BH26
BH29
BH32
BH35
BH38
RV2
BH46
BH49
BH54
BH58
BH61
RV3
RV6
RV9
RV12
-2.00
-4.00
-6.00
Figure 5: Ionic balance error (%) graph for hydro chemical data

Figure 6: Hydrochemical data availability map

Various units are in use in the expression of data obtained in the chemical analysis of water.
The units of concentration used in the text are mg/l. The EC values are given in µS/cm
Different ratios were calculated using meq/l unit.
Ca+2, Mg+2, Na+ and K+ are the major cation constituents and HCO3- dominates the
negatively charged species. F-, Cl-, NO3- and SO4-2 are not common anion. TDS value ranges
between 100 mg/l to 990 mg/l and pH values ranges between 6.27 up to 8.68 ppm. To
interpret groundwater flow system of the area from geochemical evidences, distribution of
ion and TDS and groundwater type distribution in the area have been evaluated.
Important hydro chemical parameters of groundwater and surface waters of the study area are
discussed below;
5.1.3 Total Dissolved Solid (TDS)
Thirty three field measurement of electrical conductivity have been taken during field work.
Electrical conductance or conductivity is the ability of substance to conduct an electric
current. Electrical conductivity is a measurement of how well an aqueous solution can carry
an electrical current. It is commonly used to determine the levels of impurities in the water,
typically the more impurities in the water, the higher the conductivity value will be.
Electrical conductivity is the degree of salinization of groundwater. Measurement of EC of a

solution will also give a relative indication of the amount of dissolved salts. The more salts
that are dissolved in the water have the higher electric conductivity. The relationship of
electrical conductivity versus total dissolved solids for all hydrochemical data gave the
equation expressed by TDS = 0.601EC (Figure 7).
The concentration of dissolved solids in the river is related to many factors. The more direct
and important factors is the variable volume of liquid water from rainfall available for
dilution and transport of weathering products.
The texture and structure of rocks are significant for water composition because they
determine the surface area of solid rock that may be exposed to attack. Groundwater may be
recovered in large amounts of rocks that contain shrinkage cracks and other joints, interflow

zones, or other openings through which water may move. Concentrations are likely to be a
function of contact time and area of solid surface exposed per unit volume of water.
Groundwater has better opportunity to participate in reactions with the rock minerals.
However, solute load in a dilute river may be related to solutes in rainfall or dust and other
atmospheric fallout transported from other localities (Hem, 1985).
The water carried in rivers is often considered to consist of base flow fraction made up of
groundwater that infiltrates in to the channel and direct runoff fraction that enters the
drainage system during and soon after precipitation. The direct runoff presumably has had no
residence time in the groundwater reservoir and only short contact with soil or vegetation.
Reactions in the soil zone, however, are commonly extensive enough that the direct runoff
has a considerably higher dissolved solids concentration than the original rain. The base flow
has a still greater dissolved solids concentration. The solute concentration of river water thus
tends to be inversely related to flow rate. At very high flow rate, the water may be nearly as
dilute as rainwater. (Hem, 1985)
TDS in water is an important parameter to characterize the changes groundwater undergoes

along the flow path and widely used method for categorizing groundwater.
Based on the classification of total dissolved solids, Freeze and Cherry (1979), Fresh water is
the water that contains less than 1000 mg/l of dissolved solids accordingly, all primary and
secondary hydro chemical data of the area fall within this range.

TDS Vs EC graph of hydrochrmical data

1200
TDS = 0.601EC + 15.77

1000 R² = 0.969
800
TDS
600
400
200
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
EC
Figure 7: TDS versus EC graph of hydro chemical data
Distribution of TDS gives important implication on groundwater dynamics like flow

direction, recharge area, discharge area and interaction between groundwater and surface
water bodies.
The result showed from the spatial TDS distribution map (Figure 8), the upstream of both
River Catchments has lower TDS value and increases along the flow path towards the
downstream of the River Catchments with some exceptional boreholes found in the middle of
Holota River Catchment along EW fault zone. Although, in the middle of tributary streams of
Muger River Catchment, there is very low TDS concentration is shown in the spatial
distribution map of TDS (Figure 8).

Figure 8: Spatial distribution map of TDS

TDS concentration increases towards the downstream of the river catchments and high along
the east west fault zone in Holota River Catchment (Figure 8). The sources of recharge in
evolved groundwater in the EW fault zone and downstream of river catchment could be
recharge from deep circulation with long sub surface path with considerable rock-water
interaction.
Table 1: Location of field measurement water points
Sample ID Source UTME UTMN EC Aquifer geology

HR-1 Holota river tributary 447894 1009131 188 Scoracious basalt aquifer
HR-2 Holota main river 445399 1008379 191 Scoracious basalt aquifer
HR-6 Holota main river 446101 1002833 172 Rift basalt and ignimbrite aquifer
HR-9 Holota river tributary 452911 1000512 226 Rift basalt and ignimbrite aquifer
HR-10 Holota river tributary 454221 999759 157 Groundwater flow barrier
MR-1 Muger main river 458600 1028944 196 Trap series basalt and trachyt aquifer
MR-2 Muger river tributary 451485 1027273 255 Trap series basalt and trachyt aquifer
MR-3 Muger river tributary 456140 1021714 193 Scoracious basalt aquifer
MR-5 Muger main river 458689 1030535 201 Trap series basalt and trachyt aquifer
MR-6 Muger main river 457900 1027032 199 Scoracious basalt aquifer
MR-7 Muger main river 454540 1024628 198 Scoracious basalt aquifer
MR-11 Muger main river 456078 1047291 286 Upper coarse grained sandstone aquifer

5.1.4. Sodium and Calcium
Spatial distribution of major ions from groundwater in silicate, carbonate and clastic rocks
help to characterize groundwater dynamics, and related Hydrogeological characteristics of
the given area. In order to characterize Hydrogeological features of the study area, sodium
and calcium concentrations in water samples are have been used.
Sodium is the most abundant member of the alkali metal groups of the periodic table. In
igneous rocks, sodium is mostly more abundant than potassium. Moreover, sodium
dominates groundwater from acidic volcanic rock units while calcium dominates basic rock
units. . When it comes to sedimentary terrain, calcium is a dominate cation in groundwater
from limestone while sodium dominates waters from evaporits rocks.
From the spatial distribution map of sodium, it is observed that sodium concentration
decreases towards downstream of the river catchments. Along the east west fault zone at the
middle of Holota River Catchment, sodium concentration becomes exceptionally high. And
in the middle of tributary streams of Muger River Catchment, a relative increment of sodium
concentration showed along the flow path. (Figure 9) The maximum concentration of
sodium identified in the study area is 370mg/l with high EC (1454µS/cm) and TDS
(988mg/l) value , in a borehole found in EW fault zone.
From the spatial distribution map of calcium, Calcium concentration increases downstream
of the flow path. However, in Holota River Catchment, some points have been shown
relative increment of calcium concentration which fall down on EW fault zone and in
Wochecha mountain (Figure 9). Maximum concentration of Calcium in the study area is
180mg/l at the downstream of tributary streams of Muger River Catchment.
Generally, the spatial distribution of Na+ is inversely related with the spatial distribution of
Ca2+ concentration in the study area (Figure 9).

