Chapter 20: Coating Defects: Objectives

Coating Defects 20-1
Chapter 20: Coating Defects

Objectives examine coating failure in considerable
When this module is complete, the training depth. Students who want to continue their
candidate will have knowledge and under- education and wish to learn more about the
standing of: industrial coating business are urged to seek
out and read those books. Inspectors should
• Non-drying film consult with a manufacturer’s technical rep-
• Blushing resentative about coating failures whenever
• Runs, sags, curtains, and wrinkles possible.
• Discontinuities, skips, holidays, missed
areas 20.2 Non-Drying Film (Failure to
Cure)
• Chalking
Non-drying film is a common problem on
• Cratering many projects, frequently caused simply by
• Air Voids not adding the cure to the base, adding the
• Pinholing wrong cure, or not adding the correct
• Discoloration/staining amount of cure during mixing. As men-
tioned in an earlier chapter, it is vitally
• Heat-related damage
important to the success of the project that
• Blistering the inspector observe during mixing.
• Cracking and detachment
Other issues that might cause non-drying or
• Checking curing of a coating film are: (Figure 20.1)
• Adhesion failures: flaking, delamination,
• Problem with the coating material sent
detachment, and peeling
from the manufacturer; a check with the
• Failure on welds and edges manufacturer with the batch number in
• Gouges/chipped spots hand might give a quick answer
• Inspection considerations • Environmental issues; too cold, too hot,
too humid, all of which are covered in
• Inspection checklist other chapters in this course
20.1 Introduction • Wrong thinner or contaminated thinner;

moisture in some generic thinners can
While it is not the intent of this course to react with the cure
teach coating failure analysis, it is some-
times necessary for coating inspectors to
document a visible failure and to have an
understanding of what caused it. This chap-
ter details common industry names for vari-
ous failures and a short description of each.
There are a number of books available that
©NACE International 2011 Coating Inspector Program Level 1

July 2012
20-2 Coating Defects
The best method to fix this defect is to avoid

it by adhering to strict environmental con-
trols. Another, sometimes recommended,
solution is to lengthen induction times.
However, do not do this without the written
approval of both the coating manufacturer
and the project owner. If amine blush does
occur, the coating inspector should consult
with the coating manufacturer and the proj-
ect owner prior to making any recommenda-
Figure 20.1 Non Cured Epoxy Coating tion regarding the attempt to repair or
overcoat it.
20.3 Blushing (Amine Sweating)
Note: There are a number of commercial
If cured during conditions of cool ambient kits on the market that detect amine blush.
temperatures, dropping temperatures, or
high humidity, amine-cured epoxy resin 20.4 Runs, Sags, Curtains,
coatings can develop a surface oiliness or Wrinkles
exudate, commonly referred to as “amine- Runs, sags, curtains, or wrinkles may be
blush” or “sweating” (Figure 20.2). This is caused or worsened by (Figure 20.3, Figure
caused by the absorption of carbon dioxide 20.4):
and water into the coating film and its reac-
• Applying the coating too thickly
tion with the amine curing agent. Some of
the problems can be: • Using too much thinner or using the
wrong thinner
• Surface tackiness or greasiness
• Surface too hot to apply the coating
• Incomplete cure
• Applying a coating at the end of its pot life
• Poor adhesion
• Wrong thixotrope used in manufacturing
• Poor adhesion on over-coating
• Improper spray technique
• Coating discoloration over time
• Poor gloss retention
Figure 20.3 Run
Figure 20.2 Blushing
Coating Inspector Program Level 1 ©NACE International 2011

July 2012
Base the repair method on the specification,

or if not specified, then on the coating manu-
facturers’ recommendations. Ensure the
owner gives approval before making the
repair. Quick recognition and repair means
the repair is easier and it will blend in better.
20.6 Chalking
Chalking is a powdery, friable layer on the
surface of a coating normally caused by
Figure 20.4 Wrinkling exposure to UV light (Figure 20.6). It can
also be due to exposure to other forms of
See if the applicator can fix a run or drip
radiation including nuclear radiation.
right away by lifting or spreading the coat-
ing with a brush or roller. However, if the The UV light or radiation break down the
run or drip is already hard, report the prob- bond between molecules in the coating film.
lem to the owner. In some cases, the run or It is most common in epoxy coatings but can
sag is acceptable. Otherwise, ensure the be seen in almost all coatings left exposed to
crew sands it down and reapplies the new causative conditions for a long enough
material at the correct thickness, based on period of time.
the specification and the manufacturers’ rec-
ommendations for repair.
20.5 Discontinuities, Skips,

Holidays, and Missed Areas
These defects are exposed areas of the sub-
strate or previous coating, caused by poor
application technique, lack of stripe coating,
and/or lack of or poor inspection (Figure
20.5).
Figure 20.6 Chalking
To overcoat, remove the powdery layer by

sanding or pressure washing to a point
acceptable to the project owner.
A test method to use is: ASTM D4214-07,
Standard Test Methods for Evaluating the
Degree of Chalking of Exterior Paint Films.
20.7 Cratering
Figure 20.5 Discontinuity, Skip, Holiday or Missed Cratering is the formation of small bowl-
Area shaped depressions in the coating caused by

July 2012
air trapped in the coating (Figure 20.7). The 20.9 Pinholing

air forms a bubble that bursts, leaving the Pinholes are very small holes in a coating,
crater. Cratering is common in coatings that typically caused by painting over an inor-
are roller- or brush-applied by an inexperi- ganic zinc coating (IOZ) or sprayed metal
enced applicator. Improper mixing proce- coatings (Figure 20.9). Air or solvent, escap-
dures can also trap air in the coating, thus ing through a porous film, cause these tiny
causing cratering. See vacuoles and pinhol- holes. Zinc coatings set up so quickly that
ing. the small holes will not fill back in. This
defect is easy to avoid by simply using a
mist coat followed by a full coat.
Figure 20.7 Cratering
20.8 Air Voids Figure 20.9 Pinholing

Initially invisible, these pockets of air
Repairs for cratering, vacuoles and pinhol-
trapped inside the coating film generally
ing are very difficult since the hole generally
lead to failure in the near future (Figure
just re-forms in any coating applied over
20.8). They are caused by air trapped in the
them. Sanding down to bare metal is the
coating during mixing. This typically occurs
only sure fix.
when the mixer is run too fast. This creates a
foam or bubbly surface on the liquid coat-
20.10 Discoloration/Staining
ing.
Rust stains are normally not a problem
except as a matter of aesthetics. If necessary,
clean by sanding and over-coating. The only
way to stop this from occurring is to repair
or replace the item that is rusting and bleed-
ing onto the coating. (Figure 20.10)
Figure 20.8 Air Void

