Name - Vaibhav Tiwari Class & Section - Xi-A Roll No-40 Chemistry Project File

Name – Vaibhav
Tiwari
Class & section –
XI-A
Roll no-40
Chemistry project
file
Certificate
This is to certify that Vaibhav Tiwari of

class XI A has successfully completed
the project under the guidance of
Ms.Simmy Nayar during the academic
session 2017-18 in partial fulfilment of
chemistry practical examination
conducted by CBSE.
Sign of chemistry teacher-

Aim
Investigation of foaming capacity of
different washing soaps.
Acknowledgement
In the accomplishment of this project
successfully ,many people have best
owned upon me their blessing and the
heart pledged support , this time I am
utilising to thank all the people concerned
with their project .
I would like to thank my parents and
friends who helped with their valuable
suggestion and guidance has been helpful
in various phases of the completion of the
project.
Contents
1. Preface
2. Introduction
3. Commercial production of
soap
4. Fat in soap
5. Preparation of soap
6. Introduction to the
experiment
7. Observation
8. Result
9. Bibliography
Preface
Soaps and detergents remove dirt and
grease from skin and clothes. But all
soaps are not equally effective in their
cleaning action. Soaps are the Na and K
salts of higher fatty acids such as Palmitic
acid, Stearic acid and Oleic acid.
The cleansing action of soaps depends on

the solubility of the long alkyl chain in
grease and that of the -COONa or the -
COOK part in water.
Whenever soap is applied on a dirty wet

cloth, the non polar alkyl group dissolves
in grease while the polar -COONa part
dissolves in water. In this manner, an
emulsion is formed between grease and
water which appears as foam.
The washing ability of soap depends on

foaming capacity, as well as the water
used in cleaning. The salts of Ca and Mg
disrupt the formation of micelle formation.
The presence of such salts makes the
water hard and the water is called hard
water. These salts thus make the soap
inefficient in its cleaning action.
Sodium Carbonate when added to hard

water reacts with Ca and Mg and
precipitates them out. Therefore sodium
carbonate is used in the treatment of hard
water.
This project aims at finding the foaming

capacity of various soaps and the action of
Ca and Mg salts on their foaming capacity.
Introduction
Soap is an anionic surfactant used in
conjunction with water for washing
and cleaning, which historically comes
either in solid bars or in the form of a
viscous liquid. Soap consists of sodium
or potassium salts of fatty acids and is
obtained by reacting common oils or fats
with a strong alkaline in a process known
as saponification. The fats are hydrolyzed
by the base, yielding alkali salts of fatty
acids (crude soap) and glycerol.
The general formula of soap is
Fatty end water soluble end
CH3-(CH2) n – COONa
Soaps are useful for cleaning because
soap molecules have both a hydrophilic
end, which dissolves in water, as well as
a hydrophobic end, which is able to
dissolve non polar grease molecules.
Applied to a soiled surface, soapy water
effectively holds particles in colloidal
suspension so it can be rinsed off with
clean water. The hydrophobic portion
(made up of a long hydrocarbon chain)
dissolves dirt and oils, while the ionic end
dissolves in water. The resultant forms a
round structure called micelle. Therefore,
it allows water to remove normally-
insoluble matter by emulsification.
Commercial production of soap
The most popular soap making process today
is the cold process method, where fats such
as olive oil react with strong alkaline solution,
while some soapers use the historical hot
process.
Handmade soap differs from industrial soap in

that, usually, an excess of fat is sometimes
used to consume the alkali (super fatting), and
in that the glycerin is not removed, leaving a
naturally moisturizing soap and not pure
detergent. Often, emollients such as jojoba oil
or Shea butter are added ‘at trace’ (the point at
which the saponification process is sufficiently
advanced that the soap has begun to thicken),
after most of the oils have saponified, so that
they remain unreacted in the finished soap.
Fat in soap
Soap is derived from either vegetable or animal
fats. Sodium Tallowate, a common ingredient
in much soap, is derived from rendered beef
fat. Soap can also be made of vegetable oils,
such as palm oil, and the product is typically
softer.
An array of saponifiable oils and fats are used

in the process such as olive, coconut, palm,
cocoa butter to provide different qualities. For
example, olive oil provides mildness in soap;
coconut oil provides lots of lather; while
coconut and palm oils provide hardness.
Sometimes castor oil can also be used as an
ebullient.
Smaller amounts of unsaponifable oils and fats

that do not yield soap are sometimes added for
further benefits.
Preparation of soap
In cold-process and hot-process soap
making, heat may be required
for saponification.
Cold-process soap making takes place at a

sufficient temperature to ensure
the liquification of the fat being used.
Unlike cold-processed soap, hot-

processed soap can be used right away
because the alkali and fat saponify more
quickly at the higher temperatures used in
hot-process soap making. Hot-process
soap making was used when the purity of
alkali was unreliable.
Cold-process soap making requires exact

measurements of alkali and fat amounts
and computing their ratio, using
saponification charts to ensure that the
finished product is mild and skin-friendly.
Hot process
In the hot-process method, alkali and fat

are boiled together at 80–100 °C until
saponification occurs, which the soap
maker can determine by taste or by eye.
After saponification has occurred, the

soap is sometimes precipitated from the
solution by adding salt, and the excess
liquid drained off. The hot, soft soap is
then spooned into a mold.
Cold process
A cold-process soap maker first looks up