Figure 9: Sodium (a) and Calcium (b) distribution map

The spatial distribution map of major cations (Sodium and calcium) concentration shows the inverse
relationship of sodium and calcium (Figure 9). Calcium concentration increases towards
downstream of the river catchments along the flow path associated with contact between basaltic
rock with water. Sodium concentration is high around the groundwater divide and decreases
towards downstream of river catchments along the flow path associated with contact between
basaltic rock with water. Concentration of sodium is very high along the EW fault zone which is the
result of cation exchange reaction along the groundwater flow path.
5.1.5. Groundwater types
Elements not available in the rock minerals contacted by water cannot be expected to be present in
the final solution. Non availability can be related to the structure of the rocks as well as to their
composition.
From chemical analysis result and by using Aquachem 4 software five groups of water types are
identified in the study area (CaHCO3, CaNaHCO3, NaCaHCO3, NaHCO3 and others). The
classification of the waters into group of groundwater types is based on major and minor cations
and anions in the water samples.
CaHCO3 water type is water with calcium as the dominant cation and bicarbonate as the dominant
anion that includes CaHCO3 and CaMgHCO3 and it observed in both River Catchments. This
groundwater type is characterized by low TDS; often less than 240 mg/l, hence they represent early
stage of geochemical evolution in recharge area and shallow depths of rapid circulation, relatively
low residence time in sub surface, without significant water–rock interactions. Water type of most
river samples in the study area shows CaHCO3 water type chemistry.
The second and third group of water type is CaNaHCO3 and NaCaHCO3 respectively. These groups
represent groundwater circulating in intermediate zones (depth and travel distance from recharge
areas). Water samples in this group were obtained from wells ranging from 100m up 275m depth.
Relative increment of TDS value occurs in this water types exceptionally in a single sample point
within Holota River Catchment with TDS value 450mg/l. The water type in this group represents
intermediate stage of geochemical evolution, with considerable travel distance from recharge area
and/or at a relatively deeper part of the aquifer or mixing effect of local recharge with regional flow

system. This in turn signifies that the groundwater belonging to this group is in the intermediate
zone between the recharge and discharge areas. This water type is found in Wochecha Mountain
and downstream of the River catchment.
The forth water type group in the area is NaHCO3 which is water with sodium as dominant cation
and bicarbonate as the dominant anion. The group includes wide range of TDS values (144 – 990
mg/l). This groundwater type is found only in Holota river catchment along the EW fault zone with
high TDS and in the eastern boundary of Holota River Catchment (Figure 10).

Figure 10: Groundwater type distribution map

From the spatial distribution map of groundwater type verses TDS, CaHCO3 groundwater type is
characterized by low TDS; this type of groundwater represents early stage of geochemical evolution
in recharge area and shallow depths of rapid circulation, relatively low residence time in sub surface
and without significant water–rock interactions.
CaNaHCO3 and NaCaHCO3 groundwater type is characterized by considerable travel distance

from recharge area and/or at a relatively deeper part of the aquifer or mixing effect of local recharge
with regional flow system.
This groundwater type in the study area also characterised by low TDS concentration except
relative increment of TDS concentration is observed in Holota River Catchment which could be
related with the mixing effect with deep circulation.
NaHCO3 groundwater type is observed only few points around the western boundary of Holota
River catchment with low TDS concentration; this is due to cation exchange at deeper zones. And
this groundwater type also observed along the EW fault zone in Holota River catchment with high
TDS concentration. The presence of such type of groundwater observed only in Holota River
catchment could be as a result of significant rock water-rock interaction, long subsurface path and
long residence time.

Table 2: Hydrochemical data
No. Sample ID UTME UTMN EC TDS PH Na K Ca Mg Cl NO3 F HCO3 SO4
1 BH1 465410 1002944 135 89 6.83 11.5 4.6 9.6 3.4 1.99 1.5 1.68 76.86 1.6
2 BH2 465161 1003103 201 130 7.8 18 4.9 21.6 4 8 0.5 0.9 136.6 3.2
3 BH3 433779 1000228 436 283 6.9 12.8 2.5 63.6 15.3 5.15 6.6 0.3 286.9 0.2
4 BH4 430267 987498 630 380 7.36 42 3.6 82.7 14.3 19.2 7 1.68 350 21.7
5 BH5 487089 997218 401 261 7.71 35 4 40 7 4 0.44 0.98 261 4
6 BH6 460464 974637 376 236 7.1 15.5 1.8 46.98 13.8 5.8 11.5 2.58 226.5 0.55
7 BH7 460810 981473 344 222 6.97 15 4.8 43.7 13.2 0.5 7.5 0.15 217.8 0
8 BH8 445643 973409 333 219 7.06 17 4.2 50 8.3 2.9 7.5 0.8 235.7 0.53
9 BH9 466662 970715 427 276 7.28 24 6.1 67.3 6.1 5.8 7 0.8 284.4 1.32
10 BH10 464607 973547 507 312 7.8 20 6.1 68.7 17.5 3.8 8.5 1.24 316.1 0.55
11 BH11 466690 976790 588 376 7.36 67 9.5 41.8 13.8 20.2 32.5 0.8 266.3 17.3
12 BH12 474740 1028068 342 222 7.45 8 0.7 45 15 6 17.28 0.13 195 25
13 BH13 427126 971361 874 572 7.27 160 23 9.68 2.7 63.36 0.11 2.17 366 44.06
14 BH14 453776 998997 154 100 7.45 9 0.8 20 3 1 0.44 0.08 95 6
15 BH15 456740 962388 510 350 7.19 42 9.8 62.8 9.4 6.7 7.5 1.25 333.1 2.64
16 BH16 456402 962608 536 360 7.25 41 11 65.32 12.32 8.64 2.39 1.36 311.47 18
17 RV1 456699 962400 316 230 8 27 6.2 41.8 12.5 5.7 8 0.41 233.9 1.1
18 BH17 451196 1027438 278 181 7.46 10 0.6 36 7 2 2.7 0.31 173 1
19 BH18 418679 988365 977 596 8.5 235 3 6 4.56 41.86 1.2 1.74 525 13.79
20 BH19 423439 988990 557 354 8.15 128.5 3.1 10.4 4.8 53.11 1.04 0.59 256.2 11.9
21 BH20 420071 983317 781 490 7.4 140 12.8 12 4.8 48.27 0.67 1.31 368.93 5.92
22 BH21 411777 989671 1559 1010 6.45 230 24 35.04 4.8 18 0.74 0.84 811 0.06
23 BH22 551014 1052479 329 200 7.33 21 4.7 42 7.56 11.83 6.81 0.73 173.1 8.71
24 BH23 550872 1054157 208 232 7.3 10 2.3 27 3 4 3.99 0.37 113 5
25 BH24 479695 1073212 488 395 7.01 13 2.2 57 16 14 18 0.31 215 11