July 2012
• Dirt
• Dust
• Soluble pigments
• Retained solvents
In immersion or buried service, blistering
can also be caused by electro-endosmosis
due to:
• An overactive cathodic protection system
• Stray currents
Figure 20.10 Discoloration/Staining
• Osmosis caused by trapped soluble salts
20.11 Heat-Related Damage
Heat-related damage can occur during any
project because it is very common for some-
one to weld over new paint. The repair
should, just like any other repair, follow the
specification or the manufacturer’s recom-
mendations.
20.12 Blistering
Blistering is dome- or circular-shaped pro-
jections of the coating film held away from
Figure 20.11 Blistering
the substrate (Figure 20.11). Blisters can
have irregular shapes, depending on the Do not to break blisters unless it is to test
cause. They may be filled with pure water, them or their contents to determine cause.
solvent, caustic, gas, oxygen, crystals, or Remember that blisters may be protecting
rust. The basic cause is a loss of adhesion in the surface. The only reasonable repair, if
localized areas. They can be any size and repair is necessary, is to remove the coating
distribution, which is typically classified by system, clean the area, fix whatever caused
using ASTM D 714, Standard Test Method the blisters, then replace the coating system.
for Evaluating Degree of Blistering of
Paints. 20.13 Cracking and Detachment
These defects are visible cracks in a coating
Numerous factors can lead to blistering, but
that may either penetrate down to the sub-
the most common is a contaminant of some
strate, or just penetrate through a single coat
kind left on the surface after cleaning. In
in a multi-coat system (Figure 20.12).
atmospheric service, the blisters may be
caused by coating over: The main cause is stress related, either due
to movement in the substrate or internal
• Oil
stress in the coating as it ages. Chemically
• Moisture cured coatings that are applied too heavily
• Grease are prone to cracking. Two other causes are

July 2012
absorption and desorption of moisture. An

example is antifouling cracking, which is
seen when the ship comes out of the water
for inspection or work. Aging also causes
cracks in coatings. A good example is some-
times seen in an older alkyd coatings.
Figure 20.13 Checking
20.15 Alligatoring
Alligatoring occurs where a hard, tough
coating is applied over a softer extensible
coating. Some thickly applied coatings can
alligator when exposed to sunlight.
Figure 20.12 Cracking and Detachment
Coatings that cure by oxidization-polymer-
Once a coating has cracked, remove and ization may alligator if the coating is heated,
replace it, preferably with a more flexible i.e., the surface cures rapidly relative to the
coating. underlying coating.
20.14 Checking
Checking appears as line cracks in the coat-
ing surface (Figure 20.13). Normally, this
appears only in the topcoat and the cracks
rarely go through to the substrate. Some-
times, magnification is needed to fully see
them. The fundamental cause is stress in the
coating film. The stress can occur because of
incorrect formulation (a manufacturers’
issue), or a poorly written specification
which requires a coating that is not meant Figure 20.14 Alligatoring
for the service or is incompatible with the
underlying coating. 20.16 Adhesion Failures: Flaking,
Delamination, Detachment,
Remove the checked coating and replace and Peeling
with the proper coating material.
These defects are due to loss of adhesion
between coating layers or the substrate,
caused by (Figure 20.15):

July 2012
• Coating applied to a contaminated surface is the case, the coating inspector cannot
• Wrong surface preparation specified require stripe coating. The addition of a
• Failure to inspect surface preparation stripe coat adds additional material on the
edge, with the goal of having a coating sys-
• Insufficient surface profile
tem with the same DFT on edges as on the
• Exceeding the topcoat window flats surfaces. The International Maritime
• Application of incompatible coatings Organization (IMO) performance standard
(e.g., alkyd over IOZ) for protective coatings (PSPC) requires
• Applying a coating to a glossy surface rounding edges to a 2 mm (0.078 in.) radius
or performing a three-pass grinding. There
are special DFT gauges available that mea-
sure DFT on edges. Typical gauges will not
accurately measure closer to an edge than 25
mm (1 in.).
Figure 20.15 Adhesion Failure
The repair depends on the extent of the fail-

ure. For smaller areas, remove, clean,
feather edges, and replace. In larger areas,
completely remove the coating and replace;
this may mean removing the entire coating Figure 20.16 Edges
system down to the substrate before com-
pletely re-coating. Welders should dress welds and remove
weld spatter to the extent called for in the
20.17 Failure on Welds and Edges project specification (Figure 20.17). How-
Unless addressed by using a stripe coat, a ever, what is acceptable for a weld may not
common source of in-service coating failure be good for a coating. Coat rough welds
is rust that starts at a sharp edge or rough or using a brush to work the coating into the
spattered weld seam (Figure 20.16). The roughness. Weld spatter is a separate issue.
fundamental reason is that coatings pull Remove it by grinding or it will cause coat-
away from a sharp edge, and industrial ing failure. Coating does not encapsulate
application using spray or roller can cause beads of weld spatter, nor does abrasive
the coating to bridge over small depressions blasting remove it.
in the substrate.
Grind or round edges to at least a 2 mm
(0.078 in.) radius. Unfortunately, this is not
required in many specifications. When that

July 2012
20.19 Cissing
Cissing (also known as ‘fisheyes’ or ‘crawl-
ing’) is the term for surface breaks in the
film that reveal the substrate. It is often a
result of grease or oil contamination on the
substrate.
20.20 Inspection Considerations

The fundamental reason to have a coating
inspector on a job site is to avoid all of the
Figure 20.17 Welds above failures. However, since most jobs
Another issue with welds and cut edges of cannot be inspected 100% of the time over
steel is that the heat from certain types of 100% of the surface, application-related
welding can harden the steel surface for a coating failures do occur.
short distance around the weld. The hard- However, inspectors who are diligent and
ened steel may not receive the same profile who closely observe work at critical times,
as surrounding steel during abrasive blast- reduce (if not fully eliminate) premature
ing. Coating inspectors should always check coating failure.
profile depth near any area that may have
been subjected to heat from welding, or cut-
ting prior to abrasive blasting. Flame cut
edges need to be ground down before abra-
sive blasting.
20.18 Gouges or Chipped Spots

No matter how careful a contractor is, dam-
age inevitably occurs on coating projects
and it must be addressed. Moving equipment
around a work site can cause gouges or
chipped spots, and unfortunately these
gouges normally go through to the substrate.
Even a small chip can start an active corro-
sion cell causing a pit to form.
Sand down damaged areas to the bare sub-
strate and feather the surrounding coating.
Ensure the repairs exactly replicate all coats
of the original system and precisely follow
the specification, curing, and environmental
requirements used for the undamaged por-
tions of the coating system.