the saponification value of the fats being
used on a saponification chart, which is
then used to calculate the appropriate
amount of alkali. Excess unreacted alkali
in the soap will result in a very high pH
and can burn or irritate skin. Not enough
alkali and the soap are greasy.
The alkali is dissolved in water. Then oils

are heated, or melted if they are solid at
room temperature. Once both substances
have cooled to approximately 100-110°F
(37-43°C), and are no more than 10°F
(~5.5°C) apart, they may be combined. This
alkali-fat mixture is stirred until “trace”.
There are varying levels of trace. After
much stirring, the mixture turns to the
consistency of a thin pudding. “Trace”
corresponds roughly to viscosity.
Essential and fragrance oils are added at
light trace.
Introduction to the experiment
Soap samples of various brands are taken
and their foaming capacity is noticed.
Various soap samples are taken separately

and their foaming capacity is observed.
The soap with the maximum foaming
capacity is thus, said to be having the best
cleaning capacity.
The test requires to be done with distilled

water as well as with tap water. The test of
soap on distilled water gives the actual
strength of the soaps cleaning capacity.
The second test with tap water tests the
effect of Ca2+ and Mg2+ salts on their
foaming capacities.
Objective: To compare the
foaming capacity of various
soaps.
Theory: The foaming capacity of soap
depends upon the nature of the soap and
its concentration. This may be compared
by shaking equal volumes of solutions of
different samples having the same
concentration with same force for the
same amount of time. The solutions are
then allowed to stand when the foam
produced during shaking disappears
gradually. The time taken for the foam to
disappear in each sample is determined.
The longer the time taken for the
disappearance of the foam for the given
sample of soap, greater is its foaming
capacity or cleansing action.
Requirements: Five 100ml conical flasks,
five test tubes, 100ml measuring cylinder,
test tube stand, weighing machine, stop
watch.
Chemical Requirements: Five different

soap samples, distilled water, tap water.
Procedure:
1. Take five 100ml conical flasks and
number them 1, 2,3,4,5. Put 16ml of
water in each flask and add 8 Gms of soap.
2. Warm the contents to get a solution.
3. Take five test tubes; add 1ml of soap

solution to 3ml of water.
Repeat the process for each soap solution

in different test tubes.
4. Close the mouth of the test tube and

shake vigorously for a minute. Do the
same for all test tubes and with equal
force.
5. Start the timer immediately and notice

the rate of disappearance of 2mm of froth.
Observations: The following outcomes
were noticed at the end of the experiment
Test Tube no Vol. of Vol. Time taken for

soap of disappearance
solution water of 2mm
added
1. Dove 8ml 16ml 11’42”
2. Lux 8ml 16ml 3’28”
3. Tetmosol 8ml 16ml 5’10”
4. Santoor 8ml 16ml 15’32”
5. Cinthol 8ml 16ml 9’40”
Result
The cleansing capacity of the soaps taken
is in the order:
Santoor > Dove > Cinthol > Tetmosol > Lux
From this experiment, we can infer that

Santoor has the highest foaming capacity,
in other words, highest cleaning capacity.
Lux, on the other hand is found to have

taken the least amount of time for the
disappearance of foam produced and thus
is said to be having the least foaming
capacity and cleansing capacity.
Test for hardness in water
Test for Ca2+ and Mg2+ salts in the water
supplied
Test for Ca2+ in water
H2O +NH4Cl + NH4OH + (NH4)2CO3
No precipitate
Test for Mg2+ in water
H2O +NH4Cl + NH4OH + (NH4)3PO4
No precipitate
The tests show negative results for the
presence of the salts causing hardness in
water. The water used does not contain
salts of Ca2+ and Mg2+. The tap water
provided is soft and thus, the experimental
results and values hold good for distilled
water and tap water.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Parts of this project have been

referred from foreign sources and
have been included in this
investigatory project after editing.

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Name – Vaibhav

This is to certify that Vaibhav Tiwari of

Sign of chemistry teacher-

The cleansing action of soaps depends on

Whenever soap is applied on a dirty wet

The washing ability of soap depends on

Sodium Carbonate when added to hard

This project aims at finding the foaming

The general formula of soap is

Fatty end water soluble end

Handmade soap differs from industrial soap in

An array of saponifiable oils and fats are used

Smaller amounts of unsaponifable oils and fats

Cold-process soap making takes place at a

Unlike cold-processed soap, hot-

Cold-process soap making requires exact

In the hot-process method, alkali and fat

After saponification has occurred, the

A cold-process soap maker first looks up

The alkali is dissolved in water. Then oils

Various soap samples are taken separately

The test requires to be done with distilled

Chemical Requirements: Five different

2. Warm the contents to get a solution.

3. Take five test tubes; add 1ml of soap

Repeat the process for each soap solution

4. Close the mouth of the test tube and

5. Start the timer immediately and notice

Test Tube no Vol. of Vol. Time taken for

Santoor > Dove > Cinthol > Tetmosol > Lux

From this experiment, we can infer that

Lux, on the other hand is found to have

Test for Ca2+ in water

H2O +NH4Cl + NH4OH + (NH4)2CO3

Test for Mg2+ in water

H2O +NH4Cl + NH4OH + (NH4)3PO4

Parts of this project have been

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