26 BH25 473911 1031930 166 108 7.61 30 0.7 5.34 0.54 1.92 0.8 0.225 90.28 7.15
27 BH26 471304 1027754 257 146 6.54 20.5 0.9 32.2 4.2 1.9 2.93 0.41 154.3 0.83
28 BH27 463292 1037141 295 192 7.5 13.6 1.3 46.5 10.7 28.4 4.6 0.16 183 0
29 BH28 463376 1036389 156 101 7.8 21.5 9.5 32.2 7.4 5.8 8 0.5 189.1 0.83
30 BH29 464070 1034816 156 101 7.8 21.5 9.5 32.2 7.4 5.8 8 0.5 189.1 0.83
31 BH30 464387 1034248 156 101 7.8 21.5 9.5 32.2 7.4 5.8 8 0.5 189.1 0.83
32 BH31 463286 1038986 295 192 7.5 13.6 1.3 46.5 10.7 28.4 4.6 0.16 183 0
33 BH32 406469 1009401 395 257 7.83 10 2 50 13 3 3 0.62 250 1
34 BH33 443048 1001649 693 450 7.77 94 9 48 9 18 2 4 390 26
35 BH34 489927 1000153 507 332 7.89 93 3.3 19.32 12.75 16.48 9.14 1.29 297.2 6.6
36 BH35 446260 1004149 211 137 8.58 24 0.3 18 3 7 6.65 0.4 107 2
37 BH36 440274 1006055 233 144 8.68 45.5 1.7 3.68 0.56 6.72 2.22 0.5 111.6 2.3
38 BH37 453522 1001474 206 144 7.67 7.6 1.8 29.4 7 3.8 4.8 0.41 133.2 1.32
39 BH38 447200 998889 225 146 7.91 24.5 2 24.9 3.8 5.8 10 0.41 138.3 1.32
40 BH39 448532 1008047 258 174 6.27 6 1.4 44.5 4.9 7.8 25 0.41 117.9 6
41 BH40 421795 1040108 244 160 7.25 30.5 2.5 19.36 5.4 7.68 0.12 0.28 143 0.53
42 BH41 533663 1047803 399 268 7.5 10 1.2 69 12 8 13.3 0.33 239 11
43 BH42 473800 1024726 319 200 7.32 17 1.1 44 11.04 4.55 5.86 0.47 200 1.14
44 RV2 413753 1076600 138 82 7.52 5.4 3.3 16 3.89 1 1.32 0.82 70.27 8.5
45 BH43 441584 1003445 263 170 7.13 6.6 1.5 46.3 7.6 0.96 7 0.41 179.3 0.53
46 BH44 438871 977181 651 376 7.86 136 4.8 3.8 4.1 70.99 0.38 1.29 230 35.41
47 BH45 447224 978514 590 383 7.1 91 8.7 36.8 8.83 42.77 0.78 0.73 229.48 72.49
48 BH46 449082 980399 480 312 7.3 78 8.1 29.64 6.84 23.66 3.18 0.93 259.62 18.24
49 BH47 459831 985582 201 138 6.56 9.1 4.6 26.4 5 9.6 3 0.8 122.98 0.26
50 BH48 460850 985850 244 159 6.65 16 3.1 28.8 4.84 3.88 14 0.5 141.5 1.8
51 BH49 457030 984617 979 597 6.85 16 3.4 36 9 5 8.69 0.49 178 2.6
52 BH50 455620 1026514 237 152 8.16 34 1.5 16 1.1 6.72 2.46 0.34 118.9 13.2
53 BH51 474421 1013070 291 172 8.56 54 1 1.8 1.05 21 0.2 0.09 86 24

54 BH52 473621 1013070 277 186 7.82 46 1.2 12.9 4.6 10 1.58 0.09 141 11.3
55 BH53 444624 978143 726 455 7.44 116 6.6 36.4 6.1 56.6 4.8 3.6 345.9 15.58
56 BH54 448502 978502 1074 520 7.37 53 7 118.8 59.8 99 0.01 1.55 258.2 306
57 BH55 441088 1013105 164 112 7.38 6.5 1.4 23.1 6.5 0.5 8.5 0.41 105 1.06
58 BH56 468227 1081132 242 224 8.3 24 0.6 16 6 4 5 0.26 137 5
59 BH57 473576 972821 498 305 7.8 45 7.7 60 7.3 7.2 8.8 0.8 302.6 4.5
60 BH58 484475 975622 672 408 7.5 40 3.5 96.8 18 7 9.7 0.3 444 0.5
61 BH59 442661 1079441 395 257 7.83 8 2 50 13 3 3 0.62 250 1
62 BH60 483800 1065398 459 298 7.3 16.5 1.2 67.16 16.01 15.14 25.91 0.626 231.8 13.52
63 BH61 447488 1004519 258 168 7.96 12 1.2 30 8 3 5.32 0.17 159 3
64 BH62 415726 995659 469 305 6.9 75 2.8 37.24 4.1 14.4 0.4 1.07 312.6 1.81
65 BH63 448467 1001475 179 112 8.46 32.5 0.4 12.8 4.32 4.97 0.86 0.93 75.4 38.6
66 RV3 458600 1028944 280 180 7.54 14 1.4 38.4 3.84 5.96 1.4 0.41 150.79 0.3
67 RV4 451485 1027273 325 206 7.24 17 2.6 43.2 7.68 5.96 0.4 0.39 201.06 22.3
68 RV5 445913 997622 269 160 7.99 10.6 1.2 36 9.6 5.96 0.78 0.39 150.79 6
69 RV6 452911 1000512 337 212 7.39 9.5 1.4 46.4 5.28 4.97 27.17 0.34 87.96 42.2
70 RV7 443118 995089 288 182 7.48 11.1 1.9 32 6.24 5.96 2.73 0.38 150.79 10
71 RV8 433043 995231 490 296 7.88 27.5 2.5 53.6 20.64 15.09 1.03 0.51 278.16 5
72 RV9 455104 989707 481 330 7.23 28.5 6.4 48 14.4 18.64 53.64 0.46 254.98 0.02
73 RV10 434980 998207 502 302 7.98 26.5 1.9 66.4 17.76 18.64 1.38 0.55 266.57 23.3
74 RV11 446492 995599 267 162 7.28 17 2 33.6 10.56 9.76 1.21 0.4 141.4 18.82
75 RV12 445890 987801 320 194 7.17 28 4.8 32 9.6 7.76 4.28 0.51 139.08 38.5
76 RV13 445231 996952 267 162 7.69 20 1.5 32 7.2 9.76 1.29 0.4 134.44 42.2