July 2012
20.21 Case Study

The following photographs present a potential defect in the applied coatings system. As a
team, determine the defect and potential problems that may arise from the situation. Describe
the actions required to prevent and/or remedy the situation.
Figure 20.18 Defect 1
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Figure 20.19 Defect 2
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

July 2012
High Voltage and Low Voltage Holiday Testing Instrumentation 21-1
Chapter 21: High Voltage and Low

Voltage Holiday Testing
Instrumentation
Objectives • Nicks
When this module is complete, the training Correcting coating defects is especially
candidate will have knowledge and under- important for tanks intended for immersion
standing of: service and buried pipelines.
• Low voltage instruments Cissing (also known as ‘fisheyes’ or ‘crawl-
• High voltage holiday instruments ing’) is the term for surface breaks in the
film that reveal the substrate. It is often a
• Inspection considerations
result of grease or oil contamination on the
• Inspector’s checklist
substrate (Figure 21.4).
Key Trade Terms Cratering is the result of air released from
• Low voltage holiday detector the surface of the coating at the point where
the coating is partially cured and the coating
• High voltage pulse-type DC Holiday
detector does not flow back to cover the void created
by the air release (Figure 21.3).
• High voltage constant current DC holiday
detector Incorrect coating thickness can be detrimen-
• High voltage AC holiday detector tal, whether too thick or too thin. The images
below show some examples of these coating
21.1 Introduction defects, and there are many others of a simi-
Holiday detectors are used to detect holidays lar nature.
of various kinds in coatings. Not all types of
structures or all industries use holiday detec-
tors. General types of holiday detectors
include:
• Low-voltage DC
• High-voltage DC
• High-voltage pulsed DC
• High-voltage AC
Holiday testing is performed to find defects
or discontinuities in coating film such as:
Figure 21.1 Pinholes
• Pinholes (Figure 21.1)
• Fisheyes
• Cratering

January 2014
21-2 High Voltage and Low Voltage Holiday Testing Instrumentation
Specifications should indicate the points in

the job when holiday testing is required. The
coating should be reasonably well cured (but
not fully cured, for ease of repair) before
testing is done.
Note: coatings that are not cured may show
false holidays. In fact, solvent remaining in
coatings may create weak spots of low elec-
trical resistance that high-voltage detectors
may disrupt, creating holidays where none
Figure 21.2 Sags and Runs
previously existed. Nevertheless, in some
cases, such as with baked phenolics or glass-
flake epoxies, the user may elect to test the
coating before final cure so that any repair
material would effectively bond to the
underlying coat.
Holidays in coatings should be repaired.
Correcting coating defects is especially
important for tanks intended for immersion
Figure 21.3 Cratering service and buried pipelines. Repair defects
then test the coating again to ensure that
repairs were successful.
21.2 Low Voltage Instruments

The low voltage holiday detectors shown in
Figure 21.5 are sensitive, low-voltage, wet-
sponge, electronic devices powered by bat-
teries with output voltages ranging from 5–
120 V DC, depending upon the equipment
manufacturer’s circuit design. The detectors
consist of:
Figure 21.4 Cissing
• Portable battery-powered electronic
Low voltage holiday detectors are only able instrument
to detect holes in the coating that go all the • Nonconductive handle with clamps (to
way through the coating to the metal sub- hold sponge)
strate. High voltage holiday detectors can • Open-cell sponge (cellulose)
detect weaknesses in the coating that do not • Ground wire
penetrate to the conductive substrate (metal
or concrete with moisture present). Some low-voltage holiday detectors are
fixed at a specific voltage, while other may
have a test voltage selected.

January 2014
Contact a bare spot on the substrate with the

wetted sponge to verify that the instrument
is properly grounded. Repeat this procedure
periodically during the test. This process is
particularly important when testing coatings
over concrete.
Excess moisture can cause

erroneous indications by creating
a path across the surface of the
Figure 21.5 Low Voltage Holiday Detectors (Tinker coating to pinholes previously
& Rasor; Elcometer 270) detected, or directly to the signal
return connection. This is often
21.2.1 Proper Use of Instrument referred to as “telegraphing.”
The ground cable of this instrument (see
Figure 21.5) is attached directly to the con-
ductive substrate for positive electrical con- With the ground wire attached to the sub-
tact. With a coated steel substrate, connect strate, wipe the coated surface with the wet-
directly to the bare metal. With a concrete ted sponge at a maximum rate of 1 linear
substrate, connect directly to the reinforcing foot per second (lfps) (30 cm/s). Avoid using
steel (rebar) in the concrete where possible. excess water in the sponge because the run-
If no rebar or other metal object within the down could complete the circuit across the
concrete is available, make a ground con- coating surface to a flaw located several feet
nection to the concrete by placing the bare away, thus giving false readings. Use a dou-
ground wire on the concrete and anchoring it ble stroke of the sponge electrode over each
down with a burlap bag filled with damp area. This ensures better inspection cover-
sand. Alternatively, if there is no rebar or age. When a holiday is found, the instrument
metal object, drive a metal fastener, stub or will emit an audible tone (Figure 21.6).
nail into the concrete. Wetting the concrete
in the immediate area also helps to establish
continuity.
Saturate the sponge with a solution of tap
water (not distilled) and a low sudsing wet-
ting agent (such as that used in photographic
film development). Combine 7.4 mL (1 oz)
fluid wetting agent to 1 L (1 gal) water. This
breaks down to a ratio of 1 part wetting
agent to 128 parts water (1:128). Wet the
sponge enough to barely avoid dripping Figure 21.6 Low Voltage Holiday Detector in Use
solution while moving it over the coating.
Use only approved or specified wetting
agents. Mark all holidays with a non-intru-

January 2014
sive marker, such as white-calcium chalk. 21.2.3 Calibration and Frequency

Clean the area to be repaired to ensure the Low-voltage holiday detectors are factory-
wetting agent is removed before making calibrated, so calibration in the field is not
coating repairs. generally necessary. Typical factory calibra-
tion is set at 700 microamperes (± 10%) of
Some users in certain industries, current flow to complete the circuit trigger-
such as railcar companies, ing the audible signal that indicates a coating
choose not to use a wetting agent holiday on metal substrates. For coatings on
between coats for fear of concrete substrates, the detectors must be
contaminating the surface or adjusted for current flow of 500 microam-
leaving moisture under the repair
peres (± 10%). This is generally achieved by
coating, which could lead to
removing a resistor from the electronic cir-
premature failure. In this case, the
cuitry.
low-voltage wet sponge holiday
detector is limited for use on One typical unit has an internal jeep tester
coatings under 250 μm (10 mils) that is continually enabled at start up. The
thick. By this action, the user has internal jeep tester ensures that the voltage
chosen to modify the standard output matches the voltage selected on the
method (e.g., NACE Standard display. If the selected voltage cannot be
SP0188) to suit individual needs. generated, the unit does not allow that volt-
age to be selected.
Solvents retained in the protective Another instrument is equipped with both a
coating film can cause erroneous red and a black button on the face of the
indications (false holidays) during unit. To check for correct calibration on con-
electrical testing. ductive substrates, depress the black button
(80 K). The detector will signal and the LED
will light if the detector is calibrated.
21.2.2 Standards
Depress the red button (90 K), and the detec-
Relevant standards that may be consulted tor will not signal and the LED will not light
(depending on specification requirements, if the detector is properly calibrated.
coating and substrate type) include:
To verify if the same instrument is properly
• AS/NZS 3894.2
calibrated for use on concrete substrates,
• ASTM D 5162-A verify the unit is properly calibrated for use
• ASTM G6 with coatings over metal substrates. Once
• ASTM G62-A calibration is completed, remove the small
• BS 7793-2 jumper wire inside the red cover side of the
detector and it is now ready to use with coat-
• ISO 8289 A
ings applied over concrete.
• ISO 14654
• NACE SP0188
• NACE TM0384