5.2. Isotope Hydrology

Water is a chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen. In the gaseous state, at least, it has the
molecular formula H2O. Although the same formula also represents the compositions of liquid
water and ice, the molecules in these two forms are associated structurally and it is a good idea to
think of the condensed phases in terms of these associations rather than as simple aggregates of
molecules. Because three isotopes of hydrogen and three of oxygen exist in nature, 18 varieties of
water molecules are possible.
Isotopes are forms of a given chemical element that have different atomic masses. For a particular
element, the isotopes have the same numbers of protons, and so have the same atomic number.
However, each isotope has a different number of neutrons and therefore has a different atomic mass.
Stable isotopes are those isotopes that do not undergo radioactive decay; so their nuclei are stable
and their masses remain the same. However, they may themselves be the product of the decay of
radioactive isotopes. In hydrological studies, the stable isotopes of interest generally relate to
hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen. In terms of the water molecule itself, oxygen has three
16 17 18
stable isotopes, O, O, and O; and hydrogen has two stable isotopes, 1H and 2H (deuterium).
The relative abundances of the lighter isotopes of hydrogen (1H=0.999) and oxygen (16O=0.997) are
18
naturally high. The stable isotopes of O (oxygen-18) and 2H (deuterium) are used to provide
information on hydrological processes, including groundwater-surface water interactions (Fritz and
Fontes, 1980).
Stable and radioactive environmental isotopes are useful for understanding groundwater systems.
Applications of stable isotope ratios of hydrogen and oxygen in the study of groundwater system are
based up on isotopic variation in atmospheric precipitation and the general concept of tracing in
which either intentionally introduced isotopes or naturally occurring environmental isotopes are
employed. An environmental tracer will be useful for estimating groundwater inflows to rivers
when the concentration of the tracer in groundwater is relatively uniform and significantly different
to that in the river. One of the most powerful tracers for this purpose is radon (222Rn). Generally,
among the most important applications where isotopes are useful in groundwater system; flow path,
interconnection between aquifers and groundwater are common.

Isotope data availability and analysis methods
Fifty four water samples were collected and analyzed for stable isotopes of water (δ18O and δD) in
the study area. Out of these, thirty one samples were collected from different reach of the study
area, ten samples were collected at a particular location of Holota River for ten consequent weeks
starting from August 2015 up to October 2015, four samples were collected at a particular location
of Holota River during raining with an interval of 30 minutes and the remaining eleven samples
were collected from different shallow and deep boreholes in the study area. Around 70 primary and
secondary isotopes data are collected and analyzed in the study area and surrounding of it.
222
In situ measurement was conducted for Rn at 39 different reaches of both Holota River
Catchment and tributary streams of Muger river catchment (Fig.13).
Laboratory measurement for δ18O and δD were conducted by using equipment called LOS Gatos
Research DLT-100 leaser instrument configured with auto sampler together with standards at 10
sample intervals.
222
For Rn counting, relatively simple counting device called Rad7 has been used to measure the
radon activities at different selected reaches of the study area. Radon activities were counted at
thirty nine selected representative points at both Holota River Catchment and tributary streams of
Muger River Catchment along the flow path. Each measurement was carried out for forty five
minutes including three cycles of 15 minutes duration. Twenty six measurements are located at the
representative points in Holota River Catchment whereas thirteen measurements are taken at the
representative points of tributary streams of Muger River Catchment of the study area.

Figure 11: Stable isotope data availability map

Stable isotope
Elements are defined by the number of protons in the nuclei of their atom. Hydrogen has one proton
and oxygen has eight protons. Isotopes are defined as variations of a given element, differing from
each other by the number of neutrons.
The hydrogen isotopes are H (common hydrogen-1protone), 2H (deuterium-1protone and 1 neutron)

and 3H (tritium-1protone and 3neutrone), common hydrogen and deuterium are stable and tritium is
16 17
radioactive isotope. Oxygen isotopes are O (common oxygen-8 protons and 8 neutrons), O
18
(heavy (very rare) oxygen-8protone and 9 neutron) and O (heavy oxygen-8 protons and 20
neutrons).
Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, and it occurs in different isotopic combinations in its
molecules. Most common isotopic combinations are; 1H216O (common), 1HD16O (rare) and 1H218O
(rare). The water molecules divided in to light molecules (1H216O) and heavy water molecules
(1HD16O and 1H218O).
The isotopic composition of water expressed in the composition to the isotopic composition of
ocean water which is called Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW) (Craig, 1961)
The isotopic composition of water, determined by mass spectrometry, is expressed in per mil (0/00)
deviation from the VSMOW. These deviations are written δ D for deuterium and δ 18O for 18O:
Water with less deuterium than VSMOW has negative δ D and water with more deuterium than
VSMOW has positive δ D for. The same is true for δ 18O. (Emanuel M., 2004)

Isotopic composition of local meteoric water line of Addis Ababa station precipitations data (δ18O
(‰) against δ2H(‰)) are plotted and resulted with a linear trend represented by the equation
δ2H(‰)= 7.2δ18O(‰)+11.9 is known as the local meteoric water line(LMWL).
The LMWL is the reference line to study the surface and subsurface water recharge sources,
mechanism, interconnection between different aquifer units, interaction between the rivers with
groundwater and that of precipitations from all over the world plotted to give δ2H (‰)= 8δ18O
(‰)+10 which is given by Craig (1961)known as Global meteoric water line(GMWL) (Figure 13).
The monthly rains of Addis Ababa at IAEA station plot, gives a local meteoric line (LMWL)
defined by: δD = 7.2 δ18O + 11.9 with weighted mean summer precipitation for δ18O and δD
composition of -1.56 and +1.48, respectively and spring precipitations of +0.47 and +17.36,
respectively (Seifu Kebede et al., 2012). The δ18O and δD values of various water groups from the
area (surface waters and groundwater) were plotted against the GMWL and the LMWL.
The LMWL of Addis Ababa precipitation is plotted above the GMWL with d-excess of 11.9‰
which could be related with the source of rainfall, temperature and topographic effects.
Different ranges of values were observed for the water groups categorized into surface waters and
groundwater. Based on the observed value ranges, fractionation processes attributed to evaporation
of meteoric water before recharge are highlighted and the effects of mixing from different sources
within the hydrologic system are also addressed.
Sampling and in-situ measurements of surface waters for isotopic study are used to characterize
interaction between surface water and groundwater of the area. Precipitation on the Ethiopian
highlands is generally a result of the clouds from oceans, which arrive after several rainout effects
(Seifu Kebede et al., 2012). Evaporation from surface water causes enrichment in δD and δ18O and
the trend line of surface waters plots with slope less than slop of LMWL (Fig. 14).

From the distribution plot of stable isotope, sample collected during the raining time from Holota
River on September 2015 fall on the LMWL and have almost parallel trend line with the LMWL.
Weekly (10 weeks) collected Samples for 10 weeks starting from August 2015 up to October 2015
show that the samples collected around October fall below the LMWL, while the samples collected
in August and early September fall above the LMWL. Samples collected from different reaches of
the rivers in the study area on February 2015, lain down below the LMWL and fall nearly along the
evaporative line. Samples collected from deep and shallow ground water shows deviation from the
LMWL and trending parallel with the evaporative line.

LMWL,D = 7.2(O-18) + 11.9

40 R² = 1
30
20
10
GMWL,D = (O-18)x + 10
R² = 1
0
D
-10
GWEL, D = 5.385(O-18) + 6.449
R² = 1
-20
-30
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
O-18
River River weekly River during rainy time Borehole ------GMWL ------LMWL ____GWEL
Figure 12: Distribution of stable isotope of water in the study area

Figure 13: Distribution map of Oxygen-18 isotope

Figure 14: Distribution map of Deuterium

From Isotope distribution plot (Figure....), surface water points which were taken during the
raining time shows parallel trend line with LMWL with slope value 6.289 and D-excess
14.37, weekly collected water points fall along the LMWL except some points which fall
near to evaporative line were collected at the end of October. The river water points collected
at different reaches of the study area are nearly plot to the evaporative line with the slope of
5.027 value corresponding to extensive evaporation prior to recharge and the relative
depletion observed in the river water points were not exposed for evaporation and lain along
the east west fault zone and the streams could be the gaining streams.
From the isotopic data collected from ground water in the study area is characterised by
lighter isotopic signature (depleted). The δ18O and δD values range from -2.35 to –5.04 and
–5.6 to –23.9, respectively. Almost all samples plot to the left of the GMWL and highly
depleted compared to the summer rain of Addis Ababa IAEA station. Relatively, highly
depleted groundwater located in Holota River Catchment along EW fault zone indicates deep
circulation of groundwater, long residence time and long flow path length.
Generally, from the result of isotopic signature, the recharge for depleted groundwater could
be through long sub surface path from the higher precipitation altitude.

Table 3: Stable isotope data
No. Sample ID Data source UTME UTMN D O-18 Source

1 HRW1 Primary data 446105 1003873 -2.5 -2.07 Holeta river, weekly
3 HRW1R1 Primary data 446105 1003873 -1.2 -2.38 Holeta river, during raining
4 HRW1R2 Primary data 446105 1003873 12.4 -0.68 Holeta river, during raining
7 HRW3 Primary data 446105 1003873 10.1 -0.88 Holeta river, weekly
8 HRW4 Primary data 446105 1003873 -5 -2.15 Holeta river, weekly
9 HRW5 Primary data 446105 1003873 4.4 -1.39 Holeta river, weekly
11 HRW7 Primary data 446105 1003873 5.9 -1 Holeta river, weekly
12 HWEM Primary data 449724 1002930 -21.5 -4.16 borehole
14 HW1 Primary data 448440 1001427 -23.9 -5.04 borehole
16 HRW10 Primary data 446105 1003873 -3 -1.49 Holeta river, weekly
17 HR4 Primary data 445374 1004738 -2.8 -1.32 Holeta river
19 HR8 Primary data 445913 997622 0.2 -0.88 Holeta river
20 MR1 Primary data 458600 1028944 -9.1 -2.51 Muger river


25 HS2 Primary data 454700 995350 -5.6 -2.51 Holeta, spring
27 HR10 Primary data 454221 999759 -11 -3.13 Holeta river
36 HR19 Primary data 443517 1014536 21.8 3.53 Holeta river
37 HR20 Primary data 446596 1013226 21.5 3.48 Holeta river
38 HR21 Primary data 440295 1013053 7 1.54 Holeta river
40 HS3 Primary data 446601 987634 -7.4 -2.08 Holeta spring
41 HW2 Primary data 446117 990929 -12.3 -2.35 borehole
46 MR12 Primary data 462392 1041185 0.5 -0.43 Muger river


47 MW1 Secondary data 463209 1038637 -11.33 -3.28 borehole
51 HW3 Secondary data 440379 1006281 -8.4 -2.9 borehole
57 HW9 Secondary data 457710 1002800 -1 -2 borehole
58 HW10 Secondary data 460254 997269 -16.18 -3.92- borehole
60 MW5 Secondary data 471407 1027667 -21 -3 borehole
67 HW14 Secondary data 457026 981375 -23 5 borehole
68 HW15 Secondary data 464923 992809 3 -3 borehole

Radioactive isotope (222Radon)
It is very crucial to define whether rivers recharge local ground water or are fed by groundwater via
base flow, and to document of the flux between groundwater and surface water.
The different geochemical tracers of groundwater–surface water interaction have potential

advantages and disadvantages. Major ion concentrations and stable isotope ratios are
relatively easy to measure and are often measured as part of general water quality studies.
However, in-river modification by evaporation, mineral precipitation, or biogeochemical
processes may modify major ion chemistry. Additionally, if groundwater and surface water
have overlapping δ18O and δD values, these tracers may not be easy to use. Radon is an
important tracer that has increased in usage over the past two decades as the ease of
measurement has improved.
222 226 238 206