January 2014
21.2.4 Operating Parameters results if a known discontinuity is checked

These low-voltage (wet-sponge) holiday and the instrument does not respond). Once
detectors may also be used to locate holidays the instrument is functioning properly, retest
in nonconductive coatings applied to con- any areas in question.
ductive substrates. These instruments are
portable and easy to operate. They are reli- 21.2.8 Common Errors and Causes
able on coatings up to 500 μm (20 mils) Common operator-based errors include:
thick. The instrument can locate defects in • Failure to keep the probe in contact with
coatings thicker than 500 μm (20 mils), but the surface
requires a slower wipe speed since the mois- • Moving the electrode too quickly or
ture has further to travel to the substrate. slowly across the testing surface
The low-voltage method is preferred by • Loss of connection to the substrate
some users because it does not easily dam- • Over- or-under saturated sponge
age the coating film. However, use is limited
to uncovered substrate. The units are gener- Some equipment-based errors include:
ally not intrinsically safe and cannot there- • No fault alarm caused by low battery or a
fore be used in a hazardous environment. bad lead/ground connection causing high
electrical resistance
21.2.5 Accuracy and Precision • Excess moisture
Accuracy is generally ± 5–10%, depending
on the manufacturer. Common voltages used 21.3 High-Voltage Holiday
are 9, 67.5, 90, and 120 V. Because different Instruments
results are obtained with each voltage,
21.3.1 High-Voltage Pulse-Type DC
selecting the proper voltage is critically Holiday Detectors
important. These voltages are specified in
High-voltage pulse-type DC holiday detec-
NACE, ASTM, and ISO low-voltage holi-
tors are designed to locate holidays in non-
day detection standards. Ideally, the job
conductive coatings that are applied over a
specification should cite the test method the
conductive substrate (Figure 21.7). These
inspector should follow.
instruments are ideal for use:
21.2.6 Repeatability • In moist conditions
Given equal conditions, repeatability of • On wet coating surfaces
results is very high for the instruments. Vari- • On contaminated coating surfaces
ations in results stem from the operator’s
• On carbon-impregnated coatings (i.e., car-
technique and the speed at which the test is bonated rubber)
done.
• On “plastic”/fiberglass type coatings
likely to become electrostatically charged
21.2.7 When to Question Readings
Make occasional checks to see if the detec-
tor is operating properly; particularly if no
holidays are being found (i.e., question

January 2014
High-voltage pulse-type DC detectors con- Some older high-voltage holiday detector

sist of: models may not be equipped with the safety
or convenience features of newer models.
• High-Voltage DC Unit
As always, consult the operations manual
• Various probes for different substrates and
specific to the particular model for specific,
configurations
detailed operating instructions.
• Calibration accessories
The operating procedure of most high-volt-
• Charging unit
age pulse-type DC holiday detectors is gen-
• Ground wires
erally similar to the operating procedure
• General accessories described in the following paragraphs.
When the electrode is passed over the sur-
face, a spark arcs through the air gap or coat-
ing to the substrate at any holidays, voids, or
discontinuities, which simultaneously
causes the detector to emit an audible sound.
The ground wire should be connected
directly to the metal structure, where possi-
ble. If direct contact is not possible, use the
high-voltage holiday detector with a trailing
ground wire; provided the structure to be
Figure 21.7 High-Voltage Pulse-Type DC Holiday tested is also connected to the ground. If the
Detector
building is not connected to the ground,
21.3.1.1 Proper Use of Instrument establish direct contact or connect a ground
There are a number of manufacturers and wire and spike at some point between the
models available. Generally, each manufac- ground and the structure.
turer/model has particular differences On concrete structures, attach the ground to
related to safety or operation that operators rebar in the concrete, or if there is no rebar,
need to know. lay the bare ground wire on the concrete and
Tinker & Rasor†1’s APS “Stick-Type,” for anchor it with a burlap (cloth) bag filled with
damp sand.
example, is equipped with a release trigger
that instantly turns the instrument off. Hold Set the voltage as stated in either the specifi-
the handle down on the grip to operate the cation or the referenced standard. If no
instrument; release the handle and the unit guidelines are provided, the US industry’s
shuts down immediately. This feature rule of thumb is to use a voltage setting of:
increases job-site safety since instruments • 100 V/mil of coating thickness
cannot be left energized while unattended.
The European industry’s most-frequently-
used rule of thumb is slightly different:
• 4 V/μm of coating thickness
1. Trade name

January 2014
Two alternate methods to set the correct • NACE SP0274-2011

voltage is to identify another type of defect, • NACE SP0490-2007
e.g., low DFT, or make a pinhole through the • NACE SP0188-2006
coating to the substrate, then set the voltage
• ANSI/AWWA C214-07
at the lowest available setting on the unit.
Increase the voltage until it is sufficiently • ANSI/AWWA C213-07
high to create a spark at the holiday. Use that • ISO 2746:1998
setting to inspect the coating for holidays.
21.3.1.3 Calibration and Frequency
Inspectors should always obtain written High-voltage pulse-type DC holiday detec-
authority before: tors come calibrated from the manufacturer
• Making a pinhole in the coating, since that and cannot be calibrated by users. Check the
is a destructive test voltage output periodically, following the
• Using this procedure to set voltage, unless manufacturer’s suggested method. If there is
already specified ever a question about the accuracy of results,
Please note: when the voltage is set too high, take the detector out of service and return it
the coating may be damaged. The same to the manufacturer or supplier for service.
damage can occur if the coating is tested
21.3.1.4 Operating Parameters
before it has released all or most of its sol-
vent content. Once a spark generates Before using high-voltage pulse-type DC
through the coating to the substrate, a spe- holiday detectors, ensure:
cific holiday now exists; even if there was • Coating cure is complete
no a pinhole or break in the coating before • Visual inspection is complete
the test was performed. • Acceptance of inspection is complete
When testing, move the electrode at a rate of • Thickness testing is complete
about 0.3 m/s (1 ft/s) in a single pass — Coating thickness is above 150 ȝm (6
(according to NACE SP0188). Moving the mils)
probe too quickly may miss a void. Moving — Low-voltage (wet sponge) testing of
too slowly may create damage at thin spots coatings below 150 ȝm (6 mils) is
or prove to be more exacting than was complete
intended by the specifier. The high-voltage pulse-type holiday DC
detectors generally have a voltage output
21.3.1.2 Standards range from 800–60,000 V. (Figure 21.8)
Standards that may need to be consulted, Generally, these devices are used on protec-
depending on the specification’s require- tive coating films ranging in thickness from
ments, and coating and substrate types, 150–6,000 μm (6–240 mils).
include:
• AS/NZS 3894.1
• ASTM G62-07
• ASTM D5162-08
• ASTM D4748-08