Rn is produced from Ra as part of the decay series of U to Pb. With a half life of
222 226
3.8 days, the activity of Rn reaches secular equilibrium with Ra over a few weeks.
Radium is easily soluble in water and is gained by dissolution from rocks. As a noble gas, it
is not being absorbed by solids. Moreover, it is highly soluble in water; The concentration of
Radium in minerals in the aquifer matrix is several orders of magnitude higher than the
222
dissolved Radium concentrations in surface water; hence, groundwater Rn activities are
commonly two or three orders of magnitude higher than those of surface water. Due to its
222
relatively short half-life and degassing to the atmosphere, Rn activities decline
downstream from zones of groundwater inflow. (Ian Cartwright.et.al., 2011).
Although, Radon degasses completely after it discharges to the surface water bodies, hence
low radon count in the rivers shows that the water in the river is not the result of the base
flow in the same area or nearby. On the contrary, the presence of the short-lived radon in
surface water always means that the groundwater is feeding the river at its measured reach
(Tilahun Azagegn, 2015).

Radon data availability and analysis methods
Thirty nine measurement of 222Rn activity have been taken at different reaches of river in the
study area (Figure 15). A handy instrument that can form the basis of a comprehensive radon
measurement system known as RAD7 portable radon detector (Durridge Company Inc.) and
its accessory RADAQUA, which brings radon in the air and in water into equilibrium. Water
from the source is continuously pumped in to RADAQUA instrument where the radon is
degassed which further pass through a closed circuit entering the desiccant tube where the
gas remains dry before entering RAD7. Finally the radon passes through another closed
circuit in to the inlet of RAD7 detector where the radon is counted. The counting of radon
using RAD7 has been done for three cycles with 15 minute s duration for each cycle. Thus
the 222Rn pumped from source using RADAQUA passing through closed circuit and diorite
desiccant entering the RAD7 will be counted for a total of 45 minutes continuous
measurement.
Radon concentration measured in both Holota and Muger Rivers with their tributaries in the
study area varies between 11.2 Bq/l in tributary streams of Muger River catchment up to
1000 Bq/l in Holota River catchment.
From spatial distribution map of radon (Figure 16), Radon concentration decreases
downstream in both river catchments. However, the radon concentration become high in the
main Holota river and low in the tributary of Holota River inversely in Muger main River,
Radon concentration is low rather that its tributaries. Although. At Wochecha Mountain in
Holota River catchment and in the upper Eastern part of tributary streams of Muger River
catchment and around the center part of tributary streams of Muger River catchment the
radon concentration also become high.

Figure 15: Radon data availability map

Figure 16: Radon distribution map

Radon concentration measured in the study area varies between 11.2 Bq/l up to 1000Bq/l.
From spatial distribution map of radon concentration, very high radon concentration is
observed along the geological structure zone in Holota river catchment, at the acidic rocks
found in Wochecha Mountain and around the upper Eastern part of Muger river catchment.
.
Generally, the results indicates that, groundwater is recharged the Holeta river and it is a
gaining River, whereas the Muger river recharged the groundwater and it is a losing river.
Table 4: Radioactive isotope data

222
No Sample ID UTME UTMN Rn, Bq/l
1 HR-1 447894 1009131 1450
2 HR-2 445399 1008379 462
3 HR-3 445407 1005268 620
4 HR-4 445374 1004738 649
5 HR-5 446105 1003873 473
6 HR-6 446101 1002833 430
7 HR-7 446465 1001086 138
8 HR-8 445913 997622 162
9 HR-9 452911 1000512 46.1
10 HR-10 454221 999759 3590
11 HR-11 443118 995089 995
12 HR-12 433040 995231 173
13 HR-14 434984 998212 57.7
14 HR-15 446492 995599 173
15 HR-17 445231 996952 11
16 HR-18 447638 1012559 1450
17 HR-19 443517 1014536 1090
18 HR-20 446596 1013226 1560
19 HR-21 440295 1013053 163
20 HR-22 439322 1010213 209
21 HS-1 447864 1009140 1230
22 HS-2 454700 995350 2350
23 MR-1 458600 1028944 92.3
24 MR-2 451485 1027273 802
25 MR-3 456140 1021714 824
26 MR-4 455762 1020665 541
27 MR-5 458689 1030535 197
28 MR-6 457900 1027032 313
29 MR-7 454540 1024628 871
30 MR-8 455718 1019251 382
31 MR-9 463275 1038355 923
32 MR-10 464619 1033828 793
33 MR-11 456078 1047291 11.2
34 MR-12 462392 1041185 225

5.3 Groundwater flow
To understand the inter basin groundwater transfer between tributary streams of Muger river
catchment and Holota River catchment, groundwater level elevation contour map was
constructed from the data collected from the existing bore holes found in the study area and
surrounding of it. The groundwater elevation contour map was generated applying Arc map
10.2 software with the contour interval 20m.
From groundwater elevation map, the groundwater divide and groundwater flow direction is
identified. Surface water divide is not coinciding with groundwater divide which is fall in
tributary streams of Muger river catchment. And it shows there is groundwater flow from
tributary streams of Muger river catchment towards Holota River catchment. (Figure 17)

A
C
Figure 17: Groundwater contour map

Figure 18: Cross section along AB (a) and CD (b)

Table 6: Existing boreholes data
NO. ID UTME UTMN Elevation, m SWL, m RWL, m Depth, m

1 BHC1 400409 954207 2379 22 2357 48
2 BHC2 461930 970844 2193 144 2049 183
3 BHC3 427126 971361 2064 4 2060 308
4 BHC4 451420 971692 2050 58 1992 60
5 BHC5 473576 972821 2076 74 2002 150
6 BHC6 471027 973709 2034 25 2010 378
7 BHC7 461900 974300 2081 38 2043
8 BHC8 460464 974637 2081 38 2043 61
9 BHC9 409122 975187 2107 14 2093 15
10 BHC10 438871 977181 2049 13 2036 443
11 BHC11 442842 977555 2052 14 2038 100
12 BHC12 442811 977625 2055 10 2045 179
13 BHC13 444000 977700 2058 17 2041 100
14 BHC14 441366 977899 2049 8 2041 10
15 BHC15 444624 978143 2048 10 2038 65
16 BHC16 448502 978502 2044 13 2031 440
17 BHC17 447224 978514 2051 13 2038 440
18 BHC18 473566 978610 2056 24 2033 122
19 BHC19 480900 978800 2120 86 2034 160
20 BHC20 473108 979851 2049 7 2042 103
21 BHC21 473069 979881 2048 6 2042 116
22 BHC22 481200 980000 2138 9 2129 173
23 BHC23 449082 980399 2059 11 2048 440
24 BHC24 447966 980422 2052 54 1998 80
25 BHC25 450359 981037 2075 11 2064 280
26 BHC26 441901 981393 2046 6 2041 7
27 BHC27 479400 981400 2114 3 2111 100
28 BHC28 460810 981473 2203 67 2136 102
29 BHC29 453538 982154 2068 8 2060 80
30 BHC30 455426 982736 2085 16 2069 150
32 BHC32 455450 983014 2091 15 2076 120
33 BHC33 420071 983317 2061 10 2051 350
34 BHC34 455550 983750 2122 47 2075 181


35 BHC35 441831 983807 2041 6 2035 50
37 BHC37 455525 984000 2133 63 2070 124
38 BHC38 458646 984363 2161 44 2117 161
39 BHC39 457030 984617 2186 89 2097 140
40 BHC40 462260 984901 2273 83 2190 180
41 BHC41 459676 984947 2196 28 2168 96
42 BHC42 455000 985200 2204 51 2153 126
43 BHC43 463742 985378 2347 18 2329 125
44 BHC44 460121 985966 2240 40 2200 120
45 BHC45 461412 986324 2267 45 2222 145
46 BHC46 460500 986500 2256 27 2229 100
47 BHC47 460937 986565 2275 46 2229 114
48 BHC48 460295 986769 2287 31 2256 158
49 BHC49 462500 987000 2299 84 2216 137
50 BHC50 465419 987294 2249 15 2234 120
51 BHC51 463600 988200 2248 28 2221 64
52 BHC52 463700 988500 2249 19 2230 130
53 BHC53 465741 989188 2239 3 2236 134
54 BHC54 466308 989421 2235 4 2231 185
55 BHC55 465591 989872 2240 8 2232 257
56 BHC56 465295 990132 2234 10 2224 200
57 BHC57 429252 993949 2099 15 2084 45
58 BHC58 469050 994450 2297 27 2271 120
60 BHC60 427635 994816 2107 7 2100 125
61 BHC61 427193 994953 2113 2 2111
62 BHC62 455475 994995 2829 61 2768 152
63 BHC63 487300 995300 2347 88 2259 120
65 BHC65 401157 996412 2299 25 2275 302
67 BHC67 401801 996640 2311 31 2280 246
69 BHC69 401587 997298 2295 22 2273 302
70 BHC70 446338 997431 2236 13 2223 125
71 BHC71 404656 997733 2230 22 2209 81
72 BHC72 459700 998075 2562 10 2552 67
73 BHC73 444677 998215 2274 6 2268 100
74 BHC74 444209 998733 2275 7 2268 98
75 BHC75 444677 998808 2293 21 2272 100


77 BHC77 444168 998992 2278 7 2271 98
78 BHC78 443984 999625 2298 10 2288 70
79 BHC79 434015 1000129 2334 5 2329 147
80 BHC80 489927 1000153 2333 10 2323 500
81 BHC81 433779 1000228 2326 1 2325 193
82 BHC82 435382 1000251 2343 10 2333 206
83 BHC83 440595 1000333 2378 81 2297 170
84 BHC84 436160 1000453 2359 37 2322 153
85 BHC84 444997 1000718 2326 38 2289 91
86 BHC86 443132 1000869 2375 30 2345 116
87 BHC87 456856 1001081 2069 18 2051 20
88 BHC88 457162 1001115 2615 7 2608 115
89 BHC89 445773 1001323 2380 30 2350 75
91 BHC91 440110 1001337 2393 37 2356 153
92 BHC92 442635 1001366 2385 25 2360 220
93 BHC93 453522 1001474 2550 58 2492 115
94 BHC94 443050 1001649 2388 24 2364 130
95 BHC95 445180 1002459 2381 23 2358 101
96 BHC96 457823 1002833 2601 3 2599 104
97 BHC97 465900 1002875 2607 16 2591 110
98 BHC98 465410 1002944 2575 11 2564 124
99 BHC99 444642 1002960 2409 49 2360 66
100 BHC100 446155 1003073 2367 7 2360 90
101 BHC101 441584 1003445 2446 11 2435 50
102 BHC102 445099 1003816 2378 30 2348 130
103 BHC103 458783 1003841 2633 6 2627 9
104 BHC104 446266 1004147 2384 37 2347 148
105 BHC105 456212 1005371 2675 18 2657 20
106 BHC106 440274 1006055 2384 12 2372 300
108 BHC108 447549 1007893 2493 24 2469 203
109 BHC109 473038 1008484 2642 4 2638 460
110 BHC110 406722 1009647 2993 6 2987 150
111 BHC111 472975 1011144 2594 12 2582 114
112 BHC112 474421 1013070 2592 18 2574 304
113 BHC113 468100 1016250 2577 3 2574 193
114 BHC114 474463 1022973 2585 5 2580 50


115 BHC115 433672 1023691 2560 46 2514 602
116 BHC116 473871 1024156 2565 6 2559 15
117 BHC117 432500 1024270 2585 2 2583 182
118 BHC118 432432 1024464 2591 11 2580 161
119 BHC119 420012 1030815 2609 78 2531 104
120 BHC120 398274 1030923 2801 7 2794
121 BHC121 466233 1031004 2442 55 2387 117
122 BHC122 473911 1031930 2565 1 2564 324
123 BHC123 464387 1034248 2439 12 2427 300
124 BHC124 464070 1034816 2458 7 2452 300
125 BHC125 464387 1034248 2442 20 2422 180
126 BHC126 464612 1034331 2439 19 2420 150
127 BHC127 499461 1034506 2652 2 2650 68
128 BHC128 473020 1035389 2518 2 2516
129 BHC129 463376 1036388 2400 7 2393 246
131 BHC131 421795 1040108 2442 20 2422 146
132 BHC132 418279 1048618 2515 38 2477 108
133 BHC133 417700 1051243 2519 5 2514 96
134 BHC134 493003 1051307 2647 25 2622 492
135 BHC135 493215 1051415 2634 6 2628 90
136 BHC136 501322 1068067 2553 70 2483 209
137 BHC137 474590 1068254 2642 6 2636 43
138 BHC138 462806 1072054 2783 10 2773 73
139 BHC139 499617 1077915 2525 80 2445 168
140 BHC140 459862 1086322 3006 33 2973 141
141 BHC141 431500 1090300 2572 2 2570
142 BHC142 427000 1095000 2579 7 2572 100