January 2014
21.3.1.6 Repeatability
Given all conditions are equal, repeatability
When checking the output voltage
from the probe, use of a high of results is very high. Results are dependent
input impedance voltmeter is on the operator’s technique and speed while
required to prevent a flow of the test is performed.
current and a subsequent voltage
21.3.1.7 Sensitivity
drop from the power supply.
Some high-voltage holiday detectors allow
Most high-voltage holiday detectors have a the sensitivity of the alarm to be adjusted so
wide range of electrodes available for differ- that it does not sound the audible alarm
ent uses, including: when a steady flow of current from the
probe to charge the surface of the coating is
• Flat-section rolling springs are used to test
present, or when the coating is partially con-
pipeline coatings
ductive (due to conductive pigments such as
• Smooth neoprene flaps (impregnated with carbon black). When the sensitivity is set to
conductive carbon) are used for thin-film
coatings such as fusion-bonded epoxy
a low value, the audible alarm will sound
only when a high current spark is present.
• Copper-bronze-bristle brushes are com-
When the sensitivity is set to a high value,
monly used on glass-reinforced plastic
(GRP) coatings all current flows from the probe will cause
the alarm to sound.
High-voltage pulse-type DC holiday detec-
tors are not intrinsically safe and may lead to 21.3.1.8 When To Question Readings
an explosion if used in an explosive atmo- Make occasional checks to see if the detec-
sphere. tor is operating properly, particularly if no
holidays are being found (i.e., question
results if a known discontinuity is checked
and the instrument does not respond). Once
the instrument is functioning properly, retest
any areas in question.
21.3.1.9 Common Errors and Causes

Common operator-based errors include
operator failure to keep the probe in contact
with the surface and moving the electrode
too quickly or slowly across the testing sur-
Figure 21.8 High Voltage Holiday Detector in Use face.
with Rolling Spring Electrode
Some equipment-based errors include:
21.3.1.5 Accuracy and Precision • Lack of display: due to low battery or bad/
Accuracy for the voltage setting is generally missing fuse (depends on model).
± 5%. Depending on model (voltage range), • Continuous alarm: due to damp surface,
resolution is 10V or 100V. moving the probe too quickly across the
surface, conductive pigments in the coat-

January 2014
ing, or certain types of coatings which The Elcometer 266® model is equipped
hold electrical charge on the surface caus- with a safety release switch that is part of the
ing current flow as the probe passes across handle. When the operator releases the han-
the surface.
dle, the voltage output is cut off immedi-
• No alarm on fault: on conductive sub- ately. This feature serves to increase jobsite
strates could be due to too-low voltage
safety since the instrument cannot be left
sensitivity setting, or a bad ground con-
nection. On concrete substrate, no alarm energized while unattended.
on fault could be due to insufficient con- The PCWI DC30 is equipped with a
ductivity. (The conductivity of the con-
“momentary on switch” which allows auto
crete is due to its moisture content; less
than 5% can mean insufficient conductiv- shut-off. This instrument also offers an
ity). optional on/off switch in the handle.
• No spark at the probe tip: due to lead or Older models of high-voltage holiday detec-
connection failure. tors may not be equipped with many of the
safety or convenience features of newer
21.3.2 High-Voltage Constant Test
Current DC Holiday Detectors models.
High-voltage constant current DC holiday As with all instruments, refer to the manu-
detectors are used to detect holidays in facturer’s model-specific operating instruc-
dielectric (insulation type) coatings on con- tions for detailed use instructions.
ductive substrates (Figure 21.9). This detec-
Use and operating procedures for the con-
tor can be used on many substrates and
stant current DC holiday detectors are the
provides excellent results on concrete.
same as those for the pulse-type DC holiday
detectors.
Set the voltage according to both the thick-
ness of the coating and the specified stan-
dard (see Section 21.3.2.2, immediately
following). Once this is done, pass the elec-
trode over the surface. Any holidays, voids,
or discontinuities cause a spark to arc
through the air gap or coating to the sub-
strate. At the same instant the detector emits
an audible sound to alert the operator.
Figure 21.9 High-Voltage Constant Current DC Connect the signal return wire (or ground
Holiday Detectors
wire) directly to the metal structure. Pro-
21.3.2.1 Proper Use of Instrument vided the structure to be tested is also elec-
There are a number of manufacturers mak- trically connected to the ground in some way
ing a variety of models, with manufacturer- (establish this connection by fixing a ground
and model-specific safety and/or operational wire and spike at some point between the
differences that operators must know. ground and the structure), connect the
ground wire to the earth. Use this with cau-

January 2014
tion and electrically test regularly during • EN 14430

inspection. • ISO 2746
• JIS K 6766
• NACE SP0274-2011
• NACE SP0188
• NACE SP0490
21.3.2.3 Calibration and Frequency

High-voltage DC holiday detectors come
from the manufacturer already calibrated
and cannot be calibrated by the user. Check
the voltage output periodically, following
the manufacturer’s suggested method. If
there is ever a question about the detector’s
accuracy, take it out of service and return it
Figure 21.10 High-Voltage DC Holiday Detector in to the manufacturer or supplier for service.
Use
21.3.2.4 Operating Parameters
On concrete structures, attach the ground to
When using these detectors, the coating
rebar in the concrete or a metal object that
thickness should be above 150 ȝm (6 mils).
runs through the concrete (e.g. copper pipe),
Test coatings below this thickness with a
or if there is no rebar or metal object, attach
low-voltage (wet sponge) unit. High-voltage
a metal fastener, stub or nail. Another
constant current holiday detectors generally
method is to lay the bare ground wire on the
have a voltage output range from 0–30,000
concrete and anchor it with a burlap (cloth)
V.
bag filled with damp sand.
21.3.2.5 Accuracy and Precision
21.3.2.2 Standards
Accuracy is generally ± 5%. Depending on
Standards that may need to be consulted
model (voltage range), resolution is 10 V or
depending on specification requirements,
100 V.
coating and substrate type include:
• ANSI/AWWA C213 21.3.2.6 Repeatability
• AS/NZS 3894.1 Given equal conditions, repeatability of
• ASTM C 536 results is very high. Results depend on the
• ASTM C 537 operator’s technique and the speed at which
• ASTM D 4787 the test is performed.
• ASTM G 6
• ASTM D 5162-B
• ASTM G 62-B
• BS1344-11
• DIN 55670