CHAPTER 6- CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1 Conclusion
An integrated hydro geochemistry and isotope hydrology approach together with water level
measurements have been used to investigate the groundwater dynamics between Holeta
River catchment from Upper Awash River basin and tributary streams of Muger River
catchment from Abay River basin. From this study the following conclusions have been
made:
• The groundwater type in the study area is characterized by four major water types
(CaHCO3, Ca-Na-HCO3, Na-Ca-HCO3, Na-HCO3 and others). Water type of most
river samples in the study area shows CaHCO3 water type with high TDS
concentration which are characterized by recharge area waters as early stage
geochemical evolution. Ca-Na-HCO3 and Na-Ca-HCO3 groundwater types are
located along with the fault zone with rock-water interaction phase, in the upper part
of the ground water divide and around the relatively high elevated areas which
characterizes the recharge zone of the study area. Na-HCO3 groundwater type is
located only in Holota River catchment along the fault zone and the eastern boundary
of Holota River catchment of the study area this type of groundwater is highly
evolved water types with rock-water interaction with long flow path length which
characterizes the discharge zone of the study area.
• The stable isotopes signature of the deep groundwater found in the study area
characterized by depleted isotopic signature. Deep aquifers of Holota River
catchment shows highly depleted isotopic signature than aquifers found in tributary
streams of Muger river catchment. This indicates that the aquifer found in Holota
River catchment recharges through long sub surface path from the adjacent
catchment.

• Radon concentration is decreases from groundwater divide towards the downstream

of the rivers. High radon concentration is observed along Holota Main River and
around NE and SE of the study area, which is characterized by acidic geology
(Figure 2 and Figure 16). Low radon concentration is observed in the main River of
Muger.
From the above discussed integrated methods (hydrogeochemistry, isotope

hydrology and groundwater level investigation), and generally reached, the
groundwater divide is not coincide with the surface water divide, which is fallen in
the Tributary streams of Muger River catchment and there is an interbasin ground
water transfer between the tributary streams of Muger River catchment and Holota
River catchment.
6.2 Recommendation
• Seasonal measurements of radon concentration along River flow path and tributary
streams are recommended as it helps characterize surface water-groundwater interaction
and ground water dynamics in detail.
• Detail studies like this work are recommended to in other adjacent catchments to
characterize complex aquifers between Awash and Abay River basins.

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Addis Ababa university, College of Graduate Studies, School of Earth Science June, 2016

Addis Ababa University

Groundwater Dynamics in Tributary Streams of Muger

A Thesis Submitted to School of Graduate Studies of Addis Ababa University

MSc Thesis, Kidist Hailu, GSR/1385/07, Hydrogeology stream Page 0

Addis Ababa University

Groundwater Dynamics in Tributary Streams of Muger and

A Thesis Submitted to School of Graduate Studies of Addis Ababa University

MSc Thesis, Kidist Hailu, GSR/1385/07, Hydrogeology stream Page i

Addis Ababa University

Groundwater Dynamics in Tributary Streams of Muger and

By: Kidist Hailu

Approved by Board of Examiners:

_Dr. Tilahun Azagegn__ ______________________

Prof. Tenalem Ayenew_________ __________________

Dr. Seifu Kebede_________ __________________

MSc Thesis, Kidist Hailu, GSR/1385/07, Hydrogeology stream Page ii

MSc Thesis, Kidist Hailu, GSR/1385/07, Hydrogeology stream Page iii

Integrated hydogeological study using major ion hydrogeochemistry and environmental

MSc Thesis, Kidist Hailu, GSR/1385/07, Hydrogeology stream Page iv

MSc Thesis, Kidist Hailu, GSR/1385/07, Hydrogeology stream Page v

Figure 1: Location map of the study area ................................................................................. 4

Figure 4: RAD- 7 detector setup ............................................................................................. 16

Figure 6: Hydrochemical data availability map ...................................................................... 20

Figure 7: TDS versus EC graph of hydro chemical data ........................................................ 23

Figure 8: Spatial distribution map of TDS.............................................................................. 24

Figure 9: Sodium (a) and Calcium (b) distribution map ......................................................... 27

Figure 10: Groundwater type distribution map ....................................................................... 30

Figure 11: Stable isotope data availability map ...................................................................... 37

Figure 13: Distribution map of Oxygen-18 isotope ................................................................ 42

Figure 14: Distribution map of Deuterium ............................................................................. 43

Figure 15: Radon data availability map .................................................................................. 50

Figure 16: Radon distribution map ......................................................................................... 51

Figure 17: Groundwater contour map ..................................................................................... 54

Figure 18: Cross section along AB (a) and CD (b) ................................................................. 55

Table 1: Location of field measurement water points ............................................................ 25

Table 2: Hydrochemical data .................................................................................................. 32

Table 3: Stable isotope data .................................................................................................... 45

Table 4: Radioactive isotope data ........................................................................................... 52

MSc Thesis, Kidist Hailu, GSR/1385/07, Hydrogeology stream Page vi

MSc Thesis, Kidist Hailu, GSR/1385/07, Hydrogeology stream Page vii

1.1 Back Ground

Groundwater is a vital resource in steadily increasing demand by human. In history of water

Hydrogeochemistry and environmental isotope study were used to investigate groundwater

MSc Thesis, Kidist Hailu, GSR/1385/07, Hydrogeology stream Page 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem

MSc Thesis, Kidist Hailu, GSR/1385/07, Hydrogeology stream Page 2

1.3 Description of the Area

MSc Thesis, Kidist Hailu, GSR/1385/07, Hydrogeology stream Page 3

Figure 1: Location map of the study area

MSc Thesis, Kidist Hailu, GSR/1385/07, Hydrogeology stream Page 4

Amba Aradam Sandstone

Blue Nile Basalt

Amba Aiba Basalt

MSc Thesis, Kidist Hailu, GSR/1385/07, Hydrogeology stream Page 5

Tarma Ber Basalt

Addis Ababa Ignimbrite

MSc Thesis, Kidist Hailu, GSR/1385/07, Hydrogeology stream Page 6

_Dr. Tilahun Azagegn ____________________

Prof. Tenalem Ayenew_ __________

Dr. Seifu Kebede_ __________