January 2014
21.3.2.7 When To Question Readings 21.3.3 High-Voltage AC Holiday

Make occasional checks of the detector’s Detector
operation, particularly if no holidays are High-voltage AC holiday detectors use a
being found. Question results if a known 110 V or 220 V power supply. They are
discontinuity is checked and the instrument based on the principle of the Tesla coil and
does not respond. Ensure the instrument is do not use a ground wire. The probe emits a
functioning properly and retest any areas in blue corona, which is attracted to any
question. ground. This type of detector is encountered
less frequently than pulsed DC holiday
21.3.2.8 Common Errors and Causes detectors.
Common operator-based errors include the
While these AC units are available, they
operator’s failure to keep the probe in con-
present a much higher risk of severe shock
tact with the surface and moving the elec-
during use than DC or pulsed DC high-volt-
trode either too quickly or slowly across the
age holiday detectors. Use AC units with
testing surface.
extreme care at all times.
Some equipment-based errors include:
21.3.3.1 Proper Use of Instrument
• Lack of display: due to low battery or bad/
missing fuse (depending on model). The high-voltage AC holiday detectors oper-
ate on a different electrical principle, but the
• Continuous alarm: due to a damp surface
or moving the probe too quickly across testing procedure is generally the same as
surface. for high-voltage DC holiday detectors.
• No alarm on fault: due to a too low volt- As with all instruments, refer to the manu-
age/sensitivity setting or bad ground con- facturer’s operating instructions for model-
nection.
specific detailed instructions for use.
• No spark at the tip: caused by lead or con-
nection. 21.3.3.2 Standards
• Incorrect voltage generated: Some Standards that may need to be consulted
gauges, such as the Elcometer 266®, have (depending on specification requirements,
a built in jeep tester and closed loop sys- coating and substrate type) include:
tem to guarantee the voltage selected is
generated at the tip. However, many • ASTM G62-07
gauges do not have this function. Ensure • NACE SP0274-2011
that the voltage selected is indeed gener-
• NACE SP0490-2007
ated, especially as the battery weakens.
Take care when verifying the test voltage • NACE SP0188-2006
at the tip. Make sure that no current is • ANSI/AWWA C214-07
drawn from the power supply thus causing
a voltage drop. • ANSI/AWWA C213-07
• ISO 2746:1998

January 2014
21.3.3.3 Calibration and Frequency is a general rule and does not always
The instrument comes calibrated from the apply)
manufacturer and cannot be calibrated by • Specification requirements. Some specifi-
the user. Check the voltage output periodi- cations may require special procedures or
cally, following manufacturer’s suggested recommend a specific type of holiday
detector to be used.
method. If there is ever a question about the
accuracy of the holiday detector, take it out Example: The specification may call for a
low-voltage detector on a film thickness
of service and return to the manufacturer or
over 500 μm (20 mils), which contradicts
supplier for service. the general rule.
21.3.3.4 Operating Parameters • Standards to follow. Depending on some
of the other factors listed above, there are
Use AC-type holiday testers to test noncon-
specific standards that should be referred
ductive linings on steel substrates (e.g., rub- to in order to ensure proper procedures are
ber, glass, or sheet linings). AC testers have followed.
a variety of voltages but typical use is for
very thick coatings, with test voltages in the 21.5 Inspector’s Checklist
range of 25,000–60,000 V. Before testing for holidays, check the fol-
lowing items:
21.4 Inspection Considerations • Are non-intrinsically safe instruments
There are many factors inspectors must con- allowed in the work environment?
sider before performing holiday detection. • What are the grounding and safety issues
Some factors affect what instrument and/or • Have the specification and standards that
procedure are chosen to perform the test. govern how to conduct the testing been
Some of the factors include: thoroughly reviewed and understood?
• Work Environment. The high-voltage AC • Is the proper instrument for the anticipated
holiday detectors are not intrinsically safe DFT at hand?
and cannot therefore be used in a hazard- • Is the battery charged and in satisfactory
ous environment. Any instrument that can working condition?
generating a spark when a flaw is detected
is not intrinsically safe. • Has the operations manual for the holiday
detector been thoroughly reviewed and
• Type of Substrate and/or Type of Coating. understood?
Although all the instruments are designed
to locate holidays in nonconductive coat- • Has the voltage output been checked to
ings applied over a conductive substrate, a ensure accurate readings?
particular type of holiday detector may • Have the signal return cable and electrode
achieve better results on certain substrates connections been checked to ensure there
or with certain coating types. is no electrical resistance in the circuit?
• Anticipated coating thickness. As men-
tioned earlier, use low-voltage (sponge)
holiday detectors on coatings up to 500
μm (20 mils) thick and the high-voltage
detectors on higher film thicknesses. (This

January 2014
Key Terms Definitions

High-Voltage AC Holiday Detector: This uses a 110 V or 220 V power supply. The AC
detector is based on the principle of the Tesla coil and does not use a ground wire. The probe
emits a blue corona, which is attracted to any ground.
High-Voltage Constant Current DC Holiday Detector: This instrument is used to detect
coating holidays in dielectric coatings. Once the voltage is set, pass the electrode over the sur-
face. A spark will arc through the air gap, causing the detector to emit an audible sound.
High-Voltage Pulse-Type DC Holiday Detector: This instrument is ideal for use in moist
conditions. Pass the electrode over the surface. A spark will arc through the air gap at any hol-
idays, voids, or discontinuities, causing the detector to emit an audible sound.
Low-Voltage Holiday Detector: This instrument is a sensitive, low-voltage (wet-sponge)
electronic device powered by a battery with output voltages ranging from 5–120 V DC.

January 2014
The Coating Inspector’s Job 25-1
Chapter 25: The Coating Inspector’s

Job
Objectives definition of the job title “coatings inspec-
When this module is complete, the training tor” is subject to dispute, but it is now quite
candidate will have knowledge and under- evident is that coatings inspectors must seek
standing of: education to become qualified/certified in all
fields that relate to the hugely varied work
• Specification expectations performed on a daily basis.
• Pre-Job conference Examples of duties include: scaffold inspec-
• Standards tion, containment, basic safety inspection,
• Materials and waste management. To further compli-
cate matters, application contractors have
• Surface preparation
their own expectations of what a coatings
• Mixing and thinning inspector should do.
• Application
Many owners today require additional docu-
• Documentation mented training/certifications in addition to
the primary qualification, Certified Coatings
Prerequisites
Inspector. The good news is that most expe-
Prior to class, be sure to: rienced inspectors noted the trend, recog-
• Complete the previous chapters nized the need to obtain additional training,
and did it!
• Read through the chapter
There is, however, a troubling trend devel-
25.1 Introduction oping in which some coatings inspectors
The role of the coatings inspector has seem to now think of themselves as corro-
changed over the past few years. While sion engineers and project managers, with-
NACE International’s Coating Inspectors out having the necessary training,
Program (CIP) defines the inspector’s role experience, or qualifications. Even more
as a “quality control technician,” it is very troubling is that some assume management
uncommon to find a coatings inspector on roles and become part of the decision mak-
any job site working in this sole capacity. ing process by default. Usually, this goes
The distinction between inspection and con- unnoticed by the owner until something goes
sulting has not changed‘. wrong, and questions begin. Coatings
inspectors should stay within their area of
Inspectors must not only read and under- expertise to avoid and/or reduce liabilities to
stand the project specifications, but also their employers.
understand that expectations of inspector’s
responsibilities varies from job to job, even During previous discussions in this course
when working for the same client. The true on the pre-job conference, emphasis was put
on the need for inspectors to clarify their

January 2013
25-2 The Coating Inspector’s Job
authority and responsibilities. Please The key to success in the midst of such
remember: once the coating inspector’s change is tolerance, coupled with the knowl-
authority and responsibility are defined and edge that contractors and supervisors with a
clarified, do not step outside those bound- good grasp of the requirements go a long
aries. That is the best way to avoid prob- way to create a more harmonious and more
lems. stress free project.
25.2 Inspector’s Job

Based on NACE International’s definition of
an inspector’s job as quality control techni-
cian, the following list identifies what an
inspector’s job may entail:
• Specification
• Pre-job conference whenever possible
• Standards
• Materials
• Surface preparation
• Mixing and thinning Figure 25.1 Site Walk Through with Contractor
• Application Most specifications make reference to stan-

• Final inspection dards from various organizations (NACE,
ISO, ASTM, etc.). Take responsibility to
• Documentation
ensure that those standards pertaining to the
work being performed are physically on site
25.3 Specification
for easy reference as needed. Do not rely on
Earlier in the course, the project specifica- contractors to furnish copies of the standards
tion was covered in detail (Figure 25.1). unless it is their contractual requirement.
Inspectors must understand the specifica- Work closely with contractors to review and
tion. Coating inspectors have this responsi- ensure a mutual understanding of the stan-
bility because it is very likely that any dards.
interpretation of the specification after the
pre-job conference is most likely going to be Another important document that inspectors
left up to them. It is not uncommon for the are required to keep are the product data
foreman and/or supervisors to change during sheets for all specified products. These are
a project. Often projects will have several very handy during the application process
supervisors over the duration of a project. since most specifications do not always con-
tain some of the specific information found
This generates many challenges that the on product data sheets. Also, it is not
coatings inspector must deal with on a case- uncommon for a specified product’s formu-
by-case basis. Expect to explain and clarify lation to change or modify between the time
the requirements of the specification to new the specification is written and the project
supervisors and crew members many times. begins. Examine the product data sheets and

January 2013
notify the owner/specifier and contractor The components of a good inspection plan
immediately about any changes. should include the following:
We have discussed the inspector’s responsi- • A list of the required tests to be per-
bility as far as the coating specification is formed.
concerned. We noted that the inspector • The standards referenced in the specifica-
should read and understand the specification that affect the inspection tasks.
tion. The specification is our guide for • The instruments to be used for the tests to
inspection of the project work. Often the be performed.
inspection section of a specification is not • A complete contact list of everyone
very detailed and may state only that “All involved in the project including all
surface preparation and coating work cov- backup personnel.
ered by this specification is subject to • A tentative schedule of dates for the
inspection.” Obviously, as inspectors, we inspections that will be performed.
would need more information than this to • Access to the areas during surface prepa-
determine what tests to perform, what ration and application of the coatings.
instruments to use, what reports to submit, • The reporting hierarchy and time sched-
etc. Conversely, some specifications are ule.
very detailed and spell out every test to be • Safety considerations.
performed, every instrument to use, and
• Individual assignments if more than one
other information to cover the inspections inspector is working the project.
required for the project. The more detailed
• Accommodations in the schedule for
the inspection section of the specification is,
remedial work and the inspection thereof.
the easier our job as inspectors will be.
• A check list of all items that must be com-
In either case, as inspectors, an important pleted on the project.
part of our preparation for the project is to Formats for inspection plans will vary
prepare an inspection plan. An inspection depending upon the work to be done. Gener-
plan is the inspectors guide for his or her ally the various components may be pre-
specific tasks that will be required during the sented in the form of a table with columns
course of the project. The successful bidder for the various inspection tasks, test meth-
for the painting contract submits a work ods, instruments to be used, and pass/fail cri-
schedule which is his or her plan as to how teria. An example is shown here:
they intend to perform and complete the
coating work called for by the specification.
The inspector needs the contractor’s sched-
ule to plan his or her schedule for the hold
points and inspections to be performed. As
with all coating projects things may change
as the project progresses so inspectors need
to have good communication with the con-
tractor and the project manager.

January 2013
Table 1: Sample Inspection Plan Check List

InspectionTask Method/Instrument InspectionStandard Pass/FailCriteria
Column one would show all the inspections

Attend the pre-job conference. It is a
to be done and the planned sequence. Col-
valuable and critical part of a coating
umn two would show the test method and
inspector’s job.
the instrument to be used. Column three
would show the Standard for the inspection
25.5 Standards
test or method. Column three would show
the pass/fail or acceptance criteria. Obvi- By now it is clear that standards have an
ously this chart would vary depending on important role to ensure team members per-
what the project specification requires. The form the same task, in the same manner, to
critical point being that the inspection plan achieve the same or similar results (Figure
includes all inspections/ tests to be done and 25.2). Therefore, as stated in the previous
how they are to be done. section, whenever a standard is referenced in
a specification, ensure those standards are
Inspection plans may be simple or very com- available for reference on the job site. Expe-
plex depending on the project for which the rience has proven that even the most com-
plan is written. SSPC provides a "Guide for monly used surface preparation standards
Planning Coating Inspection"which contains have different meanings to different people
information on how to prepare an adequate in this industry.
inspection plan for a coatings project. It is
the responsibility of the lead inspector on a In many cases, crew members have never
project to prepare a detailed inspection plan seen a standard but rather were only told
and submit it for approval by the owner about it and what it means. Supervisors may
before the project commences. know the standards and requirements, but
unfortunately, most of the correct informa-
25.4 Pre-job Conference tion gets lost when communicated to the
work crew. Inspectors need to explain the
This subject has been addressed previously.
requirements of a standard to crews to keep
Inspectors should have a good understand-
work consistent and avoid so much rework.
ing of the purpose and objectives of a pre-
Therefore, it is critical for inspectors to
job conference. An important reminder: it is
acquire and have the standards available on
not uncommon for owners, and supervisors
site.
of inspectors attending a pre-job conference
to find the inspector absent. Make every
effort to attend the pre-job conference. It is
vitally important because there is no infor-
mation better than first-hand information.
As mentioned before, attend the meeting to
meet the team and to ask questions about
issues that might not otherwise be discussed.

January 2013
Figure 25.3 Materials
Figure 25.2 Standards 25.7 Surface Preparation

The estimates for coating failures attribut-
25.6 Materials
able to inadequate or poor surface prepara-
On rare occasions, particularly offshore, tion ranges between 75–90% (Figure 25.4).
material acquisition for a project may be del- That single piece of data brings into razor-
egated to the inspector (Figure 25.3). How- sharp focus the critical importance of a coat-
ever, an inspector’s usual materials ings inspector’s responsibility to ensure
responsibilities are to receive the materials, strict adherence to the specified surface
check them in, and ensure they are stored preparation, and to ensure that any devia-
properly, particularly coating and lining tions from the specification are always
materials that have time- and temperature- authorized and documented in writing.
related characteristics. This is critical Most specifiers go to great lengths to ensure
because if there is a premature failure after that surface preparation is specified cor-
application, the investigation will examine rectly. Unfortunately, it is common for both
the storage conditions after the product left inspectors and contractors to deviate from
the manufacturer. While material storage the specification without proper authoriza-
always requires certain safety precautions, tion. When this happens, the end result can
always ensure the materials are stored be a costly failure where no one wins.
according to the manufacturer’s recom-
mendations. This information is on the
Product Data Sheets. If clarification is
needed, call the manufacturer.

January 2013
Figure 25.5 Mixing and Thinning
25.9 Application
Figure 25.4 Surface Preparation Do not fall in the trap of some inspectors
who seem to believe that once application
25.8 Mixing and Thinning begins, their work comes to an end (Figure
Another critical aspect of an inspector’s job 25.6).S This philosophy and practice is trou-
is to monitor the mixing and thinning of bling. Coatings inspectors must work to
coatings (Figure 25.5). Most coatings come change these attitudes. Most applicators
to the job site unassembled and require want to do a good job, but many factors
assembly before application. This is usually influence the quality of their work. Applica-
easy with single component coatings, but tion supervisors tend to put extreme pres-
multi-component coatings can create serious sures on the applicators, who then respond
problems, particularly if the crew is very by rushing the process, thus resulting in
inexperienced. inferior work.
Ensure that coatings are mixed exactly to the An astute inspector can avert mistakes dur-
manufacturer’s guidelines. When solvents ing application such as:
are added, ensure that the right solvent is • Insufficient WFT that leads to low DFT
used and in the correct quantity. readings
• Lapping
• Incorrect wet edge time
• Runs and sags
• Excessive overspray and dry spray
• Holidays

January 2013
Figure 25.6 Application
Final Inspection
Figure 25.7 Final Inspection
A well written specification should have a
section dedicated to the final inspection pro-
25.10 Documentation
cess (Figure 25.7).S This should include an
outline of acceptance and rejection criteria, As discussed previously, a coatings inspec-
particularly when specialty coatings are tion job is not complete until the project doc-
being applied. The final inspection section umentation is delivered to the owner.
should also detail what equipment to use and Deliver the documentation as soon as possi-
which standards to follow during the pro- ble after the acceptance of the work. While
cess. Ensure the application and inspection most inspectors do not keep copies of their
are done correctly. reports for future reference, it is wiser to
keep them. Keep copies of all records,
The fact is, a good visual inspection can
unless prevented by contractual clauses or
yield valuable clues to the overall condition
otherwise. It is a wiser course of action.
of the applied protective coatings. A certifi-
cate of completion signed by the inspector
and applicator is sometimes required, so
once the inspection and recommended
repairs are complete, ensure the certificate
of completion is signed by both parties and
is part of the final project documentation.

January 2013
25.11 Case Study Being so proud of his dehumidification

James Ward is a NACE Certified Level 3 background, Mr. Ward made a few calls (or
Inspector with extensive experience in the so he claimed), then told Mr. Johnson that he
protective coatings industry. Before starting must call Hurricane Moisture control and get
work as a full time third-party coatings the equipment that Mr. Ward had just
inspector with ProCoat© Inspections, he ordered as a replacements. Mr. Johnson felt
was a sales representative with Hurricane obligated and did just what Mr. Ward had
Moisture Control, a well established pro- ordered. The equipment arrived later that
vider of dehumidification services. day and the switch out was done personally
by Mr. Ward.
Because of his background in dehumidifica-
tion, he was chosen as the coatings inspector The following morning, both men were on
for a tank lining project in Bigfoot, Texas, the job site and noticed that the DH unit was
which required dehumidification. It was crit- not working. They went into the tank and
ical for the project to go well and complete noticed that there was flash rusting all over
on time to avoid costly settlements related to the tank’s floor.
loss of use. During the pre-job conference, Mr. Johnson advised Mr. Ward that he would
the owner made it clear that all the equip- need a change order to reblast the floor since
ment had been properly sized by his techni- Mr. Ward was the one who brought in the
cal services staff and it was the contractor’s new DH unit that had stopped working over-
responsibility to ensure that he had the right night, causing the surface condition to dete-
equipment for the job. He also stated that riorate and thus fail to meet the requirements
Mr. Ward’s sole responsibility was to of NACE No. 1. Mr. Ward refused, saying
observe, document, and report the process. that his duty on this project was only to
The project began as planned and surface observe, document and report. This created
preparation for the entire tank floor was an impasse and after 2 days of argument, the
completed on schedule. Before application owner, applicator, and inspection company
could begin, Mr. Ward took environmental had to call a meeting to settle the issue.
readings inside the tank and noticed that
25.11.1 Assignment
humidity readings were in the region of
1. Read and understand the case study, then
65%, which was much higher than the
get into teams for discussion.
acceptable (45%) in the specification. He
2. As a team, determine what went wrong
approached the applicator foreman and (not with the DH unit itself) and who
advised him of the findings. Kim Johnson should be held accountable for the cur-
was the applicator foreman with over 20 rent impasse?
years of experience and was quite con- 3. Did Inspector Ward overstep his area of
cerned. He took his own readings, which responsibility and authority?
confirmed what Mr. Ward had indicated. 4. What is the best way to proceed?
Knowing the possible repercussions if the
situation was not addressed, he asked Mr.
Ward for some guidance on how to proceed.

January 2013

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Coating Defects 20-1

Chapter 20: Coating Defects

20.1 Introduction • Wrong thinner or contaminated thinner;

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The best method to fix this defect is to avoid

Figure 20.3 Run

Figure 20.2 Blushing

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Base the repair method on the specification,

20.5 Discontinuities, Skips,

Figure 20.6 Chalking

To overcoat, remove the powdery layer by

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air trapped in the coating (Figure 20.7). The 20.9 Pinholing

Figure 20.7 Cratering

20.8 Air Voids Figure 20.9 Pinholing

Figure 20.8 Air Void

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absorption and desorption of moisture. An

Figure 20.13 Checking

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Figure 20.15 Adhesion Failure

The repair depends on the extent of the fail-

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20.20 Inspection Considerations

20.18 Gouges or Chipped Spots

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20.21 Case Study

Figure 20.18 Defect 1

Figure 20.19 Defect 2

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Chapter 21: High Voltage and Low

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Specifications should indicate the points in

21.2 Low Voltage Instruments

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Contact a bare spot on the substrate with the

Excess moisture can cause

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sive marker, such as white-calcium chalk. 21.2.3 Calibration and Frequency

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21.2.4 Operating Parameters results if a known discontinuity is checked

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High-voltage pulse-type DC detectors con- Some older high-voltage holiday detector

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Two alternate methods to set the correct • NACE SP0274-2011

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21.3.1.9 Common Errors and Causes

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tion and electrically test regularly during • EN 14430

21.3.2.3 Calibration and Frequency

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21.3.2.7 When To Question Readings 21.3.3 High-Voltage AC Holiday

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Coating Inspector Program Level 1 ©NACE International 2011

Key Terms Definitions